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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

MILLIE FLOR L. ADAM is an Instructor I and the area head in Science at the College of Teacher Education, University of Antique - Tario Lim Memorial
Campus, Tibiao, Antique. She has taught high school and college science courses for eight years. She obtained her Bachelor of Science in Public Health degree
at the University of the Philippines Visayas, Miagao, Iloilo in 2007 and her Master of Education major in Biology degree at the University of the Philippines Visayas,
Iloilo City in 2019. She earned 18 units in education at University of Antique-Tario Lim Memorial Campus and ranked 8 th in March 2015 Licensure Examination for
Teachers. She is currently taking her Doctor of Philosophy in Science Education major in Biology at West Visayas State University, La Paz, Iloilo City.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover Page 1
About the Author 2
Chapter 1 Human Body: An Orientation 4
Chapter 2 Chemistry of Life 11
Chapter 3 Cells and Tissues 16
Chapter 4 Integumentary System 26
Chapter 5 Skeletal System 29
Chapter 6 Muscular System 34
Chapter 7 Nervous System 37
Chapter 8 Endocrine System 39
Chapter 9 Digestive System 44
Chapter 10 Respiratory System 50
Chapter 11 Cardiovascular System 53
Chapter 12 Lymphatic and Immune System 61
Chapter 13 Urinary System 65
Chapter 14 Reproductive System 68
References 74

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 CHAPTER 1 4. Leonardo da Vinci - was the first to correctly illustrate the human skeleton
with all of its bones
HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION
5. Andreas Vesalius - wrote a book on the human body by dissecting human
cadavers and publishing his results
Starting Accurately (Introduction) 6. William Harvey - discovered how blood circulates through the body
At the end of this lesson, you shall be able to:
1. Explain how anatomy and physiology are interrelated;
2. Locate the major body cavities and list the chief organs in each cavity; The study of anatomy is divided into:
3. Name the levels of structural organization that make up the human
body and explain how they are related; and A. Gross anatomy - focuses on the macroscopic structures that are
4. Define homeostasis and explain its importance. visible to the naked eye.
B. Histology - studies the microscopic structures such as cells, tissues,
Stimulating Learning (Motivation) and organs that are only seen through the microscope.

In your own opinion, why do we need to study Anatomy and Physiology?

Anatomical terms are made up of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. The root
of a term often refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, whereas the prefix or
Inculcating Concepts (Input/Lesson Proper) suffix often describes the root. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the
prefix “hyper-” means high or over, and the root word “tension” refers to
Anatomy (Greek anatomѐ, “dissection”) is the study of the structure or pressure, so the word “hypertension” refers to abnormally high blood pressure.
morphology of the body and how the body parts are organized. Physiology is These terminologies are used to reduce confusion and to increase precision
the study of the functions of body parts, what they do and how they do it. and reduce medical errors.
Here is the list of some notable anatomists over the centuries:
1. Hippocrates – Father of Medicine The following are some of the most commonly used anatomical terms:
2. Aristotle - Anatomical knowledge of animals • abdominal = region between thorax and pelvis
3. Herophilus and Erastratus - dissected human cadavers • antebrachial = the forearm
• antecubital = the front of elbow

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• axillary = the armpit
• brachial = the upper arm
• celiac = the abdomen FOUR BASIC ANATOMICAL REFERENCES
• cephalic = the head 1. DIRECTION - when an anatomist is describing parts of the body, it is
necessary to make reference to their positions in regard to the body as a
• cervical = the neck whole.
• costal = the ribs a. Anterior (or ventral) - describes the front or direction toward the front
• cubital = the elbow of the body. Ex. The toes are anterior to the foot.

• femoral = the thigh b. Posterior (or dorsal) - describes the back or direction toward the back
of the body. Ex. The popliteus is posterior to the patella.
• gluteal = the buttock
c. Superior (or cranial) - describes a position above or higher than
• lumbar = the lower back another part of the body proper. Ex. The orbits are superior to the oris.
d. Inferior (or caudal) - describes a position below or lower than another
part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or
Anatomical position - the standard body “map” to view the body.
lowest part of the spinal column). Ex. The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.
1. Body is erect.
e. Lateral - describes the side or direction toward the side of the body.
2. Feet together with toes pointing forward. Ex. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.

3. Palms face forward. f. Medial - describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the
body. Ex. The hallux is the medial toe.
4. Thumbs point away from the body
g. Proximal - describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of
5. Right and left always refer to the person, cadaver, or skeleton being viewed attachment or the trunk of the body. Ex. The brachium is proximal to the
and not the viewer’s right and left. antebrachium.
Other body positions: h. Distal - describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of
a. Prone - face-down position attachment or the trunk of the body. Ex. The crus is distal to the femur.

b. Supine - face-up position i. Superficial - describes a position closer to the surface of the body. Ex.
The skin is superficial to the bones.

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 j. Deep - describes a position farther from the surface of the body. Ex. A.2. vertebral or spinal cavity - which holds the spinal cord
The brain is deep to the skull.
b. Ventral cavity - located toward the front of the body, is divided by the
diaphragm into:
2. PLANE - A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes b.1. abdominopelvic cavity - The abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided
through the body. This is most useful when describing dissections to look into abdominal cavity which holds liver, gallbladder, stomach, pancreas,
inside an organ or the body as a whole. spleen, kidney, small and large intestines, and pelvic cavity which holds the
urinary bladder and reproductive organs.
a. sagittal plane - any plane parallel to a median or midsagittal plane
vertically dividing the body into unequal right and left portions. b.2. thoracic cavity - The thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural cavity
which holds the lungs, and pericardial cavity which holds the heart.
b. midsagittal or median plane - vertically divides the body through the
midline into two equal left and right portions or halves.
c. horizontal or transverse plane - any plane dividing the body into Body Membranes – tissue linings of body cavities and coverings of internal
superior and inferior portions. organs.
d. frontal or coronal plane - divides the anterior (ventral) and the a. Serous membrane (also referred to a serosa) - one of the thin
posterior (dorsal) portions of the body at right angles to the sagittal planes. membranes that cover the walls and organs in the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities.
When organs are sectioned to reveal internal structures, two other terms
are often used. A cut through the long axis of an organ is called a longitudinal a.1. Parietal membrane - The parietal layers of the membranes line the
section, and a cut at right angles to the long axis is referred to as a walls of the body cavity (pariet refers to a cavity wall).
transverse or cross section.
a.2. Visceral membrane – The visceral layer of the membrane covers the
organs (the viscera). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin,
fluid-filled serous space, or cavity.
3. CAVITY - contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral
cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as Pleura - is the serous membrane that surrounds the lungs in the pleural
they perform their functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for cavity. Ex. Parietal pleura or pleural membrane and visceral pleura or pleural
example, can expand and contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting membrane.
the activity of nearby organs.
Pericardium - is the serous membrane that surrounds the heart in the
a. Dorsal cavity - located toward the back of the body, is divided into: pericardial cavity. Ex. Parietal pericardium and visceral pericardium.
a.1. cranial cavity - holds the brain Peritoneum - is the serous membrane that surrounds several organs in
the abdominopelvic cavity. Ex. Parietal peritoneum and visceral peritoneum.

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 • Computed tomography scanning (CT) or computerized axial
tomography (CAT) - X-rays pass through the body , tissues absorb small
amounts of radiation depending on their densities , and the absorption is
Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants: indicated on a monitor. Effective for tumor, kidney stones, gallstones, etc.

A. Right upper quadrant

B. Right lower quadrant 4. STRUCTURAL UNITS

C. Left upper quadrant a. Cell - the basic unit of the body’s organization.

D. Left lower quadrant b. Tissue - made up of different types of cells.

Nine Abdominopelvic b.1. Epithelial

Regions: b.2. Connective
A. Right hypochondriac region b.3. Muscle
B. Epigastric region b.4. Nervous
C. Left hypochondriac region c. Organ - composed of cells integrated into tissues serving a common
D. Right lumbar region function.

E. Umbilical region d. System - a group of organs that perform a common function.

F. Left lumbar region d.1. Integumentary - includes the skin, hair, nails, sebaceous glands
and sweat glands. Their functions include insulation, protection of the
G. Right iliac region body from environmental hazards and regulation of body temperature and
water.
H. Hypogastric region
d.2. Skeletal - composed of bones, cartilage, and the membranous
I. Left iliac region
structures associated with bones. It protects the soft and vital parts of the
Medical Imaging - techniques that are essential for diagnosing a wide range body and provides support for body tissues. Its bones act as levers for
of disorders. movement.

• Conventional radiography - X-rays pass through the body and expose on d.3. Muscular - consists of muscles, fasciae (fibrous connective
X- ray film, producing a negative image called a roentgenogram. tissues), tendon sheaths and bursae (fibrous sacs). Skeletal muscles pull

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on bones to allow movement. Smooth muscle pushes food through the d.10. Urinary - made up of two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder and
digestive tract and blood through the circulatory system. Cardiac muscle the urethra. Its functions include the chemical regulation of the blood, the
causes contraction of the heart. formation and elimination of urine and the maintenance of homeostasis.
d.4. Nervous - consists of the brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves, d.11. Reproductive - consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus
peripheral nerves and the sensory and motor structures of the body. Its and vagina in the female and the testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles,
functions include controlling, correlating and regulating the other systems prostate gland, penis and the urethra in the male. Its functions include
of the body; interpreting stimuli from the outside world; and controlling the maintenance of sexual characteristics and the perpetuation of our species.
special senses of sight, hearing, taste and smell.
The reproductive system is mainly involved in transmitting genetic
d.5. Endocrine - consists of the endocrine (ductless) glands. The information from one generation to another, while the remaining 10 organ
master gland, or pituitary, controls the other glands – thyroid, adrenal systems are important in maintaining homeostasis.
glands, ovaries and testes. These glands produce hormones that
chemically regulate the body’s functions. These 11 organ systems may be classified by their functions :

d.6. Digestive - includes the alimentary canal (mouth, esophagus, A. Protection – integumentary system
stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus) with its associated B. Support and movement – skeletal and muscular systems
glands (salivary, liver and pancreas). Its function is to convert food into
simpler substances that along with other nutrients can be absorbed by the C. Integration and coordination – nervous and endocrine systems
cells of the body, and eliminate indigestible wastes.
D. Processing and transport – digestive, respiratory, circulatory, lymphatic,
d.7. Respiratory - composed of the nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, and urinary systems
trachea, bronchi and lungs. It brings oxygen to and eliminates carbon
E. Reproduction and development – reproductive system
dioxide from the blood.
d.8. Circulatory (Cardiovascular) - consists of the heart, arteries,
veins and capillaries. Its function is to pump and distribute blood, which HOMEOSTASIS - is the maintenance (within varying narrow limits) of the
carries oxygen, nutrients and wastes to and from the cells of the body. internal environment of the body. Some examples of homeostasis are blood
sugar levels, body temperature, heart rate and the fluid environment of cells.
d.9. Lymphatic (Immune) - made up of the lymph nodes, the thymus
When homeostasis is maintained, the body is healthy.
gland, the spleen and the lymph vessels. Its function is to drain tissue
spaces of excess interstitial fluids and absorb fats from the intestine and Examples of maintaining homeostasis:
carry them to the blood. It also protects the body from disease by
developing immunities and destroying the most invading disease-causing 1. After ingesting a meal, which is predominately carbohydrates, the blood
microorganisms. glucose level increases.

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 2. Cells take in the glucose they need carried by the blood, but so much Laboratory Activity 1
glucose is in the blood that now the pancreas secretes insulin, which moves
the excess blood glucose into the liver which it is stored as glycogen, or animal ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY, DIRECTIONAL TERMS, PLANES,
starch. SECTIONS, AND BODY CAVITIES

3. Between meals, when the blood glucose level drops below normal, the
pancreas secretes glucagon, which breaks down the glycogen into glucose Anatomical position is the relative description of the human body in a
and returns it to the blood circulatory system for distribution to body cells. specific position. In this position, the individual is standing upright, face
4. Thus, the glucose level in the blood plasma remains at a nearly forward, with the upper limbs positioned at the sides, palms turned forward,
constant level so that it does not remain elevated after a meal, nor does it drop and the feet flat on the floor.
too low between meals. Procedure:
Our body must constantly monitor itself to correct any major deviations in 1. Directional terms are used in anatomy to locate the body structures in
homeostasis. It does this by using what is referred to as a negative feedback relationship to one another. Label the following with their respective
loop. Feedback responses that revise disturbances to our body’s condition directional terms.
are examples of negative feedback. If homeostasis is not maintained, the body
will experience disease and, eventually, death.
Body temperature regulation is another important example of homeostasis.
1. When we go out on a hot summer day and our body temperature rises
above 98.6°F, the hypothalamus of the brain detects this change and sends
signals to various organs so that we sweat (sweating is a cooling process).
2. As water is excreted by the sweat glands onto the skin, it evaporates in
the air (evaporation is a cooling mechanism). In addition, our blood vessels
dilate to bring the blood near the skin’s surface to dissipate body heat.
3. When our body temperature falls below 98.6°F, such as when we go 2. Fill in the blanks with their correct directional term.
out on a cold winter day, the hypothalamus sends signals to muscles, causing a. The heart is _______ to the lungs.
us to shiver to raise our body temperature; it also causes our blood vessels to b. The thumb is _______ to the wrist.
constrict to conserve body heat. c. The kneecap is _______ to the ankle.
d. The nose lies on the __________ surface of the body.
e. The eyes are located _________ to the nose.
Upgrading Competence and Expanding Insights (Enrichment Phase) f. The ears are situated __________ to the head.

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 g. The upper arm muscle is ________ to the skin.
h. The ring finger is located ________ relative to the thumb.
i. The spine is located ________.
j. The esophagus is located ________ to the trachea.
3. Imaginary flat surfaces, or planes, can be used to describe the various
regions of the body. Label the figure below with the correct plane.

6. In which region, or regions, do the following organs lie?

a. stomach
b. appendix
c. liver
d. spleen
e. urinary bladder
4. Body cavities are lined with membranes and contains organs. Label
7. Use the appropriate anatomical terms for each item.
each body cavity.

5. The four-quadrant system is generally used by clinicians to locate the

site of pain, tumors and other abnormalities. Additionally, nine-region
division is widely used to locate organs and structures in a fairly precise
manner. Label the four quadrants and nine regions below.

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 CHAPTER 2 An element is a substance whose atoms all contain the same number of
protons and the same number of electrons. Because the number of protons
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE equals the number of electrons, an atom is electrically neutral. Each element
has a distinctive number of protons. Carbon is the element found in all living
matter. Life on earth is based on the carbon atom. Organic chemistry is a
Starting Accurately (Introduction) branch of chemistry that studies the nature of the carbon atom and its chemical
reactions.
At the end of this lesson, you shall be able to:
1. List the major energy forms and provide one example of how each energy Atoms of carbon may have one of three different atomic weights – 12, 13,
form is used in the body; and or 14 – depending on the number of neutrons. These different kinds of atoms
2. Explain how macromolecules form the bulk of body matter. of the same element are called isotopes and are designated as C¹², C¹³ and
C¹⁴. C¹⁴ is mildly radioactive and is used to estimate the age of fossilized
human remains. A radioactive isotope of iodine is used to treat disorders of
Stimulating Learning (Motivation)
the thyroid gland.
See video through LMS eskUelA.

Bonds and Energy

Inculcating Concepts (Input/Lesson Proper)
Chemical bonds are formed when the outermost electrons are transferred
The elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus (gained or lost) or shared between atoms.
are the key building blocks of the chemicals found in living things.
Types of Chemical Bonds
a. Ionic bond - This kind of bond is formed when one atom gains
Atomic Structure electrons while the other atom loses electrons from its outermost level or orbit.
The newly charged atoms are called ions. Atoms that gain electrons become
Each atom consists of a relatively heavy, compact central nucleus negatively charged (anion), whereas those that lose electrons become
composed of protons and neutrons. Lighter particles called electrons orbit positively charged (cations), each having originally been electrically neutral.
the nucleus at some distance from its center. Electrons are practically Negatively charged ions (Cl⁻, for example) are attracted to positively charged
weightless, and each one carries a negative electric charge. Atomic nuclei are ions (Na⁺).
composed of protons and neutrons, except from the hydrogen nucleus, which
contains only one proton. b. Covalent bond - The atoms share electrons to fill their outermost
levels. Molecules containing covalent bond do not dissociate when immersed
in water. Four of the most important elements found in cells form this type of
Elements and Isotopes

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bond are carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N). They b. Digestion of food requires water to break down larger molecules. This
constitute about 95% of the materials found in cells. is called hydrolysis. Water serves as a medium or solvent for other reactions,
and water is referred to as the universal solvent.
All of the cell’s larger molecules, and many of its smaller ones, contain
such bonds; for example, the formation of the covalent bond between two c. Water also absorbs and releases high levels of heat before its
hydrogen atoms forms the compound hydrogen gas (H₂). temperature changes, thus helping control normal body temperature.
Vigorous exercise liberates heat from contracting muscle cells. This excess
c. Hydrogen bond - Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds and help hold heat is absorbed by the water in the cells and then released.
water molecules together by forming a bridge between the negative oxygen
atom of one water molecule and the positive hydrogen atoms of another water d. Water is part of amniotic fluid and protects the developing fetus. It is
molecule. Hydrogen bonds also help bind various parts of one molecule into a also part of the cerebrospinal fluid and protects the brain and spinal cord by
three-dimensional shape such as a protein molecule like an enzyme. functioning as a shock absorber. Finally, water is the base for all body
lubricants such as mucus in the digestive tract and synovial fluid in joints.

COMMON SUBSTANCES IN LIVING SYSTEMS

2. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO₂) - It is produced as a waste product of cellular
1. WATER - the most abundant substance in living cells, approximately 60% respiration and must be eliminated quickly from the body through expiration via
to 80%. Plasma, which is the liquid portion of blood, is 92% water. the respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. It is also necessary for
Because the oxygen atom attracts electrons more strongly than do the photosynthesis in plant cells to convert the radiant energy of the sun into
hydrogen atoms, water molecules are polar with a partial positive charge by usable chemical energy such as glucose for both plant and animal cells. It is
the hydrogen atoms and a partial negative charge by the oxygen atom. This also a source of the element carbon, found in all organic compounds of living
unique feature of the water molecule determines why ionic bonded molecules systems.
dissociate in water. If carbon dioxide is allowed to accumulate within cells, it becomes toxic by
Negatively charged ions (e.g., chloride) are attracted to the positively forming carbonic acid as it reacts with water. Hence, we exhale it quickly from
charged hydrogen atoms, and positively charged ions (e.g., sodium) are the lungs.
attracted to the negatively charged oxygen atoms. Thus, the ionic bonded
molecule salt dissociates in water.
3. MOLECULAR OXYGEN (O₂) - is required by all organisms that breathe air.
Roles of Water: It is necessary to convert chemical energy (food), such as the energy found in
a. Takes part in some reactions, such as photosynthesis in plant cells, a glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) molecule, into another form of chemical energy ATP that
which supplies our earth with molecular oxygen, and respiration in both plant can be used by cells to do work. Because O₂ is a product of photosynthesis, it
and animal cells, which produces energy. becomes obvious how dependent we, animals, are on plants for our survival.

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4. AMMONIA (NH₃) - comes from the decomposition of proteins via the DNA nucleic acid molecules. Important six-carbon sugars are glucose and
digestive process and the conversion of amino acids in cellular respiration to fructose (the suffix –ose denotes a sugar). Note the repetition of the H-C-OH
ATP molecules. Note that an important element in ammonia is nitrogen. unit in the molecule. This is typical of sugars.
Nitrogen is an essential element in amino acids, which are the building blocks
of proteins. Starch, glycogen (animal starch), cellulose (the material of plant cell
walls that forms fiber in our diets), chitin (the exoskeleton of arthropods such
Because even a small amount of ammonia is injurious to cells, the human as insects and lobsters), as well as many other complex carbohydrates, are
body must quickly dispose of this material. Through enzymes, the liver formed by bonding together a number of glucose molecules.
converts the toxic ammonia to a harmless substance called urea. Because
urea is soluble in water, the blood then carries the urea to the kidneys to be Carbohydrates have two important functions:
filtered and eliminated from the body as urine. Because many plants are able - energy storage (sugars, starch, glycogen).
to use NH₃ or the products of bacterial action on NH₃ as a nitrogen source for
protein synthesis, ammonia is a common constituent of fertilizers. - cell strengthening (cellulose of plant cell walls and chitin in the external
skeleton of arthropod animals).
Energy storage is the more common function of carbohydrates.
5. MINERAL SALTS - They are essential for the survival and functioning of
the body’s cells. They function in numerous ways as parts of enzymes or as
portions of the cellular environment necessary for enzyme or protein action.
7. LIPIDS - are substances that are insoluble in water. Fats, phospholipids,
a. Calcium (Ca++) is necessary for muscle contraction and nervous steroids and prostaglandins are examples of these different kinds of molecules.
transmission as well as building strong bones. Of the fats in the human body, 95% are triglycerides, now called
triacylglycerols. They consist of two types of building blocks: glycerol and
b. Phosphate (PO₄⁻) is necessary to produce the high-energy molecule fatty acids.
ATP.
a. Glycerol - is a simple molecule similar to a sugar except that it has only
c. Chloride (Cl⁻) is necessary for nervous transmission. a three-carbon chain. Each carbon of the chain is bonded to a hydrogen and a
d. Sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) are also necessary for muscle cell hydroxyl (⁻OH) group as well as to the carbons of the chain.
contraction and nervous transmission. b. Fatty acids - are composed of long chains of carbon atoms of different
lengths.

6. CARBOHYDRATES (CnH2nOn) - The smallest carbohydrates are the simple All the carbon atoms are bonded to hydrogen atoms except the carbon at
sugars that cannot be made to react with water to produce a simpler form. one end of the chain. This carbon atom is bonded to the carboxyl (⁻COOH)
Sugars are generally chains of either five- or six-carbon atoms. Important five- group, which makes these molecules slightly acidic. Most naturally occurring
carbon sugars are ribose and deoxyribose, which are parts of the RNA and fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms, 14 to 18.

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 A fatty acid is saturated if it contains only single covalent bonds as those - Enzymes are protein catalysts, which increase the rate of a chemical
found in whole milk, butter, eggs, beef, pork and coconut and palm oils. Too reaction without being affected by the reaction.
much of these fatty acids contribute to cardiovascular disease. Saturated fats
tend to be solids at room temperature. - In addition, our immune system functions because antibodies, which are
proteins of a high molecular weight, are formed to combat foreign proteins
However, if the carbon chain has one or more double covalent bonds called antigens that enter the body. Some examples of foreign proteins are
between the carbon atoms, it is an unsaturated fatty acid. These fatty acids bacterial cell membranes, virus protein coats and bacterial flagella.
are good for you and are found in sunflower, corn and fish oils. Unsaturated
fats tend to be liquids at room temperature. - Finally, proteins are also a source of energy that can be broken down
and converted to ATP just like carbohydrates and fats.
Fats contain stored chemical energy. Fat found under the skin acts as an
insulator to prevent heat loss. Any animal that lives in the Arctic or Antarctic
region (polar bears, seals, whales or penguins) has a thick layer of insulatory 9. NUCLEIC ACIDS - The nucleic acids are very large molecules made of
fat. The camel’s hump is a thick deposit of fat to protect its internal organs carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorous atoms. The basic
from excessive rises in temperature in the hot dessert. Fat also protects structure of a nucleic acid is a chain of nucleotides.
organs as a surrounding layer such as the layer around our kidneys to protect
them from severe jolts. Two categories of nitrogen bases, which consist of a complex ring
structure of carbon and nitrogen atoms are:
- Purines consist of a fused double ring of nine atoms. The two purine
8. PROTEINS - Most proteins also contain some sulfur. The basic building nitrogen bases are adenine and guanine.
blocks of proteins are the 20 amino acids. Each amino acid has a carboxyl
group (⁻COOH), and amine group (⁻NH₂), a hydrogen atom, and the R - Pyrimidines consist of a single ring of six atoms. The three pyrimidine
group. The R group refers to the different types of atoms and length of the nitrogen bases are thymine, cytosine and uracil.
chain. Covalent bonds form between different amino acids to form proteins.
Two very important nucleic acids:
These are referred to as peptide bonds.
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material of cells located in
Proteins function in a number of very important ways in the human body:
the nucleus of the cell. It determines all of the functions and characteristics of
- Many are structural proteins. Proteins are part of a cell’s membranous the cell.
structures: plasma membrane, nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum and
b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is structurally related to DNA. Two important
mitochondria. In addition, actin and myosin are structural proteins found in a
types of RNA are messenger RNA and transfer RNA, which are important
muscle cell. We could not move, talk, digest or circulate blood without the
molecules necessary for protein synthesis.
proteins actin and myosin.

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10. ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) - is the high-energy molecule or
fuel that runs the cell’s machinery. All the food we eat (which is a form of
chemical energy) must be transformed into another form of chemical energy
(ATP) that allows our cells to maintain, repair, and reproduce themselves. The
energy of the molecule is stored in the second and third phosphate groups.

pH
pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
in a solution: pH = -long [H⁺].
Pure water has a pH of 7. Remember that when distilled water (H₂O)
dissociates, for every H⁺ ion formed, an OH⁻ ion is also formed. Or, in other
words, the dissociation of water produces H⁺ and OH⁻ in equal amounts.
Therefore, a pH of 7 indicates neutrality on the pH scale.
If a substance dissociates and forms an excess of H⁺ ions when dissolved
in water, it is referred to as an acid. All acidic solutions have pH values below
7. The stronger an acid is, the more H⁺ ions it produces and the lower its pH
value. So lemon juice with a pH value of 2 is 100 times more acidic than
tomato juice with a pH of 4.
A substance that combines with H⁺ ions when dissolved in water is called
a base or alkali. By combining with H⁺ ions, a base therefore lowers the H⁺
ion concentration in that solution. Basic, also called alkaline, solutions have
pH values above 7. Seawater with a pH of 8 is 10 times more basic than pure
distilled water with a pH of 7.
In our bodies, saliva in our mouths has a pH value slightly lower than 7 so
it is just slightly acidic, whereas the stomach with its gastric juice and
hydrochloric acid is very acidic with a pH value near 1. Our blood on the other
hand has a pH value of 7.4, making it just slightly basic. Urine has a pH of 6,
which although acidic, is not as acidic as tomato juice with a pH of 4.

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 CHAPTER 3 - This contains semifluid translucent substance called
cytosol. Cytosol is made up of water, organic and inorganic
CELLS AND TISSUES substances.
Objectives: - Suspended in the cytoplasm are membrane-bounded
1. Identify on a cell model or diagram the three major cell regions and organelles.
other accessories of the cell. 3. Nucleus - the control center of the cell.
2. Name the four tissue types and their chief subcategories.
3. Explain how the four major tissue types differ structurally and - Largest organelle in an animal cell.
functionally.
4. Give the chief locations of the various tissue types in the body. - Contains the genetic material DNA that directs production of
protein and other many cellular processes. Because it contains
the genetic material, the nucleus is the central command center of
CELLS the cell.
Cell - from Latin cella, meaning “small room” 3.1. Nuclear membrane – encloses and protects the nucleus. It
also regulates what passes in and out of the nucleus.
- smallest unit of life
3.2. Nucleoplasm – the protoplasm inside the nucleus of the cell.
- referred to as the “building blocks of life”
3.3. Chromosomes – threadlike bodies which bear the genes, the
Cytology/cellular biology - study of cells basic unit of heredity.
3.4. Nucleoli – dark-stained bodies which are responsible for protein
PARTS OF CELLS synthesis.

1. Cell (Plasma) Membrane - encloses and protects the entire cell. 4. Endoplasmic Reticulum - a network of membranous canals that are
continuous with the nuclear envelope. This serves as
- It is triple layered containing protein and lipids. passageway for substances between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
- The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surroundings, protects - Cytoplasmic regions of the ER are described as rough or smooth.
it from changes in the chemical and physical environment, and regulates
the traffic of molecules into and out of cell. - Rough ER is studded with attached ribosomes while smooth ER has
none.
2. Cytoplasm - the region found outside the nucleus surrounded by cell
membrane. 4.1. Rough ER - provides surface for ribosomes where the synthesis
of many secretory proteins takes place.

16
 4.2. Smooth ER - performs important functions including lipid 8. Plastids - these organelles are found in the cells of most plants but not
synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and helps in the in animal cell.
detoxification of drug and poison.
8.a. Chromoplasts (colored plastids)
5. Golgi Complex (Bodies or Apparatus) - viewed as stack of plates
arranged on top of another. - Chloroplasts are chromoplasts containing green pigments,
chlorophyll.
- involved in the secretion of several chemical products,
membrane repair and transport of materials in and out of the cell. - Chromoplasts lacking chlorophyll are usually yellow or
orange (occasionally red). It is these kinds of plastids that give
6. Mitochondria - known as powerhouse of the cell. the yellow or orange color to flowers, fruits and autumn leaves
- They appear as rounded cylinders or globules enclosed by 8.b. Leucoplasts (white or colorless plastids) - are plastids in
membranes. which materials like starch, oils and protein granules are stored.
- They are sites of many chemical reactions that extract 9. Centrosome - contains one to two centriole which are small dark
energy from food and later use as energy for the activities of the bodies located above the nucleus.
cell.
- They play an important role in organizing the spindle during
- These are surrounded by two membranes with the inner cell division.
membrane folded into cristae.
10. Vacuoles - membrane-enclosed cavities filled with either fluid or
- The spaces within the mitochondrion are called matrix and granular material. Some vacuoles expel excess water and wastes
intermembrane space. from the cell which are called contractile vacuoles. Food
vacuoles contain food particles.
- The more active the cell is, the more mitochondria it
contains. For example, brain cells and cardiac cells. 11. Ribosomes - these are where proteins are manufactured.
7. Lysosomes - membrane-enclosed bodies smaller than the - Ribosomes are classified as bound ribosomes and free
mitochondria. ribosomes.
- They contain powerful digestive enzymes and are thought to 11.a. Bound ribosomes - those attached in the endoplasmic
function as the digestive system of the cell. reticulum. Bound ribosomes produce proteins which are integrated
into membranes and proteins for export outside of the cell.
- Interestingly, this is also referred to as “suicide bags” of the
cell because at times this engulfs another organelle specially the 11.b. Free ribosomes - produce almost all proteins that are needed
damaged ones. within the cytosol of the cell.

17
 12. Peroxisome - within this structure are enzymes that can help detoxify  A phosphate group
alcohol and other harmful substances and convert poisonous
peroxides to water.  A nitrogenous base

13. Cytoskeleton - gives support and maintain the structure and shape of Two general groups of nitrogenous bases that constitute a nucleotide:
the cell.  Purines – adenine (A) and guanine (G)
13.a. Microfilaments or actin filaments – found just beneath the  Pyrimidine – cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
cell membrane.
In the cells of most organisms, two long strands of DNA join in a single
13.b. Intermediate filaments – maintain cellular shape. molecule that resembles a spiraling ladder, commonly called a double helix.
13.c. Microtubules – play important roles in intracellular transport, The pairing of bases in the DNA double helix is highly specific — adenine
formation of mitotic spindle needed for cell division, and formation of always joins with thymine, and guanine always links to cytosine.
cell wall in plant cells. The genetic code is specified by the order of the nucleotide bases, and
14. Cell Wall - found outside the cell membrane of plant cells, fungi, and each gene possesses a unique sequence of base pairs. Scientists use these
bacteria. base sequences to locate the position of genes on chromosomes and to
construct a map of the entire human genome.
- This provides rigidity and structural support to the cells. Rigidity
of the cell wall enables trees to grow tall and strong.
- Cell wall in plants is basically made up of cellulose, PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
hemicellulose and lignin. 1. Prokaryote - relatively simple unicellular organism, such as a
bacterium, characterized by the absence of a nucleus and other specialized
cell structures. Scientists distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes, which are
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) more complex organisms with cells that contain a nucleus, such as plants and
animals.
- Genetic material of all cellular organisms and most viruses.
2. Eukaryote - organism whose cells contain a nucleus, a saclike structure
- DNA is organized on chromosomes located in the nucleus of the cell. that encloses the cell’s hereditary materials. The presence of a nucleus
- Nucleic acids are composed of polynucleotides linked together in a distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes, those simple, one-celled organisms
long chain. in which the hereditary material floats free within the cell.

- Each nucleotide is made up of:

 A five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose)

18
 TISSUES  Endodermis – occurs as a layer surrounding the
vascular tissue core of roots and stems
- Groups of cells having similar function and similar structure.
c. Vascular tissue/conductive tissue – function as tubes or ducts
- Tissues are classified based on how these cells are arranged and what through which water and substances move from one part of the plant to
kind and how much material is found between the cells. another.
Histology - the study of tissue. c.1. Xylem – transport of water and dissolved substances
c.2. Phloem – moving materials both up and down and transports
1. Plant Tissues organic materials

a. Meristematic Tissues - composed of embryonic cells capable of active 2. Animal Tissues

cell division. Regions of meristematic tissues are found at the a. Epithelial/Epithelium - found in the covering or lining of all free
growing tips of roots and stems. body surfaces, both internal and external, like the skin, and lining of
a.1. Apical meristems – increase in length of the plant digestive tract.

a.2. Lateral meristems – found in the periphery of the roots and - The cells may be squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and ciliated or
stems, responsible for increase in girth flagellated.

b. Permanent Tissues - composed of mature, differentiated cells. - The tissue may be simple or stratified.

b.1. Surface tissue – form the protective outer covering of the plant - The functions of epithelium may be protective, glandular (secretory)
or sensory.
b.2. Fundamental tissue – composed of single type cell
 Parenchyma – thin primary walls and no secondary
walls. Ex. Chloroplasts of leaves. Parenchyma of stems Functions:
and roots function in the storage of nutrients and water  Protection - Protects underlying tissues.
 Collenchyma – structurally similar to parenchyma cells, - our skin is epithelial tissue and protects us from the harmful rays
except that their walls are irregularly thickened; function of the sun and certain chemicals.
as supporting tissue.
- lining of our digestive tract is made of epithelial tissue and
 Sclerenchyma – functions in support. The cells have protects underlying tissue from abrasion as food moves through the
uniformly thick, heavily lignified secondary walls. tract.

19
 Absorption - In the lining of the small intestine, nutrients from our  Throat
digested food enter blood capillaries and get carried to the cells of our
body.  Esophagus

 Secretion - All glands are made of epithelial tissue.  Anus

- endocrine glands secrete hormones  Skin

- mucous glands secrete mucus B. Cuboidal - look like small cubes.

- intestinal tract contains cells that secrete digestive enzymes in - Their function can be secretion and protection.
addition to the pancreas and the liver, which secrete the major portions of - In areas of the kidney tubules, they function in absorption.
digestive enzymes.
- They are found in:
 Excretion - epithelial tissue excretes. Sweat glands excrete waste
products such as urea.  Glands
 Lining tissue of gland ducts (sweat and salivary)
Epithelial cells are anchored to each other and to underlying tissues by a  Germinal coverings of the ovaries
specialized membrane called the basement membrane.
 Pigmented layer of the retina of the eye
C. Columnar - tall and rectangular looking.
Classification based on Shape:
- Many of these cells are ciliated.
A. Squamous - flat and slightly irregular in shape.
- They are found lining the following:
- They serve as a protective layer.
 Ducts of certain glands (e.g. mammary glands)
- If exposed to repeated irritation like the linings of ducts in glands,
 Bile duct of the liver
other epithelial cells can become squamous in appearance.
- They are also found in mucus-secreting tissues such as:
- Examples are tissues in the:
 Mucosa of the stomach
 Mouth
 Villi of the small intestine
 Blood and lymph vessels
 Uterine tubes
 Parts of kidney tubules

20
  Upper respiratory tract empty bladder, the layers of the cells look ragged like the teeth of a
saw.
Classification based on Arrangement:
- This type of epithelium lines:
A. Simple - one-cell layer thick in arrangement.
 pelvis of the kidney
- It is found in the:
 ureters
 Lining of blood capillaries
 urinary bladder
 Alveoli of the lungs
 upper part of the urethra
 Loop of Henle in the kidney tubules.
B. Stratified - several layers of cells.
Classifications based on Functions:
B.1. Stratified squamous epithelium - found lining our mouth
and throat and at the outer surface of our skin. A. Mucous membrane - lines the digestive, respiratory, urinary and
reproductive tracts.
B.2. Stratified cuboidal epithelium - found lining our sweat
gland ducts and salivary gland ducts. - It lines all body cavities that open to the outside.
B.3. Stratified columnar epithelium - found at the lining of the - It is usually ciliated.
ducts of the mammary glands and in parts of the male urethra.
- Most obvious function is to produce mucus, but it also
C. Pseudostratified - appears to consist of several layers due to nuclei concentrates bile in the gallbladder.
variously positioned in the cell, but in actuality, all cells extend from
the basement membrane to the outer or free surface of the cells. - It secretes enzymes for the digestion of food and nutrients
before absorption.
- This arrangement is usually seen with the columnar cells.
- Mucous membrane protects, absorbs nutrients and secretes
- We find this tissue in the throat, trachea, and bronchi of the mucus, enzymes and bile salts.
lungs.
B. Glandular epithelium - glands are involutions of epithelial cells
D. Transitional - consists of several layers of closely packed, flexible and specialized for synthesizing special compounds.
easily stretched cells.
B.1. Unicellular glands
- When the surfaces of the cells are stretched, as in a full bladder, the
cells appear squamous or flat but when the tissue is relaxed, as in an Goblet cells – secrete mucus. They are interspersed among the
epithelial cells that make up mucous membranes.

21
 B.2. Multicellular glands and wastes are transported by the blood cells to the various cells of
our bodies.
a. Exocrine glands - have excretory ducts that lead the secreted
material from the gland to the surface of a lumen (passageway) on the
skin.
D. Mesothelium - this tissue is also called serous tissue.
a.1. Simple exocrine - have single unbranching ducts.
- It is the tissue that lines the great cavities of the body that have
- Some examples of simple exocrine glands are the no openings to the outside.
sweat glands, most of the glands of the digestive tract and
the sebaceous glands. - These membranes consist of a simple squamous cell layer
overlying a sheet of connective tissue.
a.2. Compound exocrine - made of several component lobules
each with ducts that join other ducts. - This tissue protects, reduces friction between organs and
secretes fluid.
- Thus, the ducts are branching.
Parietal – refers to the walls of a cavity
- Examples are the mammary glands and the large
salivary glands. Visceral – refers to the covering on an organ

b. Endocrine glands - Ductless and secrete hormones. D.1. Pleura – serous membrane or mesothelial tissue that lines the
thoracic cavity
- Examples are the thyroid and pituitary glands.
D.2. Pericardium – serous membrane that covers the heart.
D.3. Peritoneum – serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity
C. Endothelium - a special name given to the epithelium that lines the
circulatory system.
- This system is lined with a single layer of squamous-type cells. b. Connective or supportive tissue - serves to bind other tissues and
organs together and to support the body.
- Endothelium lines the blood vessels and the lymphatic vessels.
- In this tissue, unlike epithelial, there is an abundance of
- The endothelium that lines the heart gets another special name intercellular material called matrix.
and is called endocardium.
- There are also fibers of collagen and elastin embedded in
- A blood capillary consists of only one layer of endothelium. It is this matrix.
through this single layer of cells that oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,

22
b.1. Loose Connective Tissue - the fibers are not tightly woven Irregular arrangement
among themselves.
b.2.d. Muscle sheaths
- Loose connective tissue fills spaces between and
penetrates into organs. b.2.e. Dermis layer of skin

b.1.a. Areolar – most widely distributed of the loose connective b.2.f. Outer coverings of body tubes like arteries
tissue. b.2.g. Fascia – covering a whole muscle
- This tissue has three main types of cells distributed among b.3. Specialized Connective Tissue
its delicate fibers: fibroblasts, histiocytes, and mast cells.
b.3.a. Cartilage - firm and elastic matrix with rubbery
- Areolar tissue is the basic support tissue around organs, consistency.
muscles, blood vessels and nerves.
- Found in the nose, ears, larynx and trachea, intervertebral
- It forms the delicate membranes around the spinal cord and discs, surfaces of skeletal joints and ends of ribs.
brain.
 Hyaline – costal cartilages (upper 7 ribs to sternum), trachea
- It attaches the skin to its underlying tissues. and bronchi (rings of hyaline cartilages), septum of nose
b.1.b. Adipose - it is loaded with fat cells.  Fibrocartilage – intervertebral disks, connects pelvic bones
- Fat cells are so full of stored fat that their nuclei and at pubic symphysis
cytoplasm are pushed up against the cell membrane.  Elastic – external ear or auricle, ear canals or auditory tubes,
b.1.c. Reticular - consists of fine network of fibers that form the epiglottis
framework of the liver, bone marrow and lymphoid organs such as b.3.b. Bone - very firm specialized connective tissue.
the spleen and lymph nodes.
- Bone cells are called osteocytes.
b.2. Dense Connective Tissue - composed of tightly packed protein
fibers  Compact bone – forms the dense outer layer of bone and
looks solid
Regular arrangement
 Cancellous bone – forms the inner spongy-looking tissue
b.2.a. Tendons – attach muscle to bone underneath the compact bone.
b.2.b. Ligaments – attach bone to bone b.3.c. Dentin – material that forms our teeth.
b.2.c. Aponeuroses – wide flat tendons

23
 - Dentin is closely related to bone in structure but is harder - They prevent friction where one organ overlies or moves
and denser. over another.
- The crown of the tooth is covered with another material,
enamel, which is white in appearance.
Connective Tissue Functions:
- Dentin is light brown.
 Support
b.3.d. Blood and hematopoietic tissue – composed of fluid portion
(plasma) and formed elements of blood: erythrocytes (red blood  Nourishment
cells) and leukocytes (white blood cells).  Transportation
-Marrow and lymphoid organs are referred to as  Connection
hematopoietic tissue.
 Movement
b.3.e. Lymphoid tissue - found in the lymph glands or nodes, the
thymus gland, the spleen, tonsils and the adenoids.  Protection
- Lymph tissue manufactures plasma cells like the B  Insulation
lymphocytes.
 Storage
- Its role is antibody production and protects us from disease
 Attachment and separation
and foreign microorganisms.
b.3.f. Reticuloendothelial system - do phagocytosis.
c. Muscles - have greater capacity for contraction than most other cells.
- Lines the liver and spleen and bone marrow
- They are responsible for movement.
 Histiocytes – fixed in tissue until they must wander to an
- Cells are usually elongate and bound together into sheets or
invader and devour it. Any phagocytic cell of the RE system is
bundle by connective tissue.
called a macrophage.
- The basic characteristic of muscle tissue is its ability to
 Neuroglia or microglia – phagocytic cell found in the
shorten and thicken or contract.
central nervous system
- This is due to the interaction of two proteins in the muscle
b.3.g. Synovial membranes - line the cavities of freely moving
cell: actin and myosin.
joints.

24
 - Because a muscle cell’s length is much greater than its  Special senses include sight, taste, smell and hearing.
width, muscle cells are frequently referred to as muscle fibers.
 Controls our emotions and our reasoning capabilities.
- Muscle tissues may be skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
 Allows us to learn through the memory process.
c.1. Smooth muscle – spindle-shaped with a single nucleus,
involuntary.
- Found in the walls of hollow organs like those of digestive
tract, arteries and veins.
c.2. Skeleletal muscle – striated, voluntary, causes movement of our
body by pulling on bones, multinucleated.
c.3. Cardiac muscle – found only in the heart, striated, single
nucleus, involuntary.

d. Nerve tissue - has the great capacity to respond to stimuli since they
can be easily stimulated and can transmit impulses rapidly.
- The basic unit of organization of nervous tissue is the nerve
cell or neuron.
- The neuron is a conducting cell, whereas other cells of the
system called neuroglia are supporting cells.

Nerve Tissue Functions:

 Makes up the brain, spinal cord, and various nerves of the body.
 Controls and coordinates body activities.
 Allows us to perceive our environment and to adapt to conditions.
 Coordinates our skeletal muscles.

25
 The epidermis is thickest where it receives the most abrasion and weight –
on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It is much thinner over the
ventral surface of the trunk.

The epidermis, which is not vascularized, rests on a basement membrane.

CHAPTER 4 The lowermost cells on this membranes divide by mitosis, so new cells push
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM older cells toward the surface. As they move, the change shape and chemical
components because they lose most of their water and eventually die. This
process is called keratinization.
Objectives:
1. Identify the parts and functions of the integumentary system. 4 types of cells that are found in the epidermis:
2. Explain the functions of skin derivatives and accessories. Keratinocytes – produce keratin – waterproof material
3. Identify and discuss the common skin disorders and diseases. Melanocytes – produce melanin – pigmentation
Langerhans cells – macrophages – garbage patrol
Integumentary system is the external covering that shields its body from Merkel cells - photoreceptors
the outside world. The appendages or modifications of the skin are hair, nails,
sebaceous, ceruminous and sweat glands. The skin is the largest organ in the Layers of Epidermis:
body and also the heaviest. A. Stratum corneum - Forms the outermost layer of the epidermis.
- It consists of dead cells converted to protein. They are
Functions: called keratinized cells because they have lost most of their fluid.
 Protects the body by acting as barriers to microorganisms, water and - These cells are constantly being sloughed off. The
excessive sunlight. shedding of these cells from the scalp produces what we call
 Protects it against dehydration and water absorption. dandruff.
 Regulates body temperature. - When skin is subjected to an excessive amount of abrasion
 Serves for cutaneous sensation. or friction, a thickened area called a callus will develop. Abrasion
 Perform metabolic functions as in the synthesis of melanin, keratin, on the bony prominences on the foot can produce structures we
and vitamin D. call corns.
 Contains organs like sweat glands. B. Stratum lucidum - Lies directly beneath the stratum corneum but is
 Acts as a blood reservoir. difficult to see in thinner skin
C. Stratum granulosum - Consists of two or three layers of flattened
Three Layers of the Skin cells.
1. Epidermis – layer of epithelial tissue that can be further be divided into - Because granules tend to accumulate in these cells, it was
sublayers. named the granular layer. This layer is very active in keratinization.
- the outermost epidermal layer of the skin.

26
 - In this layer, the cells lose their nuclei and become compact and Parts of Hair
brittle. A. Shaft – the dead portion of the hair that projects from the surface.
D. Stratum spinosum - Consists of several layers of prickly or B. Bulb – the enlarged base of the follicle; it contains the papillae and
spiny-shaped cells that are polyhedron in structure. sensory nerve endings
- The outline caused by the polyhedral shapes causes the cell’s C. Root – encased in an internal or epithelial root sheath.
outlines to look spiny. - It contains erector pili muscles (goose bumps) whose
E. Stratum basale/germinativum - Deepest and most important layer of contraction in mammals raises the hair and increases thickness of the
the skin because it contains the only cells of the epidermis that are coat.
capable of diving by mitosis.
- These cells give rise to all the other upper layers of the Types of hair found on humans
epidermis. Its basal layer, called stratum basale, rests on the A. Vellus hair – the fine body hair of children and adult women
basement membrane. B. Terminal hair – the coarser hair of the scalp, eyebrows, etc.

2. Dermis – second layer of skin with dense connective tissue that connects 2. Nails - Composed of hard plates of highly keratinized cells and are formed
the skin to tissues below, like fat and muscle. from the stratum corneum of the epidermis.
– composed of elastic and collagenous fibers which function for
stretch and strength, respectively. 3. Glands - Glands of the skin are referred to as exocrine glands because
- It also contains sweat glands, sebaceous glands, nerve endings their secretions are released to the outside through the ducts.
and hair follicles. A. Sebaceous glands - are branched glands attached to hair follicles.
They secrete sebum, a lipid substance released directly on the skin.
3. Subcutaneous layer – found beneath the dermis. Functions:
 Lubricates and waterproofs the skin.
 Prevents the hair from becoming brittle.
ACCESSORY ORGANS OF THE SKIN  Prevents excessive evaporation of water.
1. Hair - Found everywhere in the body except in the palms, soles, lips, penis,  Keeps the skin soft.
and other parts of the female genitalia.  Inhibits bacterial growth.
- In addition to mammary glands, hair is a main characteristic of all
mammals.
B. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands – are coiled tubular glands which
Functions: excrete perspiration or sweat onto the surface of the skin.
 For protection from injury, sunlight, and heat loss, from foreign 2 types of sudoriferous glands
materials and from other airborne particle. B.1. Eccrine glands – widely distributed over the body, especially in
 For sexual attractant. the forehead, back, palms and soles.

27
 - They produce sweat, watery mixture of salts, antibodies Common Skin Disorders
and metabolic wastes. 1. Acne vulgaris - most common skin disorder among teenagers
B.2. Apocrine glands – are much larger and are found in the axillary - long-term skin condition which occurs when hair follicles become
and pubic regions. plugged with oil and dead skin cells.
- They produce a more viscous and odoriferous secretion 2. Atopic dermatitis (eczema) - long lasting (chronic) and tends to flare
which act as sexual attractant. periodically
- Mammary gland is a modified apocrine gland producing - accompanied by asthma or hay fever
milk. - no cure has been found
3. Hives (urticaria) - itchy, raised welts
C. Ceruminous glands (ear wax glands) – found in the external auditory - caused by an allergic reaction to medication, food or irritant in the
canal. environment
- They secrete cerumen or earwax which acts as insect 4. Shingles (herpes zoster) - caused by varicella-zoster virus - the same
repellant and keeps eardrum from drying. virus that causes chickenpox.
5. Skin cancer - abnormal growth of skin cells, mostly develop from too much
4. Skin Color - caused by variations in pigmentation, which is the result of exposure to sunlight
genetics and/or exposure to sunlight. *basal cell carcinoma
A. Melanin – can be found in shades of yellow, brown and black. *squamous cell carcinoma
- It protects the DNA in the nucleus from UV radiation. If you *melanoma
have dark skin, you produce a lot of melanin.
B. Carotene – a yellow-orange pigment that accumulates in the stratum
corneum and in the adipose tissue found in the hypodermis.
C. Hemoglobin – the oxygen-carrying protein found in our red blood
cells.
- If the blood is not adequately oxygenated, the hemoglobin will
be blue in color and so the skin might also have a blue cast.

Disorder - functional abnormality or disturbance of normal functioning of the

mind or body
Disease - medical condition that is associated with specific signs and
symptoms, abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function
of all or part of an organism
Syndrome - a disease or disorder that has more than one identifying feature or
symptom.

28
 - found at the ends of certain bones and in joints in adults, providing a
smooth surface for adjacent bones to move against each other.
LIGAMENTS - tough connective tissue structures that attach bones to bones
like the ligament that attaches the head of the femur to the acetabulum of the
pelvic bone in the hip joint.
TENDONS - similar structures that attach muscle to bone.
CHAPTER 5
SKELETAL SYSTEM Calcitonin causes calcium to be stored in the bones; parathormone causes
it to be released into the bloodstream.
Objectives:
a. Identify the subdivisions of the skeleton as axial or appendicular. BONE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
b. Describe briefly the process of bones formation in the fetus and summarize The 206 bones of an adult human’s skeleton range in size from middle
the events of bone remodeling throughout life. ear bones as small as a grain of rice to the massive thighbone, or femur,
c. Discuss the importance of the intervertebral disc and spinal curvatures. which weighs about a kilogram. Bone tissue consists of bone cells in an
d. Compare the amount of movement allowed by each type of joint. extracellular matrix. The matrix is mainly collagen (a protein) with calcium
e. Discuss the skeletal system disorders. and phosphorus salts.

Skeletal system is the internal framework of the human body composed of HISTOLOGY OF BONE
bones. Associated with the bones are cartilage, tendons and ligaments. Compact bone is dense and strong, whereas cancellous bone has
many open spaces, giving it a spongy appearance. It is in these spaces that
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM bone marrow can be found. In both types of tissue, the osteocytes are the
1. It supports and stabilizes surrounding tissues such as muscles, blood same, but the arrangement of how the blood supply reaches the bone cells is
vessels, nerves, fat and skin. different.
2. It protects vital organs of the body such as the brain, spinal cord, the heart
and lungs, and it protects other soft tissues of the body. BONE MARROW
3. It assists in body movement by providing attachments for muscles that pull Bone marrow is the soft tissue that fills the cavities inside a bone. Red
on the bones that act as levers. marrow that fills the spaces in spongy bone is the major site of blood cell
4. It manufactures blood cells. This process is called hematopoiesis and formation. Yellow marrow fills the central cavity of an adult femur consists
occurs chiefly in red bone marrow. mainly of fat.
5. It is a storage area for mineral salts, especially phosphorus and calcium,
and fats. CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BASED ON SHAPE
Long bones
CARTILAGE -a connective tissue, is the environment in which bone develops Short bones
in a fetus. Flat bones

29
 Irregular bones SESAMOID BONES
Sesamoid bones - small rounded bones.
LONG BONES - enclosed in a tendon and fascial tissue and are located adjacent to
length exceeds their width and consist of: joints.
- diaphysis or shaft composed mainly of compact bone - They assist in the functioning of muscles. The kneecap, or patella, is
- metaphysis or flared portion at each end of the diaphysis consisting the largest of the sesamoid bones. Some of the bones of the wrist and ankle
mainly of cancellous or spongy bone could also be classified as sesamoid bones as well as short bones.
- two extremities, each called an epiphysis, separated from the
metaphysis by the epiphyseal line where longitudinal growth of the bone BONE MARKINGS
occurs. The surface of any typical bone will exhibit certain projections called
Examples of long bones are the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, processes or certain depressions called fossae, or both. They can help join
tibia and fibula. Not so obvious are those short versions of a long bone, the one bone to another, provide a surface for the attachments of muscles, or
metacarpals of the hand, the metatarsals of the foot and the phalanges of serve as a passageway into the bone for blood vessels and nerves.
the fingers and toes.
PROCESSES
SHORT BONES - SPINE: any sharp, slender projection such as the spinous process of a
- lack a long axis vertebra.
- somewhat irregular shape - CONDYLE: a rounded or knuckle-like prominence usually found at the
- consist of a thin layer of compact tissue over a majority of spongy or point of articulation with another bone such as the lateral and medial condyle
cancellous bone. Examples are the carpal bones of the wrist and the of the femur.
tarsal bones of the foot. - TUBERCLE: a small round process like the lesser tubercle of the humerus.
- TROCHLEA: a process shaped like a pulley as in the trochlea of the
FLAT BONES humerus.
- thin bones found whenever there is a need for extensive muscle - TROCHANTER: a very large projection like the greater and lesser
attachment or protection for soft or vital parts of the body trochanter of the femur.
- usually curved, consist of two flat plates of compact bone tissue - CREST: a narrow ridge of bone like the iliac crest of the hip bone.
enclosing a layer of cancellous bones. Examples are sternum, ribs, - LINE: a less prominent ridge of bone than a crest.
scapula, parts of the pelvic bones and some of the bones of the skull. - HEAD: a terminal enlargement like the head of the humerus and the head
of the femur.
IRREGULAR BONES - NECK: that part of a bone that connects the head or terminal enlargement
-bones of a very peculiar and different or irregular shape to the rest of the bone, like the neck of the femur.
-consist of spongy bone enclosed by thin layers of compact bone.
Examples are the vertebrae and the ossicles of the ears. FOSSAE
Fossa is a general term for any depression or cavity in or on a bone.

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  Auditory ossicles (6) – composed of 3 pairs of small bones namely: the
- SUTURE: a narrow junction often found between two bones like the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup)
sutures of the skull bones.
- FORAMEN: an opening through which blood vessels, nerves and STERNUM
ligaments pass like the foramen magnum of the occipital bone of the skull or - Is a flat, elongated, dagger-shaped bone found in the middle of the chest. It
the obturator foramen of the pelvic bone. protects the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels from damage as it
- MEATUS OR CANAL: a long tube-like passage, like the auditory meatus completes the circle of the rib cage.
or canal.
- SINUS OR ANTRUM: a cavity within a bone like the nasal sinuses or
frontal sinus. RIBS (24 or pairs of 12)
- SULCUS: a furrow or groove like the intertubercular sulcus or groove of - Flat curved bones form a protective cage around the organs in the upper
the humerus. body.
Functions of the Ribs
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM - Forms the cage that encloses the upper body
1. Axial Skeleton - Gives the chest its familiar shape
2. Appendicular Skeleton - Protect the heart and lungs from injuries and shock

AXIAL SKELETON Vertebrosternal or true ribs

- Composed of 80 bones which forms the vertical axis of the body and - Are the first 7 rib pairs connected to the spine at the back and to the
renders support to the organs of the head, neck and trunk. breastbone in front by the costal cartilage.
- Skull
- Sternum Vertebrochondrial or false ribs
- Ribs - 8th to 10th pairs, are shorter than the true ribs and are connected to the
- Vertebral Column spine in the back and the lowest true rib in front

SKULL (28 bones) Vertebral ribs or floating ribs

 Cranial bones (8) – protect the brain and sense organs - Are the last 2 rib pairs – smaller floating ribs, which like the first two, are
attached to the spine in the back

 Facial bones (14) – make up the upper and lower jaw and other facial VERTEBRAL COLUMN
structures - Commonly known as the backbone, spine or spinal column is composed of
26 irregularly shaped bones.

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Cervical vertebrae Hand – consists of 3 parts: the wrist, palm and 5 fingers with a total of
- Composed of 7 vertebrae located at the top of the spinal column 27 bones.
Wrist/carpus – consist of 8 small bones called carpal bones that are
tightly bound by ligaments
Thoracic vertebrae Palm/metacarpus – consist of 5 metacarpal bones
- Are the next 12 vertebrae which form the rear anchor of the rib cage and Fingers – made up of 14 bones called phalanges
are larger than cervical vertebrae
2. Lower extremities composed of the bones of the thigh, leg, foot and the
Lumbar vertebrae patella or knee cap.
- Composed of 5 vertebrae below the thoracic vertebrae and are the largest Femur/thigh – region between the hip and the knee and is composed of
vertebrae in the spinal column a single bone called the femur or thighbone
- It is the longest, largest and strongest bone of the human body
Vertebral column supports most of the body’s weight Leg – from the knee to the ankle
- It is formed by the fibula on the side away from the body and the tibia, also
called shin bone, on the side nearest the body
Sacrum Foot/pes – contains the 26 bones of the ankle, the instep and the 5
- Is a triangular bone located just below the lumbar vertebrae composed of 5 toes.
sacral vertebrae in a child and later on fuse to become a single bone by age Tarsus/ankle - Composed of the 7 tarsal bones which correspond to the
26 carpals in the wrist.
Metatarsal and phalanges – similar in number and position to the
metacarpal and phalanges bones of the hand.
Coccyx or tailbone
- Located at the bottom of the spinal column 3. Pectoral girdle/shoulder girdle – composed of 4 bones, 2 clavicle and 2
scapulae
Clavicle/collarbone – is a slender S-shaped bone that connects the upper
APPENDICULAR SKELETON arm to the trunk of the body
- Composed of 126 bones of the upper and lower extremities, and the Scapula/shoulder blade – is a large, triangular, flat bone on the back side
pectoral and pelvic girdles of the rib cage.

1. Upper extremities consist of the arms, forearms and the hands. 4. Pelvic girdle/hip girdle – composed of 2 coxal (hip) bones. The girdle in
Brachium/arm – region between the shoulder and elbow and contains men are closer together while in women, the pelvis is farther apart for
the humerus. reproduction and pregnancy. During childhood, coxal bone has 3 parts but
Antebrachium/forearm – region between the elbow and the wrist and will later on fuse into one single bone: ilium, ischium, pubis.
contains the radius and ulna.

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 JOINTS
- The point where two or more bones meet. Joints are classified by their CLEFT PALATE AND CLEFT LIP - occurs when the palatine processes of
structure or the way they move. the maxillary bones do not fuse properly, resulting in an opening between the
oral and nasal cavities.

1. Suture joint – joints of the skull. Sutures do not have a wide range of
movement. Instead, they allow for growth and very limited flexibility.
2. Hinge joint – allow for movement in one plane. The hinge joints of the
elbow and knees, for example, bend up and down.
3. Gliding joint – two flat-surfaced bones that slide over one another.
Gliding joints, such as those in the wrist and foot, provide for limited
movement.
4. Ball-and-socket joints – allow for greatest range of motion. Joints of the
hip and shoulder, for example, can rotate in a complete circle.

DISORDERS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

OSTEOPOROSIS - decrease in bone mass with accompanying increased
susceptibility to bone fractures. This results from decreased level of
estrogens that occur after menopause in women.

PAGET’S DISEASE - Common nonmetabolic disease of bone whose cause

is unknown. Symptoms include irregular thickening and softening of bones.

GIGANTISM - Result of excessive endochondral ossification at the

epiphyseal plates of long bones, too much growth hormone (somatotropin)
from pituitary gland.

DWARFISM (Ex. Achondroplasia) - Opposite condition of gigantism.

SPINA BIFIDA - Congenital defect in the development of the posterior

vertebral arch in which the laminae do not unite at the midline.

HERNIATED DISK - Is a rupture of the fibrocartilage surrounding an

intervertebral disk that cushions the vertebrae above and below.

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 3. Cardiac

Skeletal Muscles
Location: attached to a skeleton
Shape of fibers: elongated, cylindrical, blunt ends
Type of control: voluntary
CHAPTER 6 Number of nuclei per fiber/position: many/peripheral
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Striation: present
Speed of contraction: most rapid
Objectives:
a. Describe the similarities and differences in the structure and function of the
three types of muscle tissues and indicate where they are found in the body. Smooth Muscles
b. Describe the microscopic structure of skeletal muscle and explain the role of Location: walls of the gut, blood vessels
actin- and myosin-containing myofilaments. Shape of fibers: elongated, pointed ends, spindle-shaped
c. Explain the process of muscle contraction. Type of control: involuntary
d. Identify the different skeletal muscles and their origins and insertions. Number of nuclei per fiber/position: one/central
Striation: absent
Muscular system is an organ system that permits movement of the body Speed of contraction: slowest
together with the skeletal system. Muscle is a tissue or organ of the animal
body characterized by the ability to contract, usually in response to a stimulus
from the nervous system. The basic unit of all muscle is the myofibril, a Cardiac Muscles
minute, threadlike structure composed of complex proteins. Location: walls of the heart
Sarcomere is a functional unit of a skeletal muscle. Each muscle cell, or Shape of fibers: elongated, cylindrical fibers with branches and fused
fiber, contains several myofibrils, which are composed of regularly arranged Type of control: involuntary
myofilaments of two types, thick and thin. Each thick myofilament contains Number of nuclei per fiber/position: one or two/central
several hundred molecules of the protein myosin. Thin filaments contain two Striation: present
strands of the protein actin. Contraction of a muscle cell is activated by the Speed of contraction: intermediate
release of calcium from inside the cell, probably in response to electrical
changes at the cell's surface. This theory of muscle contractio is best
explained by the sliding filament theory. NAMING AND ACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
Muscles can be named according to:
TYPES OF MUSCLES A. Action (adductor, flexor, extensor)
1. Skeletal B. Shape (quadratus, trapezius)
2. Smooth C. Origin and insertion (sternocleidomastoid)

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 D. Location (frontalis, tibialis, radialis) Lateral rectus – rolls the eye laterally
E. Number of divisions (biceps, triceps, quadriceps) Superior and inferior oblique – rotate the eyeball on axis
F. Direction their fibers run (transverse, oblique)
MUSCLES MOVING THE HEAD
In performing any given movement, such as bending the leg at the knee Sternocleidomastoid – main muscle that moves the head
joint, the muscles performing the actual movement are called the prime
movers or agonists. The muscles that will straighten the knee are the MUSCLES MOVING THE SHOULDER GIRDLE
antagonists. The agonists or prime movers must relax for the antagonists Levator scapulae, rhomboids, pectoralis minor, and trapezius – muscles
to perform their function and vice versa. Synergists are the muscles that that move the scapula
assist the prime movers. Serratus – also moves the scapula

Movements: MUSCLES MOVING THE HUMERUS

Extend - increase the angle formed by a hinge joint. Pectoralis major – flexes and adducts the arm
Flex - decrease the angle formed by a hinge joint. Latissimus dorsi – extends, adducts and rotates the arm medially
Abduct - move the limb away from the body (midline). Teres minor – adducts and rotates the arm
Adduct - move the limb toward the body (midline). Deltoid – abducts the arm
Supraspinatus – abducts the arm
MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION Infraspinatus - rotates the arm
Occipitalis – draws the scalp backward.
Frontalis – raises your eyebrows and wrinkles the skin of forehead MUSCLES MOVING THE ELBOW
Zygomaticus – involved in smiling and laughing Brachialis, biceps brachii, brachioradialis – flex the forearm at the elbow
Levator labii superioris – raises upper lip Triceps brachii and anconeus - extend the arm
Orbicularis oris – closes your lips
Buccinator – compresses your cheek MUSCLES MOVING THE WRIST
Flexor carpi – flex the wrist
MUSCLES OF MASTICATION (Chewing) Extensor carpi – extend the wrist
Masseter and temporalis – main muscles that close your jaw by bringing up
the mandible in a bite grip. MUSCLES MOVING THE HAND
Pterygoid – assists in chewing Supinator –cause the palm to face upward
Pronator teres, pronator quadratus – cause the palm to face downward
MUSCLES OF THE EYE
Superior rectus – raises the eye MUSCLES MOVING THE THUMB
Inferior rectus – lowers the eye Flexor pollicis – flex the thumb
Medial rectus – rolls the eye medially Extensor pollicis - extends the thumb

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Adductor pollicis – adducts the thumb MUSCLES MOVING THE FOOT
Abductor pollicis – abducts the thumb Gastrocnemius (calf muscle), tibialis posterior, soleus, peroneus longus,
Opponens pollicis – opposes the thumb and is used when we write plantaris – flex the foot or bring it downward
Tibialis anterior, peroneus tertius – dorsally flex the foot or bring it upward
MUSCLES MOVING THE FINGERS MUSCLES MOVING THE TOES
Flexor digitorum – flex the fingers Flexor hallucis brevis and longus – flex the great toe
Extensor digitorum – extends the fingers Extensor hallucis – extends the great toe
Interossei – cause abduction of the proximal phalanges of the fingers Flexor digitorum – flex the toes
Extensor digitorum – extends the toes
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL WALL Abductor hallucis – abducts the great toe
External oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis – 3 layers of Abductor digiti minimi – abducts the little toe
muscles along the side of the abdomen
Rectus abdominis – muscle in front of your belly DISORDERS OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTURE - Condition in which muscle shortens its length in the
MUSCLE OF RESPIRATION OR BREATHING resting state. Commonly occur in individuals who are bedridden for long
Diaphragm – its contracting causes air to enter the lungs periods and muscles are not properly exercised.
External and internal intercostal – expands and depress the ribs when we
breathe in or out CRAMPS - Spastic and painful contractions of muscles that occur because
of irritation or lactic acid buildup
MUSCLES MOVING THE FEMUR
Psoas, iliacus – flex the thigh MYALGIA - Term means muscle pain.
Gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus – forms the buttocks
Tensor fascia lata – tenses the fascia lata, which is a thick band of MYOSITIS - Means inflammation of muscular tissue
connective tissue on the lateral side of thigh causing abduction of femur
ATROPHY - Decrease in muscle bulk due to lack of exercise
MUSCLES MOVING THE KNEE JOINT
Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus – these are known HYPERTROPHY - Increase in size of a muscle caused by an increased
as the hamstrings muscle bulk through exercise
Popliteus, gracilis, sartorius
Quadriceps femoris consists of 4 parts that extend the knee (rectus MYASTHENIA GRAVIS - Characterized by easy tiring of muscles, or muscle
femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius). weakness. Caused by abnormal destruction of acetylcholine receptors at
Sartorius muscle – longest muscle of the body and is known as the “tailors” neuromuscular junction.
muscles
AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS)

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 - Known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. Axon – carries away the stimulus signaled by the cell body to another
- Progressively degenerative disease of the motor neurons of the body. neuron
- No known cure for the disease.
Three types of neuron (function)
Sensory or afferent neuron – receive stimulus from environment through
the sense organs and transmit to central nervous system
CHAPTER 7 Motor or efferent neuron – carry information from central nervous system
NERVOUS SYSTEM to the muscles and glands signaling them to produce responses
Interneurons or connecting neurons – connect sensory and motor
neurons
Objectives:
a. Differentiate central nervous system from peripheral nervous system
b. Identify the functions of neurons and neuroglia DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
c. Classify neurons according to structure and function. 1. Central Nervous System
d. Identify the major regions of the cerebral hemisphere and their functions 2. Peripheral Nervous System
e. Identify the cranial and spinal nerves and their functions.
f. Identify and discuss the common nervous system disorders CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain
Nervous system is the most complex and elaborate system of biological Spinal Cord
structure in the human body. It coordinates actions and sensory information by
transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body. Its basic unit is BRAIN - is covered by 3 membranes, called meninges:
neuron. A. Dura mater – “tough mother”, the outer membrane is a tough, protective
covering formed of white fibrous tissue
FUNCTIONS B. Arachnoid mater – next to dura mater
- Receive stimulus C. Pia mater – innermost transparent membrane and contains blood vessels
- Transmit stimulus
- Interpret and analyze stimulus FOREBRAIN
- Evoke a proper response by an effector a. Cerebrum – largest area of the brain and is divided into hemispheres
(frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobe). It shows prominent fissures
PARTS OF NEURON (deeper furrows) or sulci (shallow grooves) and gyri or convolutions (thin
Dendrite – receive nerve impulses and pass it to the cell body ridges between sulci).
Soma or cell body – contains the nucleus that provides the energy for b. Thalamus – is a large, oval part located above the midbrain. It serves as a
transmitting the stimulus received from the dendrites to axon relay center for all sensations except the sense of olfaction. It is also
responsible in discriminating pain, pleasure and emotions from other tactile

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stimuli. It is also the arousal or alert mechanism of the body and produces PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
complex reflex movements. Contains almost all voluntary activities of the animal. It is composed of cranial
c. Hypothalamus – the nervous and hormonal system interact. It is concerned and spinal nerves. There are 12 cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves (8
with different bodily activities, homeostasis and is the center for the cervical, 8 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygeal)
parasympathetic nervous system

FUNCTIONS:
Regulate cardiovascular rate
Regulate body temperature
Regulate water and electrolyte balance
Regulate hunger and control gastrointestinal activity
Regulate sleeping
Initiate sexual and emotional responses

MIDBRAIN
- A short, constricted mass of mostly white matter surrounding a central
cavity. It connects the pons and cerebellum with the cerebral hemispheres by
tracts of nerve fibers.

HINDBRAIN
a. Cerebellum – it is the second largest part of the brain and consists of the
outer layer of the grey matter (cortex) and an inner core of the white matter
(medulla). It coordinates the voluntary skeletal muscles related to
maintenance of balance, smooth, timed, precise and steady body movements.
b. Medulla Oblongata – also called “brain stem.” It is the automatic control
center for heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, sneezing, etc.
c. Pons – serves as a reflex center, regulates respiration and serves as a
conduction pathway between the spinal cord and the brain.

SPINAL CORD
- Serves as a pathway for the conduction of impulses between the
receptors and effector organs and from the brain. It acts as a reflex center
(spinal reflexes) for many local simple reflexes

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 Pituitary (master gland) – many of its hormones stimulate the other endocrine
glands to secrete their hormones.

Endocrine Glands – ductless glands that secrete their hormones directly into
the bloodstream. The blood circulatory system then carries these chemical
signals to target organs where their effects are seen as specific responses.
CHAPTER 8
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM These chemical signals (hormones) help regulate metabolism, water and
electrolyte concentrations in cells, growth, development and the reproductive
Objectives: cycles. They control the internal environment of the body from the cellular
a. Identify endocrine organs and their functions; level to the organ level of organization. When the concentration of a particular
b. Define hormone and their target organs; hormone reaches a certain level in the body, the endocrine gland that secreted
c. Describe the functional relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary that hormone is inhibited and the secretion of that hormone ceases or
gland; and decreases significantly.
d. Identify and discuss the common endocrine disorders This chemical control of the body functions primarily as a negative
feedback system.

Endocrine system exerts chemical control over the human body by CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
maintaining the body’s internal environment with certain narrow ranges Modified amino acids
(homeostasis). Protein hormones
Steroid hormones
Functions:
Growth A. Modified amino acid hormones – secreted by the adrenal medulla,
Maturation epinephrine and norepinephrine, and the hormones secreted by the
Reproduction posterior pituitary gland, oxytocin and vasopressin.
Metabolism
Human behavior B. Protein hormones – include insulin from the pancreatic islets and the
gonad-stimulating hormones and growth hormone from the anterior
Hypothalamus – sends directions via chemical signals (neurotransmitters) to pituitary gland.
the pituitary gland. It is the inferior part of the diencephalon and controls
secretions from the pituitary gland. There is a funnel-shaped stalk, called C. Steroid hormone (lipids) – cortisol from the adrenal cortex and estrogen
infundibulum, that extends from the floor of the hypothalamus connecting it to and testosterone produced by the gonads.
the pituitary gland.

39
 Growth Hormone
Nerve cells in the hypothalamus produce chemical signals called – stimulates cell metabolism
releasing hormones and releasing inhibitory hormones. - Causing cells to divide and increase in size
- -increases protein synthesis and breakdown of fats/carbohydrates
Releasing hormones - Stimulates growth of bones and muscles
It is within the hypothalamus of the brain and the pituitary gland that the
interactions and relationships between the endocrine and nervous systems are Too little GH – pituitary dwarfism. Most famous was Charles Stratton (Tom
controlled and maintained. Thumb)
* Too much GH - gigantism.
MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS Secretion of GH is controlled by two releasing hormones from the
1. Anterior pituitary gland 6. Pineal gland hypothalamus: one stimulates secretion and the other inhibits it.Peak
2. Thyroid gland 7. Parathyroid glands secretions of GH occur during periods of sleep, exercise and fasting.
3. Thymus gland 8. Adrenal glands Growth is also influenced by nutrition, genetics and the sex hormones during
4. Islets of Langerhans 9. Pancreas puberty.
5. Ovaries/Testes
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND AND ITS HORMONES – stimulates the thyroid gland to produce its hormone.
Pituitary is also known as the hypophysis, a small gland about the size of TSH secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus, which produces thyrotropin-
a pea. Affects the functions of testes, ovaries, adrenal cortex, and thyroid releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary lobe to
gland. secrete TSH.

Divided into two lobes: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

-Anterior pituitary lobe - stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete its hormone called cortisol.
-Posterior pituitary lobe - Regulated by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) produced by the
hypothalamus.
Anterior Pituitary Lobe: - Involved with the glucose-sparing effect and helps reduce inflammation as
- Growth hormone (GH) well as stimulating the adrenal cortex.
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
- Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) - increases the production of melanin in melanocytes in the skin, thus causing
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) a deepening pigmentation or darkening of the skin.
- Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Lactogenic hormone (LTH) or prolactin Follicle-Stimulating Hormone

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- stimulates development of the follicles in the ovaries of females. The hypothalamus regulates ADH secretion through osmoreceptors that
In males, it stimulates the production of sperm cells in the seminiferous tubules detect changes in the osmotic pressure of body fluids. Dehydration, increases
of the testes. blood solute concentrations, and these osmoreceptors signal the posterior lobe
Luteinizing Hormone to release ADH. Diuretics increase urine secretion.
– stimulates ovulation in the female ovary and production of the female sex Oxytocin
hormone, progesterone. – stimulates contraction of smooth muscles in the wall of the uterus.
- Helps maintain pregnancy. -Stretching of uterine and vaginal tissues late in pregnancy stimulates
- In males, it stimulates the synthesis of testosterone in the testes to maintain production of OT so that uterine contractions develop in the late stage of
sperm production. childbirth.
-causes milk ejection or lactation
Lactogenic Hormone (Prolactin)
– stimulates milk production in the mammary glands following delivery in a Pineal Gland
pregnant female. - Small pinecone-shaped structure found between the two cerebral
- maintains progesterone levels following ovulation and during pregnancy in hemispheres attached to the upper part of the thalamus. It produces the
women. hormone melatonin which regulates circadian rhythm, affects our sleep-wake
- In males, it appears to increase sensitivity to LH and may cause a decrease patterns and maintains our biological clocks.
in male sex hormones.
Bright light – melatonin is low, people feel good, and fertility increases
Posterior Pituitary Gland and Its Hormones Dark – high level of melatonin, people feel depressed and tired, inducing sleep.
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Melatonin also plays a role in the onset of puberty and in female reproductive
- Oxytocin cycle.

Antidiuretic Hormone Serotonin – acts as neurotransmitter and vasoconstrictor. Stimulates smooth

– also known as vasopressin. muscle contraction and inhibits gastric secretions.
- Maintains the body’s water balance by promoting increased water
reabsorption in the tubules of the nephrons of kidney, resulting in less water in Thyroid Gland and Its Hormones
the urine. Thyroid gland consists of two lobes connected by a smaller band called
If secreted in large amounts, ADH can cause constriction of blood vessels, isthmus.
hence vasopressin. - Requires iodine to function properly. Not enough iodine in the diet causes the
A deficiency of ADH can result in a condition known as diabetes insipidus thyroid gland to enlarge, forming goiter.
(individuals produce 20 to 30 L of urine daily). They become severely
dehydrated, lose essential electrolytes, resulting in abnormal nerve and cardiac Hormones of thyroid includes:
muscle functions. -thyroxine, also known as tetraiodothyronine (T4)
-triiodothyronine (T3).

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Calcitonin - regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Hypoparathyroidism –reduces osteoclast activity, reduces rates of bone
Necessary for normal growth and development as well as for nervous system matrix breakdown or resoption and reduces vitamin D formation.
maturation. This can cause frequent muscle cramps or tetanic contractions. If respiratory
muscles are affected, breathing failure and death can occur.
Hypothyroidism – lack or low level of thyroid hormones. In children, this can
result in cretinism which causes the child to be mentally retarded and does Adrenal Glands and Their Hormones
not grow to normal stature. In adults, this results to lowered rate of Adrenal glands are also known as the suprarenal glands. They are small
metabolism, causing sluggishness, being too tired to perform daily tasks and glands found on top of each kidney.
myxedema (accumulation of fluid in subcutaneous tissues).
Adrenal medulla (inner part of each gland) – secretes adrenalin (epinephrine)
Hyperthyroidism – results in extreme nervousness, fatigue, and elevated rate and noradrenalin (norepinephrine) – “fight or flight” hormones
of body metabolism. - Heartbeat and blood pressure rates increase
- Blood flow decreases to internal organs but increases to the muscle cells
Graves’s disease – type of hyperthyroidism caused by overproduction of - Lungs take in more oxygen
thyroid hormone. Associated with enlarged thyroid or goiter and
exophthalmia (bulging of eyeballs). Adrenal cortex (outer layer of adrenal gland) – secretes cortisol
(hydrocortisone)
Calcitonin – lowers the calcium and phosphate ion concentration of the blood. - Helps the body during stressful situations and helps maintain the proper
glucose concentration in the blood between meals.
- Cortisol also helps reduce the inflammatory response.
Parathyroid Glands and Their Hormones - Cortisone (steroid related to cortisol) – medication to reduce inflammation and
Parathyroid glands – four glands about the size of raisins that are embedded treatment for arthritis
in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
Secrete a single hormone, the parathormone. Androgens – male sex hormone produced in inner adrenal cortex.
- Stimulate the development of male sexual characteristics.
Parathormone (parathyroid hormone) – raises blood calcium to normal levels. In adult women, adrenal androgens stimulate the female sex drive.
Vitamin D also increases absorption of calcium by the intestines.
Endocrine System Disorders
Hyperparathyroidism – caused by a tumor in a parathyroid gland. Results in 1. Addison’s disease – adrenal cortex fails to produce enough hormones.
breakdown of bone matrix, bones become soft and deformed and easily Bronzing of the skin, decreased blood sodium, low blood glucose, dehydration,
fracture. Elevated calcium levels in the blood cause muscles and nerves to low blood pressure.
become less excitable, resulting in muscle weakness and fatigue. Without treatment can lead to death.

2. Cushing’s syndrome – too much secretion from adrenal cortex.

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-High blood glucose, puffy skin, moon-shaped face, skin atrophy, menstrual *Endocrine gland – produce hormone testosterone
problems in women.
Increases in androgen results in masculinizing changes in women, such as Testosterone
facial hair growth and lowering of voice pitch. - Responsible for development of male reproductive structures, and at puberty,
enlargement of the testes and penis.
Pancreas - Promotes development of secondary male sexual characteristics such as
- Found behind the stomach and its pancreatic duct connects to the duodenum growth of facial and chest hair, deepening of voice, muscular development,
of small intestine. It is a flattened, elongated gland divided into head, body and bone growth.
tail portions. - Promotes development of male sexual drive and aggressiveness.
- Digestive role: acini (pancreatic cells) produce pancreatic juice.
- Endocrine role: pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) produce hormones Ovaries
insulin (beta cells) and glucagon (alpha cells) which regulate blood glucose Estrogen and progesterone
levels. – promote the development of female reproductive structures, secondary
female sexual characteristics, bone development
When blood glucose is high, beta cells release insulin which transforms
glucose to glycogen. It causes the blood glucose level to fall. When blood The menstrual cycle is also controlled by these hormones.
glucose level decreases, alpha cells secretes glucagon which causes liver to Releasing hormones from the hypothalamus affect the anterior pituitary gland
break down glycogen to glucose. to produce the gonad-stimulating hormones: LH and LSH.
These hormones control the secretion of hormones from the testes and
Diabetes mellitus – deficiency in insulin which results in elevation of glucose ovaries.
in the blood (hyperglycemia).
Symptoms: Thymus Gland and Its Hormone
Glycosuria – large amount of sugar in urine - Bilobed mass of tissue found in the mediastinum behind the sternum between
Polyuria – increase in urine production the lungs.
Polydipsia – excessive thirst - Large in young children (shrinks as we age).
Polyphagia – intense food cravings - Development of immune system.

If the blood glucose level gets very low, the breakdown of fats releases Thymus secretes thymosin which causes the production of T
fatty acids and ketones causing acidosis (lowering of blood pH). If the blood lymphocytes, which protect the body against foreign microorganisms.
glucose level gets high, kidneys produce a large amount of urine containing
high amount of glucose causing dehydration.

Testes
*Exocrine gland – produce sperm

43
 Digestion - the process of breaking down food into smaller particles so that
these can pass through cells.

Carbohydrates are changed into monosaccharides (simple sugars)

proteins are changed to amino acids
fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

CHAPTER 9
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Nutrition fact labels – serving size, number of servings per container.
Kilocalorie (kcal) – quantities of nutrients per serving.
Objectives: 2000 to 2500 kcal – recommended daily intake
1. Describe the digestive organs and discuss their functions
2. Trace the process of digestion PROCESS OF DIGESTION
3. Identify and discuss the enzymes that help in digestion 1. Ingestion (taking in of food into the body)
4. Identify the sites of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and excretion of 2. Peristalsis (pushing of food along the digestive tract)
wastes 3. Digestion (breakdown of food, mechanical and chemical)
5. Identify the symptoms and causes of common digestive system 4. Absorption (digested food to cardiovascular and lymphatic to cells)
disorders 5. Defecation (elimination from the body).

NUTRITION AND DIGESTION MOUTH

Plants produce their own food in a process called photosynthesis, during -Initial digestion takes place.
which they use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into simple -Teeth break the food into smaller particles (mastication).
sugars. But animals, including humans, must take in food in the form of -Salivary amylase (ptyalin) moistens the food and hastens the breakdown of
organic matter, such as plants or other animals. starch into sugar.

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS PHARYNX

Breakdown of food (digestion) - Passageway leading from the mouth and nose to the esophagus and larynx.
Absorption of nutrients Therefore, while swallowing food, a person is advised not to talk.
This is explained physiologically by the opening of the flap of tissue
NUTRITION: Getting food to cells covering the trachea, the epiglottis, while one talks. This results in food
The major dietary requirements for animals are carbohydrates, fats, and entering the trachea instead of the esophagus, thus causing choking.
proteins as well as vitamins, minerals and water.

44
 Receives food from mouth during swallowing and delivers food to the This increases the surface area for digestion and absorption in the small
stomach. The tongue helps push the food down the esophagus. When food intestines.
passes through the esophagus, it is called bolus.
LARGE INTESTINE/COLON
STOMACH Chyme not absorbed in the small intestine enters the large intestine where
Holds the food while it is being mixed with enzymes to break down into reabsorption of water occurs.
usable form.
Peristalsis is a wavelike involuntary muscle contraction that controls the one-
way movement of food. Food that passes the stomach is now called chyme. A large flora of harmless bacteria are found in the large intestines. Many
Because of peristalsis, we can swallow lying down or even standing on our of which generates gases, such as methane and hydrogen sulfide, that
heads; and astronauts are able to eat in near zero-gravity or under weightless gives the distinctive foul smell of feces.
conditions. The movement of feces along the colon takes about 12-24 hours.
The remains are now called stool or feces, which will be stored in the
Gastric acid, also called gastric juice or hydrochloric acid, is a digestive rectum then excreted to the anus.
fluid, formed in the stomach. The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins.
The chyme leaves the stomach through pyloric sphincter and enters small
intestine. HOW DO YOU KNOW THAT YOU ARE HUNGRY?
Hunger is controlled by the hunger center situated in the hypothalamus
LIVER AND GALLBLADDER of the brain. This center is stimulated by low blood glucose level which occurs
Liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder before entering the when the intestine is no longer absorbing food.
small intestine where fats are emulsified; detoxifies the blood by removing After eating, when the blood glucose level is high, the satiety center also
poisonous metabolites. in the hypothalamus, is affected and you feel satisfied.

PANCREAS HISTOLOGY
-elongated gland behind the stomach which secretes pancreatic enzymes The walls of the alimentary canal (esophagus to anal canal) have the same
and hormones insulin and glucagon which regulate blood glucose. arrangement of tissue layers (coats or tunics).
4 major tunics:
SMALL INTESTINE 1. Tunica mucosa (innermost) – protection, secretion, absorption
- Major organ of digestion and absorption of nutrients. 2. Tunica submucosa
Final digestion of food starts in the duodenum. 3. Tunica muscularis – voluntary, contains plexus of Auerbach
Final chemical digestion and nutrient absorption takes place in the jejunum. 4. Tunica adventitia or serosa (outermost) – visceral peritoneum
Final absorption of digested food occurs in the ileum.
The inner walls of the small intestines bear a series of transverse folds called Mesentery – extension of visceral peritoneum
villi.

45
 MOUTH OR ORAL CAVITY
Buccal cavity Saliva is 99.5% water (dissolving foods) and 0.5% solutes:
roof – hard and soft palates Chlorides activate the salivary enzyme amylase
Floor – tongue Amylase initiates breakdown of complex carbohydrates
Sides – cheeks Bicarb and phosphates, which are buffer chemicals keep the saliva slightly
Outside – covered by skin acidic pH
Inside – covered by mucous membrane Urea and uric acid are waste products
LIPS
Fleshy folds that surround the opening or orifice of the mouth. Mucin forms mucus to lubricate food
During chewing of food, the lips and cheeks keep food between upper and Enzyme lysozyme destroys bacteria, protection from infection, prevent tooth
lower teeth. decay
Assist in speech.
MUMPS
HARD (BONY) PALATE - Caused by a virus that infects salivary glands, affects children ages 5 to 9.
- Anterior part Virus may infect the testes, causing sterility.

SOFT (MUSCULAR) PALATE TEETH

- Posterior portion Also known as dentes
Located in the sockets of the alveolar processes of mandible and maxillae
UVULA bones.
- cone-shaped muscular structure Chewing=mastication
- Prevents food from backing up into the nasal area 20 temporary or deciduous teeth – infants to 2 years
32 permanent teeth – aged 13
TONGUE
Lingual frenulum – septum that divide the tongue into halves Incisors (8 front teeth) – cut food
Papillae – projections in upper surface and sides of tongue Canine teeth – tear food
- Filiform papillae (front) Molar teeth – grind food
- Fungiform papillae
- Circumvallate papillae Parts of a Tooth:
Crown – covered with enamel, hardest substance
SALIVARY GLANDS Cervix or neck
- Parotid Root – 1-3 projections embedded in a socket
- Submandibular *Teeth are made up of dentin, a bonelike substance that encloses the pulp
- Sublingual cavity in the crown.

46
Apical foramen – blood vessels and nerves enter the tooth  Zymogenic or chief cells – secrete gastric enzyme pepsinogen.
Cementum –covered the dentin of the root  Parietal cells – secrete hydrochloric acid, which activates pepsinogen to
become pepsin (enzyme that begins to break down protein)
PHARYNX  Mucous cells – mucus
- Begin the process of swallowing (deglutition)  Gastric juice
Oropharynx (voluntary)
Nasopharynx
Muscularis coat of stomach:
ESOPHAGUS Inner oblique
- Collapsible, muscular tube that is situated behind the trachea or windpipe. Middle circular
Begins at laryngopharynx, passes through mediastinum, diaphragm through Outer longitudinal
esophageal hiatus - Allows stomach to contract
- Transport food to the stomach
Ulcers occur when the hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes erode
Lower esophageal (gastroesophageal) sphincter – connects esophagus to the layers of the stomach or duodenum. Helicobacter pylori is associated with
stomach stomach or peptic ulcers. Antibiotics are administered for treatment.

Hiatal hernia – caused by widening of esophageal hiatus. PANCREAS

Major symptom is gastroesophageal reflux or acid reflux, the backflow of - soft, oblong gland found beneath the great curvature of stomach
the acidic contents of the stomach into esophagus. Also called heartburn. - connected by a duct to the duodenum of small intestine

STOMACH Islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) – endocrine

- Enlargement of gastrointestinal tract. *Alpha cells – glucagon
*Beta cells – insulin
Parts of the Stomach: Acini – exocrine, release a mixture of lipases, carbohydrases and proteases
1. Cardia (surrounds gastroesophageal sphincter) (pancreatic juice)
2. Fundus (rounded portion) Pancreatic duct or duct of Wirsung
3. Body Ampulla of Vater (hepatopancreatic ampulla)
4. Pylorus or antrum
Acini secrete enzymes for digestion of food in the small intestine.
When there is no food in the stomach, mucosa lies in large folds called Alpha and beta cells secrete hormones glucagon and insulin which regulate
rugae. As the stomach fills, the rugae smooth out and disappear. and control blood sugar levels.

SECRETING CELLS IN THE STOMACH: LIVER

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-One of the largest organs of the digestive system, approximately 4 pounds. The structure of each villus contains a capillary network where blood picks
Right and left lobe, separated by falciform ligament up nutrients, a venule to transport nutrients and arteriole and lacteal to pick up
Lobules – functional units fats.

Major functions: LARGE INTESTINE

- Manufactors heparin (coagulant) and most of the other plasma proteins -Absorption of water
such as prothrombin and thrombin – involved in blood clotting. -Manufacturing and absorption of certain vitamins
- Kupffer cells of the liver phagocytose certain bacteria and old, wornout -Formation and expulsion of feces
WBC and RBC
- Liver cells contain various enzymes that break down poisonous substances Four Regions of the Small Intestine:
into less harmful substances. Converts ammonia to urea. 1. Cecum (pouchlike)
- Excess glucose and other monosaccharides can be stored as glycogen or 2. Colon
converted to fat. 3. Rectum
- Stores glycogen, copper and iron, as well as vitamins ADEK 4. Anal canal
- Produces bile salts that break down fats. *Vermiform appendix

GALLBLADDER The opening from the ileum of the small intestine into the cecum of the
-Pear-shaped sac about 3 to 4 inches long located in a depression of the large intestine is known as the ileocecal valve.
surface of the liver.
- Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver lobules until needed in COLON
the small intestine, enters duodenum through bile duct. Haustrae (pouches)
1. Ascending colon – turns to the right colic (hepatic) flexure
SMALL INTESTINE 2. Transverse colon – turns to the left colic (splenic) flexure
-Major portion of absorption and digestion occurs. 3. Descending colon
Duodenum – shortest, originates at pyloric sphincter 4. Sigmoid colon – where colon joins the rectum
Jejunum
Ileum – joins large intestine at the ileocecal valve (sphincter) Three Mechanical Movements:
Crypts of Lieberkuhn (intestinal glands) – secrete digestive enzymes that 1. Haustral churning
supplement the bulk of the digestive enzymes secreted by the liver and 2. Peristalsis
pancreas. 3. Mass peristalsis
Brunner’s glands (duodenal gland) – secrete alkaline mucus
Plicae – folds in the walls of small intestine Anus – guarded by internal sphincter of smooth muscle and external
Villi - projections sphincter of skeletal muscle.

48
Important functions of large intestine:
*Absorption of water
* Bacteria in the colon manufacture vitamin K (clotting), biotin (glucose
metabolism), vitamin B5 (make certain hormones and neurotransmitters)

COMMON DIGESTIVE DISORDERS

1. Hepatitis - inflammation of the liver caused by excessive alcohol

consumption or virus infection.
2. Cirrhosis - long-term degenerative disease of the liver, common result of
chronic alcohol abuse.
3. Gallstones - cholesterol is secreted by the liver into the bile. When the
cholesterol precipitates in the gallbladder, it produces gallstones.
4. Appendicitis - inflammation of vermiform appendix caused by an
obstruction. More common in teenagers and young adults and more frequent
in males.
5. Crohn’s disease - Chronic inflammatory bowel disease (unknown origin)
6. Colorectal cancer - Cancer of large intestine and rectum
7. Hemorrhoids - inflammation and enlargement of rectal veins.
8. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
9. Constipation
10. Diarrhea - literally means flowing through.

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 4. Cellular respiration - chemical process by which cells break down glucose to
release energy, using oxygen.

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ORGANS:

1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
CHAPTER 10 4. Trachea
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 5. Bronchi
6. Lungs
Objectives:
1. Trace the organs forming the respiratory passageway from the nasal NOSE
cavity to the alveoli of the lungs and describe the function of each. – protrudes from the face and internal nasal cavity
2. Explain how the respiratory muscles cause volume changes that lead - It contains hair and mucus membranes
to air flow into and out of the lungs - Functions: warms, moistens and filters inhaled air as it is conducted to the
3. Explain the process of gas exchanges in the lungs and tissues pharynx.
4. Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood
5. Describe the symptoms and probable cause respiratory disorders Nostrils or external nares – openings into the external nose
Internal nose – connects with the throat or pharynx via the two internal
Respiration – overall exchange of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide nares. Nose is separated into right and left nasal cavity by the nasal
between the atmosphere, the blood and the cells. septum.

The cardiovascular and respiratory systems equally share the Internal nose has 3 shelves formed by the turbinates:
responsibility of supplying oxygen to and eliminating carbon dioxide from cells. 1. Superior meatus (olfactory receptors)
2. Middle meatus
PROCESS OF RESPIRATION 3. Inferior meatus
1. Ventilation or breathing – movement of air between atmosphere and
lungs. Three Functions of Inner Nose:
- inhalation or inspiration - Air is warmed, moistened and filtered.
-exhalation or expiration - Olfactory stimuli are detected.
2. External respiration – exchange of gases between the lungs and the - Large hollow resonating chambers are provided for speech sounds.
blood.
3. Internal respiration – exchange of gases between the blood and body
cells. PHARYNX

50
- Also known as throat. - Produces sound
- funnel-shaped passageway that connects the nasal and oral cavities to larynx
- It is divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx Activity: Try it!
1. Take a full breath in and force it all out at once.
Nasopharynx – 4 openings (2 internal nares, two openings lead to auditory or 2. Take in full breath of air and let it out slowly with less pressure.
eustachian tubes) 3. When could you produce loud sound? Soft sound?
Oropharynx – one opening (fauces which connects with the mouth)
Laryngopharynx – connects with esophagus posteriorly and larynx anteriorly Sound originates from the vibrations of the true vocal cords. The true
vocal cords are thicker and longer in men, they vibrate more slowly, so men
FUNCTIONS: have lower range of pitch than women.
- Passageway for both food and air.
- Forms a resonating chamber for speech sounds. TRACHEA
- Commonly called the windpipe. This is a flexible tubular connection between
LARYNX the larynx and the bronchi.
- Also called the voice box.
- Located between the pharynx and trachea that houses the vocal cords. FUNCTIONS:
Its walls are supported by pieces of cartilage: -Serves as passageway for air
1. 3 single pieces of thyroid cartilage (known as Adam’s apple) -Cleanses the air
2. Epiglottis
glottis – space between vocal cords The goblet cells in the trachea produce mucus. The ciliated cells provide
3. Cricoid cartilage protection against dust particles (as does larynx and pharynx).

Mucous membranes of larynx: BRONCHUS

1. Vestibular folds or false vocal cords -a tube leading from the windpipe to a lung, which provides for the passage of
2. Vocal folds or true vocal cords air. The right primary bronchus is more vertical, shorter and wider than the left.

Cough reflex – muscular contractions increase pressure in lungs BRONCHIOLES

Cords open forcing air from lungs at very high velocity - a narrow tube inside the lungs that branches off the main air passages,
bronchi.
FUNCTIONS:
- Prevents food and fluid from entering the trachea and lungs during ALVEOLI
swallowing - a tiny thin-walled air sac found in large numbers in each lung, through which
- Permits passage of air while breathing oxygen enters and carbon dioxide leaves the blood.
- Prevents foreign materials from entering the trachea

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LUNGS - Refers to any infection in the lungs. Individuals with AIDS commonly are
The lungs are paired, cone-shaped organs located in and filling the pleural infected with a protozoan, Pneumocystis carinii, which causes pneumocystis
divisions of the thoracic cavity. pneumonia.
* The right lung has three lobes (thicker and broader) and the left lung has 5. Whooping cough (Pertussis)
two lobes. - Caused by an infection with the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. It results in a
* The right lung is also a bit shorter than the left because the diaphragm loss of the cilia of the epithelium that lines the respiratory tract.
muscle is higher on the right side (make room for liver). 6. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
* Lungs has estimated over 300 million alveoli. - Is a progressive disorder characterized by long-term obstruction of airflow,
which results in diminished inspiration and expiration capabilities of lungs.
Pleural membrane encloses and protect each lung:
Parietal pleura – outer layer attaches the lung to the wall of the thoracic cavity
Visceral pleura – inner layer and covers the lungs 7. Lung cancer
Pleural cavity – small space between these two layers - the longer someone smokes and the more the person smokes each day, the
Pleurisy or pleuritis – inflammation of pleural membranes. greater the risk of developing lung cancer.

The partial pressure of a gas is the amount of pressure that gas

contributes to the total pressure and is directly proportional to the concentration
of that gas.
Partial pressure of oxygen is PO2 = 160 mmHg
Partial pressure of carbon dioxide is PCO2 = 0.3 mmHg

COMMON RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

1. Asthma
- passages that enable air to pass into and out of the lungs periodically narrow,
causing coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.
2. Bronchitis
- Inflammation of the bronchi. This can be caused by infection with bacteria or
viruses.
3. Emphysema
- Destruction of the walls of the alveoli. It is a progressively degenerative
disease with no cure.
4. Pneumonia (Pneumonitis)

52
 Carries nutrients, ions and water
Transports waste products
Transports hormones
Transports enzymes
Regulate body pH
Regulation of normal body temperature
Prevents fluid loss (clotting)
Protection (WBC)
HEMATOPOIESIS
- Blood cell formation
CHAPTER 11 - Occurs in red bone marrow, which is also known as myeloid tissue, produce
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM all blood cells.
- Spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes produce agranular leukocytes (lymphocytes
Objectives: and monocytes).
a. Describe the location of the heart and identify its major anatomical areas
b. Trace the pathway of blood through the heart Stem cells and hematocytoblasts
c. Explain the operation of the heart valves – all blood cells develop from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells
d. Compare and contrast the structure and function of arteries, veins, and
capillaries STEM CELLS
e. Discuss the unique features of special circulations of the body: arterial Stem cells will differentiate into proerythroblasts, which will eventually lose
circulation of the brain, hepatic portal circulation, and fetal circulation their nuclei and become mature RBCs. Stem cells will become myeloblasts
f. Describe the composition of the blood which will develop into progranulocytes. Some of these cells will develop into
g. Identify cell types making up the formed elements and describe the major basophilic myelocytes and will mature into basophils. Others will develop into
functions of each type. neutrophilic myelocytes and will mature into neutrophils. Other stem cells will
h. Describe the blood-clotting process become lymphoblasts and will mature into lymphocytes. Some stem cells will
i. Explain the basis for a transfusion reaction become monoblasts and will mature into monocytes. Some stem cells will
j. Identify and discuss cardiovascular and blood disorders. become megakaryoblasts and will undergo multipolar mitosis of the nucleus to
mature into blood platelets.

Blood is pumped by the heart and carried by blood vessels throughout the CLASSIFICATION
body, complex liquid that functions related to maintaining homeostasis. FORMED ELEMENTS
A. Erythrocytes (RBC) -95%
FUNCTIONS: B. Leukocytes (WBC)
Transports oxygen Granular (neutrophils 60-70%, eosinophils 2-4%, basophils 0.5-1%)

53
 Agranular (monocytes 3-8%, lymphocytes 20-25%) Functions of Erythrocytes
C. Thrombocytes (platelets) - Combine oxygen in the lungs and transport it to the tissues in the body.
- Combine carbon dioxide in tissues and transport it to the lungs.
FLUID COMPONENT (Plasma) - Hemoglobin is made up of protein globin and red pigment heme.
Albumin - The iron atoms of heme combine with oxygen in the lungs.
Globulins - Protein globin combines with carbon dioxide from the interstitial fluids.
Fibrinogen - Hemoglobin that is carrying oxygen is bright red in color. Hemoglobin not
carrying oxygen is darker red in color. A healthy man has 5.4 million
There are 700 times more RBCs in blood than WBCs and at least 17 times RBCs/mm3 of blood.
more RBCs than platelets.
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
PLASMA - Have nuclei and no pigment.
-Is fluid component of blood.
-91% is water. Functions of Leukocytes
About 7% are the proteins albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. - Combat inflammation and infection.
-2% consists of solutes such as ions, nutrients, waste products, gases, - Attack invading microorganisms and clean up cellular debris by consuming
enzymes and hormones. this material through phagocytosis.
- When stained with Wright’s stain, cytoplasm shows presence or absence of
Albumin – maintaining osmotic pressure and water balance between blood granules.
and tissues. Granular Leukocytes
Globulins – antibodies and complement, transport molecules for hormones 1. Neutrophils – most active WBCs, stay in blood for 12 hours.
Fibrinogen – clotting mechanism 2. Basophils – involved in allergic reactions, release heparin (anticoagulant),
histamine (inflammatory response), serotonin (vasoconstrictor)
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) 3. Eosinophils – combat irritants, produce antihistamines.
- About 95% of the volume of blood cells.
-Appear biconcave disks with edges that are thicker than the center of the cell, Agranular Leukocytes
looking somewhat doughnut-shaped. 4. Monocytes – phagocytic, largest leukocytes, are called macrophages.
-Do not have nucleus. 5. Lymphocytes – production of antibodies (immune response), smallest, B
Hemoglobin – red pigment of erythrocytes. and T lymphocytes, controlling cancer cells
- Constitutes 33% of the cell’s volume.
- Erythrocytes contain about 280 million molecules of hemoglobin per
erythrocyte. Because they have lost their nuclei, they do not divide. Leukocytes are far less numerous than RBCs, averaging from 5000 to
They live for approximately 120 days. 9000 per mm3 of blood. In a healthy body, some WBCs will live only a few
days. During infections, they may live for only a few hours.

54
Thrombocytes (Platelets) Chemical Reactions in Blood Clotting
-Disk-shaped cellular fragments with a nucleus. 1. Injured tissue (Ca+) → thromboplastin (Ca+) → prothrombin activator
-They prevent fluid loss when blood vessels are damaged by initiating a chain 2. Prothrombin (prothrombin activator + Ca+) → thrombin
of reactions that result in blood clotting. 3. Soluble fibrinogen (thrombin) → fibrin threads
-Life span of about a week.
-They are produced in red bone marrow from large megakaryocytes. Clot retraction (syneresis)
-is the tightening of the fibrin clot in such a way that the ruptured area of the
CLOTTING MECHANISM blood vessel get smaller and smaller, thus decreasing the hemorrhage. The
1. Mechanism to stop the loss of blood clear yellowish liquid that is seen after the clot forms is called serum.
2. Repair the damaged blood vessels and tissues. Serum is blood plasma without the clotting factors.
3. The clotting mechanism is a process that the body uses to stop the loss of
blood. Fibrinolysis (dissolution of the blood clot occurs)
– caused by plasma protein that digests the fibrin threads and other proteins
Stages of Clotting or Coagulation associated with the formation of the clot.
1. The roughened surface of the cut vessel causes the platelets or
thrombocytes to aggregate, or clump together, at the site of injury. Plaque – cholesterol-containing mass that may cause unwanted clotting in an
2. The damaged tissues release thromboplastin. undamaged blood vessel.
3. The thromboplastin causes a series of reactions that result in the production
of prothrombin activator. Thrombosis – clotting in an unbroken vessel.
4. These activities require the presence of calcium ions and certain proteins Thrombus – clot
and phospholipids. Embolus – a piece of blood clot that dislodges and gets transported by the
Thromboplastin → prothrombin activator bloodstream
5. Prothrombin, a plasma protein produced by the liver, is converted into Cerebral thrombosis – blood clot in the brain
thrombin. Coronary thrombosis – blood clot in the heart
6. In the presence of the calcium ions, prothrombin activator converts the
prothrombin into thrombin. BLOOD GROUPS
Prothrombin → thrombin Agglutination – clumping of RBCs if blood groups are mismatched.
7. Another plasma protein, soluble fibrinogen, is converted into insoluble fibrin. This is caused by a reaction between protein antibodies in the blood
8. It is the thrombin that catalyzes the reaction that fragments fibrinogen into plasma and RBC surface molecules called antigens.
fibrin.
9. Fibrin forms long thread that act like a fish net at the site of injury. The fibrin ABO Blood Group
forms what we call the clot. Blood type A – antigen A / antibody B
fibrinogen→ fibrin Blood type B – antigen B / antibody A

55
Blood type AB – antigen A and antigen B / no antibody A or B - expression of a recessive gene on the X chromosome inherited from the
Blood type O – no antigen A and no antigen B / both antibody A and antibody mother and passed down to male children.
B - Symptoms include hemorrhage following minor injuries, frequent nosebleeds,
*Blood type AB – universal recipient hematomas in muscles and bloody urine.
*Blood type O – universal donor Ex. Queen Victoria of England passed this gene to her offspring.

Rh Blood Group
Named after the Rhesus monkeys, the animals in which one of the eight 2. Leukemia
Rh antigens or factors was first identified and studied. This was antigen D or - Type of cancer in which there is abnormal production of WBCs.
agglutinogen D, which was later discovered in humans. If antigen D and other - Susceptible to opportunistic infections.
Rh antigens are found on the RBC membrane, the blood is Rh positive. - Interferes with normal RBC and platelet formation, results to anemia and
Most Americans are Rh positive. excessive bleeding from minor injuries.

If Rh-negative person receives a blood transfusion of Rh-positive blood, 3. Anemia

the Rh-negative person begins to produce anti-Rh antibodies against the - Decrease in normal number of erythrocytes
foreign blood. This initial mismatch has no immediate serious consequences. - Decrease of normal amount of hemoglobin, deficiency of normal hemoglobin,
or production of abnormal hemoglobin. Symptoms include lack of energy,
However, if a second mismatched transfusion occurs, the patient’s shortness of breath, listlessness, pale skin and general feeling of fatigue.
antibodies will now attack and rupture the Rh-positive blood donor’s RBCs and
they will agglutinate. Types of Anemia:
-Sickle Cell Anemia
When an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive baby (Rh-negative -Iron-deficiency Anemia
mother and Rh-positive father), first pregnancy is usually normal. -Hemolytic Anemia
Because mother has produced anti-Rh antibody, second pregnancy may cause
a condition known as erythroblastosis fetalis which destroy’s the child’s RBCs. 4. Thalassemia
The baby will be anemic and suffer brain damage. Death may result. - Hemoglobin production is suppressed and death can occur by the age of 20.

An Rh-negative woman can be given a drug called RhoGAM (anti-Rh 5. Septicemia

antibodies), which will bind to any Rh positive fetal cells and shield them, thus - Blood poisoning, caused by infection of microorganisms and their toxins in
protecting the child’s RBCs. the blood.

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD 6. Malaria

1. Hemophilia - Caused by protozoan Plasmodium, by a female Anopheles mosquito.
- Genetically inherited clotting disorder

56
Microorganism spends part of its life cycle in the erythrocytes, eventually Serous pericardium – innermost layer
destroying them. Pericardial cavity – space between epicardium of heart and serous
pericardium of pericardial sac.
7. Infectious Mononucleosis Pericardial fluid – watery fluid that is contained in the pericardial cavity.
- Caused by Epstein-Barr virus, which infects lymphocytes and salivary glands.
- The virus alters the lymphocyte, causing the immune system to destroy them. LAYERS OF HEART WALL
EPICARDIUM (Visceral Pericardium)
CIRCULATORY (CARDIOVASCULAR) SYSTEM - thin, transparent layer composed of serous tissue and mesothelium (a type of
epithelial tissue).
HEART
- Muscular pump that forces the blood through a system of vessels made of MYOCARDIUM
arteries, veins and capillaries. - Makes up the bulk of the heart.
*The force to transport the blood is provided by the cardiac muscle that makes - Layer of cardiac muscle tissue.
up the bulk of the heart. The system has a series of valves that prevent blood - Cells or fibers are involuntary, striated and branched.
from backflowing through the blood vessels. - Layer responsible for contraction of the heart.

CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART ENDOCARDIUM

The system begins at the sinoatrial node, known as SA node or - Innermost layer of the wall of the heart.
pacemaker. Once an impulse is initiated by SA node, the impulse spreads out - Thin layer of endothelium (a type of epithelial tissue) that overlies a thin layer
over both atria, causing them to contract simultaneously. of connective tissue penetrated by tiny blood vessels and bundles of smooth
From the AV node, a tract of conducting fibers called the atrioventricular muscle.
bundle or bundle of His runs through the cardiac mass to the top of the - Covers the valves of the heart.
interventricular septum.
The actual contraction of the ventricles is stimulated by the Purkinje’s CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
fibers (conduction myofibers). 1. Right atrium and left atrium (separated by interatrial septum)
2. Right ventricle and left ventricle (separated by interventricular septum)
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
- Positioned obliquely between the lungs in the mediastinum. About two-thirds Right atrium is slightly larger than the left atrium because it collects blood
of its bulk lies to the left side of the midline of the body. About the size of a coming from all parts of the body except lungs.
closed fist (5 inches long, 3.5 inches wide and 2.5 inches thick). Left ventricle has walls thicker than the right ventricle because it must pump
the oxygenated blood at high pressure through all parts of the body.
Pericardial sac (parietal pericardium) – two loose fitting serous membranes
that enclose the heart. Trabeculae – irregular ridges and folds of the myocardium of the ventricles.
Fibrous pericardium – outermost layer Coronary sulcus – a groove that separates atria from ventricles

57
 In a normal heartbeat, the two atria contract simultaneously while the two
VALVES OF THE HEART ventricles relax. When the two ventricles contract, the two atria relax.
Valves prevent blood from flowing back into the pumping chamber. Systole – phase of contraction
1. Tricuspid valve – between right atrium and right ventricle. Consists of 3 Diastole – phase of relaxation
flaps or cusps.
2. Bicuspid (mitral) valve – between left atrium and left ventricle. Consists of Cardiac cycle (complete heartbeat) – systole and diastole of both atria and the
2 flaps or cusps. systole and diastole of both ventricles. Each cardiac cycle requires about 0.8
second.
2. Pulmonary semilunar valve – found in the opening where the pulmonary MAJOR BLOOD CIRCULATORY ROUTES
trunk exits the right ventricle. 1. Systemic circulation (blood to all organs)
3. Aortic semilunar valve – found in the opening where the ascending aorta - Coronary circulation (myocardium of the heart)
leaves the left ventricle. - Hepatic portal circulation (liver)
2. Pulmonary circulation (lungs)
GREAT VESSELS OF THE HEART 3. Cerebral circulation (brain)
The right atrium receives blood from all parts of the body except the lungs. 4. Fetal circulation (temporary from mother to fetus)
It receives this blood through three veins.
1. Superior vena cava (anterior vena cava) – upper parts of the body such as BLOOD VESSELS
head, neck and arms. 1. Arteries – delivers blood away from the heart
2. Inferior vena cava (posterior vena cava) – lower parts of the body such as 2. Arterioles – small arteries that deliver blood to capillaries
legs and abdomen. 3. Veins – delivers blood to the heart
3. Coronary sinus – drains the blood from most of the vessels that supply the 4. Venules – small vessels that collect blood from capillaries and drain to the
walls of the heart with blood. veins
Right ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary trunk which splits into 5. Capillaries – one-cell layer of simple squamous epithelial cell. Connects
right and left pulmonary arteries, which carries blood to the lungs. The arterioles and venules.
oxygenated blood returns to the heart via four pulmonary veins that empty to
the left atrium. The left ventricle pumps the blood into the ascending aorta, Layers of Arteries and Veins:
which goes to three vessels: 1. Tunica intima (endothelial cells)
4. Coronary arteries – supply walls of heart with oxygenated blood. 2. Tunica media (smooth muscle)
5. Arch of the aorta – sends arteries to upper parts of the body 3. Tunica adventitia (fibrous connective tissue)
6. Descending thoracic aorta – becomes the abdominal aorta, transports
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body. Arteries are thicker and stronger than veins; elasticity and contractility
Veins contain valves that ensure one direction, to the heart
CARDIAC CYCLE
Lumen – hollow core of artery through which blood flows

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Anastomosis – junction of two or more blood vessels Celiac trunk has three branches:
-left gastric artery, which goes to the stomach
Capillaries – permit the exchange of nutrients and oxygen and waste and -splenic artery, which supplies the spleen
carbon dioxide between blood and the tissue cells of the body (diffusion) -common hepatic artery goes to the liver.

MAJOR ARTERIES AND VEINS Superior mesenteric artery supplies the small intestine and colon.
Aorta – largest artery in the body Right and left renal arteries go to the kidneys.
- Exits from left ventricle of heart as the ascending aorta. Right and left gonadal arteries serve the gonads.
- Heads down along the spine as thoracic aorta Lumbar arteries go to the muscles of abdomen and walls of the trunk of the
- Enters abdominal cavity as abdominal aorta body.
Inferior mesenteric artery serves the rest of large intestine.
AORTIC ARCH BRANCHES Right and left common iliac artery is the final branch of abdominal aorta.
1. First branch is the brachiocephalic artery, which divides into the right Internal iliac artery goes to the thigh (femoral artery).
common carotid artery, which transports blood to the right side of the head and Popliteal artery goes to the knee.
neck, and right subclavian artery, which transports blood to the upper right Anterior and posterior tibial arteries supplies leg and foot.
limb. Dorsalis pedis artery supplies dorsal part of foot.

2. Second branch is the left common carotid artery, which divides into the left SUPERIOR VENA CAVA
internal carotid artery that supplies the brain and the left external carotid artery 1. Cephalic vein drains the lateral part of the arm and connects into the axillary
that supplies muscles and skin of the neck and head. vein.
2. Basilic vein drains the medial part of the arm and joins the brachial vein.
3. Third branch is the left subclavian artery, which branches into the vertebral 3. Median cubital vein usually used for drawing blood.
artery that supplies part of the brain. In the axillary area of the body, the 4. Subclavian vein drains blood from the arm via the axillary vein.
subclavian artery is now known as the axillary artery, which continues down 5. Internal jugular vein drains the dural sinus of the brain in the head.
the arm as the brachial artery. Near the elbow joint, it divides into the radial 6. Azygos vein drains the thorax and merges with superior vena cava before it
and ulnar arteries, which supply the forearm. enters the heart.

Thoracic Aorta Branches: Greater saphenous veins – longest veins of the body.
There are 10 pairs of intercostal arteries that supply muscles of the thorax.
Bronchial arteries supply the two lungs. DISEASES OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM:
Esophageal arteries go to the esophagus. 1. Rheumatic heart disease
Phrenic arteries supply the diaphragm muscles. - Usually occurs in young children. Results from untreated infections with the
bacterium Streptococcus. The bacteria produce a toxin, which causes an
Abdominal Aorta Branches immune reaction called rheumatic fever.

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2. Endocarditis - Inflammation of the endocardium. 12. Septal defect – hole in the interatrial or interventricular septum.
3. Myocarditis - Inflammation of the myocardium, which can cause a heart 13. Stenosis of the heart valves – narrowed opening through valves
attack. 14. Blue Baby Syndrome
4. Pericarditis - Inflammation of the pericardium caused by viral or bacterial
infection and is very painful.
5. Atherosclerosis - disease of the arteries in which cholesterol-containing
masses called plaque accumulate on the inside of arterial walls.

Prevention:
Avoid fatty diets
Do not smoke
Control weight
Exercise

6. Coronary heart disease

- Results from reduced blood flow in the coronary arteries that supply the
myocardium of the heart. This reduced blood flow causes a sensation of pain
in the chest called angina pectoris. Inadequate blood flow can cause an
infarct, an area of damaged cardiac tissue.
7. Myocardial infarction – heart attack
8. Coronary thrombosis - blood clot in the vessel.
Prevention:
Moderate exercise
Rest
Good diet
Lowering stress
Treatment: Aspirin

9. Heart Failure - progressive weakening of the myocardium and failure of the

heart to pump adequate amounts of blood.
10. Hypertension - High blood pressure can cause enlargement of the heart
leading to heart failure.
11. Congenital heart disease - Heart disease present at birth. The heart did
not develop properly.

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 - To drain from tissue spaces, protein-containing fluid that escapes from the
blood capillaries.
- To transport fats from the digestive tract to the blood.
- To produce lymphocytes.
- To develop immunities.

When this plasma moves out of the capillaries and into the spaces
between tissue cells, it gets another name and is called interstitial fluid.
Once the interstitial fluid enters a lymphatic capillary, it gets a third name and is
now called lymph.
Lacteals (special lymphatic vessels in small intestine) -absorb fats and
transport them from the digestive tract to the blood. Lymph in the lacteals
CHAPTER 12 looks milky because of the fat content and is called chyle.
LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM

Objectives: Lymphatic Vessels

a. Name the major structures of lymphatic system and explain how the - originate as blind-end tubes that begin in spaces between cells in most parts
lymphatic system is functionally related to cardiovascular and immune of the body. The tubes, which are closed at one end, occur singly or in
system extensive plexus and are called lymph capillaries. Lymph capillaries will
b. Describe the composition of lymph and explain its formation and transport. eventually unite to form larger and larger lymph vessels called lymphatics.
c. Describe the functions of lymph nodes, Peyer’s patches, and the spleen
d. Identify the three lines of defenses Along lymphatics, there are lymph nodes found at various intervals.
e. Name antimicrobial substances produced by the body that act in Lymphatics of the viscera generally follow the routes of arteries and form
nonspecific body defense plexuses around the arteries. Eventually, all the lymphatics of the body
f. List the five antibody classes and describe their role in immunity converge into one of two main channels: either the thoracic duct (the main
g. Identify and discuss the common immune system disorders - control and collecting channel), also known as the left lymphatic duct, or the right lymphatic
destroy a large number of microorganisms that can invade our bodies and duct.
cause disease and even death.
Lymph Nodes
The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph vessels and lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are oval to bean-shaped structures found along the length
Lymphatic organs include tonsils, spleen, thymus gland, and Peyer’s patches. of lymphatics. They are also known as lymph glands. The three regions of
aggregations of nodes in the body are the groin, armpits and neck. A lymph
FUNCTIONS: node contains a slight depression on one side called hilum where efferent
lymphatic vessels leave and a nodal artery enters and a nodal vein leaves the

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node. Each lymph node or gland is covered by a capsule of fibrous connective The lingual tonsils are located on the back surface of the tongue at its
tissue that extends into the node. base. Tonsils are more functional in children. As we age, the tonsils decrease
These capsular extensions are called trabeculae. in size and may even disappear in some individuals.

As lymph enters the node through the afferent lymphatics, the immune SPLEEN
response is activated. Any microorganisms or foreign substances in the lymph The spleen is oval in shape and is the single largest mass of lymphatic
stimulate the germinal centers to produce lymphocytes, which are then tissue in the body. The spleen phagocytizes bacteria and worn-out platelets
released into the lymph. Eventually, they reach the blood and produce and red blood cells. This action releases hemoglobin to be recycled. It also
antibodies against the microorganisms. The macrophages will remove the produces lymphocytes and plasma cells. The spleen stores blood and
dead microorganisms and foreign substances by phagocytosis. functions as a blood reservoir.
LYMPH CIRCULATION THYMUS GLAND
The principal lymphatic trunks of the body are: - is a bilobed mass of tissue located in the mediastinum along the trachea
-lumbar trunk behind the sternum. It reaches maximum size during puberty and then
-intestinal trunk decreases. The thymus is a site for lymphocyte production and maturation.
-bronchomediastinal trunk The thymus helps develop T lymphocytes in the fetus and in infants for a few
-intercostal trunk months after birth.
-subclavian trunk
-jugular trunk PEYER’S PATCHES
Peyer’s patches (also known as aggregated lymphatic follicles) are found
TONSILS in the wall of the small intestine. They resemble tonsils. Their macrophages
Tonsils are masses of lymphoid tissue embedded in mucous membrane. destroy bacteria. Bacteria are always present in large numbers in the intestine,
There are three groups of tonsils: and the macrophages prevent the bacteria from infecting and penetrating the
-Palatine tonsils walls of the intestine.
-Pharyngeal tonsils
-Lingual tonsils
IMMUNITY
The palatine tonsils are the ones commonly removed in a tonsillectomy. Immunity is the ability of the body to resist infection from disease-causing
They are located in the tonsillar fossae between the pharyngopalatine arches microorganisms or pathogens, damage from foreign substances and harmful
on each side of the posterior opening of the oral cavity. chemicals.

The pharyngeal tonsils are also known as the adenoids. They are 1. Humoral immunity is mediated by macromolecules found in extracellular
located close to the internal opening of the nasal cavity. When they become fluids such as secreted antibodies, complement proteins, and certain
swollen, they can interfere with breathing. antimicrobial peptides.

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2. Cellular immunity is a protective immune process that involves the Antibodies are formed in response to an enormous number of antigens.
activation of phagocytes, antigen-sensitized cytotoxic T cells and the release of Antibodies have a basic structure consisting of four amino acid chains linked
cytokines and chemokines in response to antigen. together by disulfide bonds.

Lymphoid tissue consists primarily of lymphocytes that can be categorized Two of the chains are identical with about 400 amino acids and are called
into two broad groups of cells: the B lymphocytes and the T lymphocytes. the heavy chains; the other two chains are half as long, identical and are
called the light chains. When united, the antibody molecule is made of two
B lymphocytes identical halves, each with a heavy and light chain. The molecule has a Y
-are the cells that produce antibodies, and they provide humoral immunity. shape and the tips of the Y are the antigen-binding sites. The binding site
- particularly effective against circulating bacterial and viral infections. varies, thus allowing the antibody to bind with the enormous number of
The B cells produce the circulating antibodies that attack the invading agent. antigens.
B lymphocytes that enter tissues become specialized cells called plasma The stem of the Y is always constant.
cells.
Five types of antibodies make up the gamma globulins of plasma proteins:
T lymphocytes 1. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is found in tissue fluids and plasma. It attacks
- are responsible for providing cellular immunity. viruses, bacteria and toxins. It also activates complement, a set of enzymes
These cells come from the thymus gland, where immunologic competence is that attack foreign antigens.
conferred on the T lymphocytes around birth. 2. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is found in exocrine gland secretions, nasal fluid,
This type of immunity is particularly effective against fungi, parasites, tears, gastric and intestinal juice, bile, breast milk and urine.
intracellular (inside the cell) viral infections, cancer cells and foreign tissue 3. Immunoglobulin M (IgM) develops in blood plasma as a response to
implants. bacteria or antigens in food.
4. Immunoglobulin D (IgD) is found on the surface of B lymphocytes and is
ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES important in B cell activation.
Antigens are foreign proteins that gain access to our bodies via cuts and 5. Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is also found in exocrine gland secretions and is
scrapes, through the digestive or circulatory systems or through the urinary associated with allergic reactions, attacking allergy-causing antigens.
and reproductive systems. They cause the immune system to produce high
molecular weight proteins, called antibodies or immunoglobulins, to destroy
the foreign invader. ACTIVE IMMUNITY
When B lymphocytes come in contact with antigens and produce
The B lymphocyte and the plasma cell recognize these antigens and antibodies against them, this is called active immunity. It can be acquired
produce antibodies that bind with the specific antigen. This binding causes naturally, as when we are exposed to a bacterial or viral infection, or it can be
the foreign cells to agglutinate (stick together) and precipitate within the acquired artificially, as when we receive a vaccine. A vaccine contains either
circulatory system or tissues. Then the phagocytic white blood cells come killed pathogens or live, but very weak pathogens.
along and eat them up by phagocytosis, eliminating them from the body.

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 Advantage of Vaccine 7. Macrophages engulf and digest antigens. They then present parts of these
We do not experience the major symptoms of the disease, which would antigens in their cell membranes for recognition by T cells. This antigen-
occur in the primary response to the pathogen, and the weakened antigen presentation function is crucial for normal T-cell responses.
stimulates antibody production and immunologic memory.
The lymphokines are chemicals released by the sensitized T
PASSIVE IMMUNITY lymphocytes. Chemotactic factors attract neutrophils, basophils and
Can be conferred naturally when a fetus receives its mother’s antibodies eosinophils to the infected area.
through the placenta and they become part of the fetal circulatory route. Macrophage migration-inhibiting factor (MIF) keeps macrophages in the
This immunity lasts for several months after birth. Antigen presentation is a local area of infection and inflammation.
major role for macrophages and is absolutely necessary for activation and Helper factors stimulate plasma cells to produce antibodies. Interleukin-
clonal response of the T cells. 2 stimulates proliferation of T and B cells. Gamma interferon helps make
tissue cells resistant to viruses, activates macrophages and causes killer T
CELLS OF THE IMMUNE RESPONSE AND OTHER DEFENSES cells to mature. Perforin causes cells to break down. Suppressor factors
suppress antibody formation by T cell. Activated macrophages also release
The lymphocytes of the body are the precursors of a whole range of cells chemicals called monokines.
that are involved in the immune response. Interleukin-1, which stimulate T cell proliferation and causes fever. The
body produces fever or elevated temperatures as a response to attempt to kill
1. B cells are lymphocytes found in the lymph nodes, spleen and other the invading pathogen.
lymphoid tissue where they replicate, induced by antigen-binding activities. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which kills tumor cells and attracts the
Their clones or progeny form plasma cells and memory cells. granular leukocytes to the area. Blood-borne proteins, called complement,
2. Plasma cells are formed by replicating B cells, and produce huge numbers cause the breakdown or lysis of microorganisms and enhances the
of the same antibody or immunoglobulin. inflammatory response.
3. Helper T cells are T cells that bind with specific antigens presented by
macrophages. They stimulate the production of killer T cells and more B DISORDERS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
cells to fight the invading pathogen. They release lymphokines. 1. Allergies - When exposed to a certain allergen, antibody IgE is produced
4. Killer T cells kill virus-invaded body cells and cancerous body cells. They and attached to basophils and mast cells. These cells release histamine and
are also involved in graft rejections. prostaglandins.
5. Suppressor T cells slow down the activities of B and T cells once the 2. Lymphoma
infection is controlled. 3. Lymphadenitis
6. Memory cells are descendants of activated T and B cells produced during 4. Lymphangitis
an initial immune response. They will exist in the body for years, enabling it to 5. Bubonic plague
respond quickly to any future infections by the same pathogen. 6. AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)
7. Elephantiasis

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 Urethra

The kidneys are the main filtering organs of the system, producing the
urine. Urine consists of urea, excess water, excess ions and toxic wastes
that may have been consumed with food.

FUNCTIONS OF URINARY SYSTEM

Excretion – nitrogenous waste, drugs, toxins
Maintain blood volume and concentration
pH regulation
Blood pressure - renin helps maintain BP
Erythrocyte concentration – erythropoietin stimulates RBC production
Vitamin D production – convert vitamin D to active form (calciferol)

KIDNEYS - compact, red brown oval or bean-shaped structures located on the

dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity. The right kidney is slightly lower than the
left and about 4 inches in length and weighs about 4 ounces.

CHAPTER 13 Hilum of kidney

URINARY SYSTEM - Notch in the concave center of each kidney
- Through which a ureter leaves the kidney
Objectives: - blood vessels, nerves and lymph vessels enter and exit the kidney
1. Name the parts of urinary system.
2. Discuss the functions of urinary system. 3 layers:
3. Explain the process of osmoregulation - Renal capsule (innermost) – barrier against infection and trauma
4. Discuss the common urinary system disorders - Adipose capsule (2nd layer) – mass of fatty tissue that protects the kidney
from blows
The urinary system helps keep the body in homeostasis by removing and - Renal fascia (outermost) – anchors the kidney to the abdominal wall
storing selected amounts of solutes and water from the blood.
INTERNAL ANATOMY
ORGANS OF URINARY SYSTEM: Cortex - Outer area of kidney
Two kidneys Medulla - inner area of kidney
Two ureters Renal pyramids - striated, triangular structures inside medulla whose bases
Bladder face the cortex

65
Renal papillae - point to the center of the kidney - Begins as an extension of the renal pelvis of a kidney and connects to the
Renal columns – cortical material that extends between the pyramids urinary bladder.
Nephrons – functional units of the kidneys. - Urine moves mainly by peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle walls,
Minor calyx – funnel-shaped structure surrounds the tip of each renal pyramid but gravity and hydrostatic pressure also contribute.
- collects urine from the ducts of the pyramids
Major calyx URINARY BLADDER AND MICTURITION REFLEX
Renal pelvis – narrows to form the ureter -held in position by folds of peritoneum in pelvic cavity
Trigone – smooth triangular region (two openings from ureter and single
NEPHRONS opening into urethra). The bladder wall is composed of three layers of smooth
- Microscopic renal tubule (filter) and its vascular component muscle called the detrusor muscle.
- Begins as a double-walled globe known as Bowman’s glomerular capsule
(located in the cortex of kidney) At the junction of the urinary bladder and the urethra is the internal
- The innermost layer of the capsule is the visceral layer made of podocytes, urinary sphincter under involuntary control. Urine is expelled from bladder by
which surround a capillary network called glomerulus. an act known as micturition.

Renal corpuscle – made up of Bowman’s glomerular capsule and the The external urinary sphincter, formed by skeletal muscle surrounding
enclosed capillary glomerulus. the urethra as it leaves the bladder, relaxes and urine leaves the bladder.

The visceral layer of Bowman’s capsule and the capillary network of the The bladder can hold 700 to 800 mL of urine. When it reaches 200 to 400
glomerulus form the endothelial-capsular membrane, which filters water and mL, stretch receptors in the bladder wall transmit impulses to the lower spinal
solutes from the blood and moves it into the renal tubule. cord, which initiate a conscious desire to urinate and an unconscious reflex
called the micturition reflex.
Proximal convoluted tubule – located in cortex
- first part of renal tubule URETHRA
Descending limb of Henle – bends into the U-shaped loop of Henle - small, thin-walled tube connecting to the floor of the urinary bladder that leads
As the loop straightens, it increases in diameter and ascends toward the to the outside.
cortex as the ascending limb of Henle Female – located in the wall of vagina just above vaginal opening.
Distal convoluted tubule - 3.8 cm long and its opening, called the urethral orifice, is located between
Collecting ducts the clitoris and the vaginal opening.
Renal pelvis - The right and left renal arteries transport 1200 mL of blood to Male – urethra is 20 cm long
the kidneys every minute. - just below the bladder, it passes through the prostate gland and enters
the penis
URETERS - opening at the tip of penis as urethral orifice
- transports urine and also semen

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 2. Hematuria – blood in urine
PHYSIOLOGY OF NEPHRONS 3. Oliguria – scant amount of urine
3 major functions of nephrons: 4. Polyuria – excess urine output
- Control blood concentration and volume by removing selected amounts of 5. Pyuria – pus in the urine
water and solutes. 6. Uremia – urine in the blood
- Help regulate blood pH 7. Cystitis - Inflammation of the urinary bladder, usually caused by bacterial
- Remove toxic wastes from blood infection.
- Frequent urge to urinate, burning sensation during urination
Urine formation (in nephrons): 8. Gout
- Glomerular filtration - Caused by high concentration of uric acid in the plasma, crystals get
- Tubular reabsorption deposited in the joints of hands and feet
- Tubular secretion 9. Glomerulonephritis
- Inflammation of the kidneys, filtration membrane within the renal capsule
Glomerular filtration – removes water and dissolved substances from plasma is infected with bacteria.
of blood (Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg+; Cl-, bicarbonate, sulfate, phosphate; glucose, 10. Renal failure - Interferes with kidney function.
urea and uric acid. 11. Hemodialysis
99% of fluid gets reabsorbed in renal tubules.

Tubular reabsorption – transports from tubular fluid into blood of peritubular

capillaries.
- active transport reabsorbs water, positively charged ions, amino acids,
creatine and lactic, uric, citric and ascorbic acids.
- negatively charged ions are reabsorbed by electrochemical attraction.

Tubular secretion – moves substances from plasma in peritubular capillary

into the fluid of renal tubule (penicillin, creatinine, histamine, hydrogen ions and
potassium ions). Urine consists of 95% water with urea, uric acid, some amino
acids and electrolytes.

DISORDERS
1. Kidney stones
Also known as renal calculi, composed of precipitates of uric acid, magnesium
or calcium phosphate, or calcium oxalate.
Ultrasound lithotripsy

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 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Testes (male gonad) - primary sex organs of male reproductive system.
- produce sperm and male sex hormone (testosterone). The testes
produce both sperm as exocrine glands and the male sex hormones
(testosterone) as endocrine glands.
Scrotum - Is an outpouching of the abdominal wall that supports the testes.
- divided by a septum into two lateral pouches, each containing a single
testis. The scrotal sac will elevate or descend on exposure to changes in
temperature to ensure sperm survival.

TESTES
Each testis is covered by a capsule of connective tissue called the tunica
albuginea, which extends inward to form a series of compartments called
lobules. Each lobule contains one to three convoluted seminiferous tubules in
which spermatogenesis occurs.

CHAPTER 14 SPERMATOGENESIS
1. Spermatogenesis begins as immature sperm cells, called spermatogonia,
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM divide by mitosis to form primary spermatocytes.
2. Primary spermatocytes divide by meiosis to form secondary
Objectives: spermatocytes that develop into spermatids.
1. Name and identify the anatomical parts of male and female reproductive 3. Spermatids develop into mature sperm cells or spermatozoa.
system and their functions.
2. Describe the process of spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Sertoli cells
3. Explain the process of menstruation and pregnancy. supply nutrients to the developing sperm cells.
In the lobules, interstitial cells of Leydig produce the male sex hormone
Reproduction - process by which a single cell duplicates its genetic material. testosterone.
Genetic material is passed on from one generation to the next.
SPERMATOZOA
Fertilization – sperm from the male (23 chromosomes) and egg from the 300 million spermatozoa are produced daily and can live up to 48 hours in
female (23 chromosomes) join to produce a fertilized egg or zygote (46 the female reproductive tract.
chromosomes). Head - contains the nuclear genetic material
acrosome - contains enzymes

68
middle piece - contains mitochondria ACCESSORY GLANDS
tail - is a flagellum, propel the sperm cell. 1. The paired seminal vesicles produce an alkaline viscous part of semen rich
in fructose and nutrients and pass it into each ejaculatory duct.
TESTOSTERONE FUNCTIONS: 2. The single prostate gland produces an alkaline fluid of semen that
- Controls the development, growth and maintenance of the male sex organs. activates the sperm cells to swim.
- Stimulates muscle buildup and bone development 3. The small paired bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s glands secrete a
- Causes sperm maturation. thick, viscous mucus that enters the spongy urethra and is a lubricant for
- Enlargement of the thyroid cartilage or Adam’s apple and thickening of vocal sexual intercourse.
cords, resulting in a deep voice.
- Produces body hair patterns, like facial and chest hair, and a receding SEMEN
hairline. - or seminal fluid is a mixture of sperm cells and the secretions of the
- Stimulates aggressive behavior. accessory glands.
- Milky in color and rich in the sugar fructose, which provides energy for the
DUCTS OF THE SYSTEM: beating flagellum of each sperm.
The formed sperm cells move from the convoluted seminiferous tubules - Its alkaline pH neutralizes the acidity of the male urethra and female vagina.
of the testis to the straight tubules at the top of the lobule. They then move to - It provides a transport medium for the swimming sperm.
a network of ducts in the testis called the rete testis. They move out of the - Semen contains enzymes that activate sperm after ejaculation and an
testis through coiled efferent ducts that connect to a single tube called the antibiotic called seminalplasmin to control bacterial growth in the male and
ductus epididymis (posterior of testis). As the epididymis straightens, it is female reproductive tract.
called the ductus deferens or vas deferens (18 inches long, enclosed in
spermatic cord). Empties into the ejaculatory duct. Each ejaculatory duct PENIS
ejects the spermatozoa into the single urethra. The urethra is the terminal - Delivers spermatozoa to the female reproductive tract
duct of the system. It is about 8 inches long and is a common passageway for - Consists of a shaft whose end is called the glans penis or head covered with
sperm and urine. The urethra passes through the prostate gland, the loose skin called the prepuce or foreskin.
urogenital diaphragm and the penis. - It is composed of three cylindrical masses of spongy tissue containing blood
sinuses.
Prostatic urethra - Swelling of the blood sinuses during sexual stimulation results in an erection.
– surrounded by the prostate and is about 1 inch long.
Membranous urethra FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
– about ½ inch long and connects to the penis Primary sex organs are ovaries or female gonads. They produce eggs
Spongy or cavernous urethra and female sex hormone (estrogen). Accessory organs are uterine or
– within the penis and ends at the male urethral orifice at the head of penis, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and the external genitalia.
about 6 inches long.
OVARIES

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- Paired glands located in the upper pelvic cavity on each side of the uterus. - The one mature egg cell has a large supply of stored food to supply the
- Held in position by a series of suspensory ligaments. developing embryo, if fertilization occurs.
- Surface is covered with germinal epithelium.
- Capsule of ovary consists of connective tissue called the tunica albuginea, UTERINE OR FALLOPIAN TUBES
whose outer area is called the cortex and contains ovarian follicles (eggs in - The two uterine or fallopian tubes transport the ova from the ovaries to the
various stages of development). uterus.
- Each follicle contains immature egg or oocyte and is called the primary - The funnel-shaped open end is called the infundibulum and is surrounded
follicle. by a fringe of finger-like projections called the fimbriae.
- As the egg matures, the follicle develops a fluid-filled central area called the - Cilia on the epithelium of the infundibulum and the waving fimbriae sweep an
antrum and is now called a secondary follicle. ovum into the uterine tube after ovulation.
- A mature follicle with a mature egg is called a graafian follicle, ready for - The eggs is moved by peristalsis and the action of cilia toward the uterus.
ovulation. - Fertilization usually occurs in the upper one-third of the tube within 24 hours
- When the egg rupture from the graafian follicle in ovulation, the follicle after ovulation.
changes into the corpus luteum or yellow body, which secretes estrogen and
progesterone.
- Corpus luteum eventually degenerates into the corpus albicans, or white UTERUS
body. - Site of menstruation.
- The ovaries produce and discharge eggs in ovulation. The also secrete the - Where the fertilized egg is implanted and where the fetus develops, and it is
female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. where labor begins during delivery.
- Shaped like an inverted pear:
OOGENESIS Fundus - the dome-shaped portion above the uterine tubes
- Formation of female sex cell, begins in the developing female fetus where Body - the major tapering portion
female stem cells called oogonia divide by mitosis to produce primary oocytes. Cervix - the narrow inferior portion
- About 700,000 primary oocytes are produced (lie dormant until puberty). Isthmus – narrow region between the body and cervix
- 450 of 70,000 primary oocytes will develop into eggs by meiosis during the
female’s reproductive years. The interior of the body is the uterine cavity; the interior of the cervix is
- After the first meiotic division, a primary oocyte will develop into two cells: the the cervical canal. The opening between the uterine cavity and the cervical
secondary oocyte is larger of the two with a smaller polar body cell. canal is called the internal os and the opening between the cervical canal and
- After the second meiotic division, which occurs only after fertilization, the the vagina is the external os.
secondary oocyte becomes an ootid or mature egg with another
nonfunctional polar body. The wall of the uterus is composed of three layers:
- The polar body from the first meiotic division divides into two nonfunctional Endometrium - the innermost where the fertilized egg implants
polar bodies. Myometrium - smooth muscle
- Thus, one mature egg and three polar bodies are produced. Perimetrium or visceral peritoneum - outermost

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 VAGINA FUNCTIONS OF ESTROGEN:
- Passageway for the menstrual flow - The ovaries become active during puberty producing ova and estrogen. -
- Receptacle for the penis during sexual intercourse Estrogen causes the development of the female secondary sex
- Lower portion of the birth canal. characteristics: the development of breasts; the appearance of pubic and
- A recess called the fornix surrounds the vaginal attachment to the cervix. axillary hair; fat deposits on the hips, breasts and under the skin; and widening
of the pelvic bone producing a broad hip.
EXTERNAL GENITALIA - Enlargement of uterine tubes, uterus, vagina and external genitalia.
Vulva (pudendum) – collective term for external genitalia of female
Mons pubis (veneris) – mound of adipose tissue covered with pubic hair at ANATOMY AND FUNCTION OF MAMMARY GLANDS
puberty 1. Mammary glands, found in both males and females, are functional to
Labia majora – two longitudinal folds of hair-covered skin extend posteriorly produce milk only in the female. They increase in size during puberty due to
and inferiorly from mons pubis. Contain adipose tissue and sweat glands estrogen.
Labia minora – two delicate folds of skin medial to the labia majora. Do not 2. Each gland consists of 15 to 20 lobes separated by adipose tissue.
have hair but have numerous sebaceous glands 3. Each lobe contains smaller compartments called lobules, which contain the
milk-secreting cells or alveoli arranged like a cluster of grapes.
Clitoris – small mass of erectile tissue located at the anterior junction of the 4. The alveoli convey the milk into secondary tubules, which join into mammary
labia minora covered with a layer of skin called prepuce. ducts.
The exposed portion of clitoris is called the glans. 5. As the duct approach the nipple, they expand into milk storage sinuses
called ampullae.
Vestibule – opening between the two labia minora, contains a thin fold of 6. Ampullae continue as lactiferous ducts that terminate in the nipple. The
tissue called the hymen, which is ruptured during the first sexual intercourse. circular pigmented area around each nipple is called the areola and contains
Two openings – vaginal orifice and urethral orifice modified sebaceous glands. The function of the mammary glands is to
produce milk and to eject it out the nipple, a process called lactation.
On each side of the urethral orifice are the two openings of the ducts of the
lesser vestibular or Skene’s glands, which secrete mucus. MENSTRUAL CYCLE
On each side of the vaginal orifice are the two openings of the greater The menstrual cycle, also called the menses or menstruation, is the
vestibulular or Bartholin’s glands that also secrete mucus for lubrication cyclical shedding of the endometrial lining of the uterus. The three phases are
during sexual intercourse. the menstrual phase, the proliferative phase and the secretory phase.

PERINEUM Menstrual phase

- diamond-shaped area between the buttocks and thighs of males and females. - The endometrial lining of the uterus, tissue fluid, blood and mucus are shed.
- Divided into an anterior urogenital triangle that contains the external genitalia - 20 to 25 primary follicles also begin their development and produce low levels
and a posterior anal triangle that contains the anus. of estrogen.

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- The zona pellucida develops around each egg and about 20 primary follicles 6. It embeds in the endometrial lining by the seventh day.
become secondary follicles, but only one attains maturity while the others die. 7. The three primary germ layers are now being developed.
The ectoderm will develop into skin and the nervous system.
Proliferative phase The endoderm will form the linings of internal organs.
- One of the secondary follicles matures into a graafian follicle with a single The mesoderm will form muscles, bones and other tissues. These tissues
mature egg. come from the blastocyst’s inner cell mass.
- The egg ruptures from the follicle in a process called ovulation, and rising 8. The blastocyst’s fluid-filled sphere, the trophoblast, forms projections called
estrogen levels cause the endometrial lining of the uterus to thicken. chorionic villi, which will interact with uterine tissue to form the placenta.
- After ovulation, the graafian follicle collapses with a clot inside called the 9. Once the placenta is formed, the three-layered embryo becomes
corpus hemorrhagicum, which is eventually absorbed. surrounded by a fluid-filled sac called the amnion.
- The follicle eventually changes character and becomes the corpus luteum. 10. The embryo becomes attached by a connecting stalk called the umbilical
cord.

11. The placenta exchanges nutrients, oxygen and wastes between the
Secretory phase embryo and the mother. By the ninth week of development, the embryo is
- The corpus luteum begins to secrete estrogen and progesterone . If called a fetus.
fertilization and implantation do occur, the corpus luteum is maintained for 4 12. Later in development, the umbilical cord will become the major exchange
months by human chorionic gonadotropin produced by the developing structure between fetus and mother.
placenta. 13. As pregnancy continues, the uterus expands into the abdominal cavity to
- Once the placenta is developed, it will secrete estrogen to support pregnancy accommodate the growing fetus.
and progesterone to support pregnancy and breast development for milk 14. Childbirth is called parturition and begins with contractions of the smooth
production in the mammary glands. muscles of the uterus, called labor.

PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT Labor is divided into three stages:

1. An egg cell must be fertilized within 12 to 24 hours after ovulation; sperm the dilation stage
remains viable for 12 to 48 hours in the female reproductive tract. the expulsion stage
2. It takes the egg 24 hours to move down one-third of the uterine tube. the placental stage
Fertilization will occur in the upper two-thirds.
3. A fertilized egg is called a zygote. As it moves down the uterine tube, it Dilation stage – the cervix is fully dilated by the head of the fetus and the
divides by mitosis to form a hollow sphere of cells called the blastocyst or amnion ruptures releasing amniotic fluid.
blastula. Expulsion stage – the child moves through the cervix and vagina, usually
4. By the time it reaches the uterine cavity, it is called a chorionic vesicle. head first into the outside world.
5. It secretes chorionic gonadotropin, which stimulates the corpus luteum to Placental stage – the placenta detaches from the uterus within 15 minutes
maintain the uterine lining via its hormones. following birth, called the afterbirth.

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 - Treated by circumcision
COMMON DISORDERS - Could obstruct urine flow
1. Trichomoniasis - Flagellate protozoan commonly found in women, where it 8. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
erodes the tissues of the vagina. - Women become irritable, tire easily, highly nervous, and feel depressed.
- Results in inflammation of vaginal tissue with an odorous yellow-green 9. Endometriosis
discharge. - Endometrial tissue growing outside the lining of uterus such as
2. Gonorrhea abdominal wall, surface of ovaries, urinary bladder, kidneys, etc.
- Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae - Severe menstrual pain
- Symptoms within 1 week after exposure: men experience burning - Often source of infertility
sensations during urination and periodic discharge of pus.
- Treatment: antibiotics
3. Syphilis - caused by Treponema pallidum
- Chancre
- Fever and skin rashes
- Neural lesions causing paralysis, insanity, eventually deaath
- Treatment: antibiotics
4. Genital herpes - Infection with herpes simplex II virus, which causes lesions
and blister-like eruptions of the skin
- Painful urination
- 2 weeks to heal but can recur
- No cure
5. Genital warts
- Caused by virus and highly contagious
- Usually not painful, result in painful intercourse and bleed

6. AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

7. Pelvic inflammatory disease
- Bacterial infection of the uterus, uterine tubes and/or ovaries
- Cause: Chlamydia or gonorrhea
- Vaginal discharge and pelvic pain
- Treatment: antibiotics
- If not treated, lead to sterility and death
8. Phimosis
- Foreskin of penis fits too tightly and cannot be retracted.

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REFERENCES:

Patton, Kevin T. (2013). Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual 8th edition. McGraw-Hill

Rizzo, Donald C. (2006). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, 2nd edition. Thomson Learning Asia

Van Putte, C. et al. (2016). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 9th edition. McGraw-Hill

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