Nutrition and Hygiene 3

Compiled by Miss P.
Chihomvu
School of Hospitality and Tourism
Revised 2nd Edition 2012
Course: Nutrition and Hygiene
PART A
LEGISLATION
The main legislation governing food preparation in catering establishments is laid down in Food Hygiene
(General) Regulations 1970. These and other regulations were made as a result of powers provided by the Food
and Drugs Act, 1955. Some of the regulations deal with the hygiene standards in the treatment and handling of
specific food substances such as Milk and Dairies Regulations 1959, the Liquid Egg Pasteurization Regulations,
1963, the Meat( Sterilization regulations , 1969 and the Poultry Meat hygiene regulations 1976 which are
designed to eliminate harmful bacteria from foods.. These regulations are enforced by each local hygiene
authority in its own area, their Environmental Health department working in conjunction with the local
community physician, is responsible for the enforcement of the legislation and the inspection of catering
establishments.
Food and Drugs Act
It is the major piece of legislation governing food composition and labeling, and other acts and regulations were
made as a result of the powers provided by the Food and Drugs Act.
Provisions of the Act.
• To make it an offense to sell to the prejudice of the purchaser, food which is not of the nature, substance
or quality demanded.
• To prohibit the use of label or advertisement that falsely describes a food or misleads as to the nature,
substance or quality.
• To prohibit the addition or abstraction of any substance from food so as to render the food injurious to
health
•
• To make it an offense to sell unsound food.
• These general provisions are baked up by many regulations which lay down detailed requirements as to
the labeling of food, the composition of the major food sin our diet, and the type and level of additives and
contaminants permitted in food.
Hygiene and the Food Safety Act
Design and Construction of the Kitchen must comply with this act. The basic layout and construction should
enable adequate space to be provided in all food handling and associated areas for equipment as well as working
practices and frequent cleaning to be carried out.
Food and Food Standard Act. (Chapter 15.04) (Ref to Handout)
• Adulterated and falsely described food
• Inspection seizure and disposal of food
• Legal proceedings
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Compiled by Miss P. Chihomvu
• Food standard Advisory Board’

The labeling of food regulations
It requires most pre packed foods to bear a common or usual name, or an appropriate designation of the food, a
list of ingredients in descending order by weight and the name and address of the packer or labeler.
Bread and flour regulations
It lays down regulations for the composition of bread, i.e. the minimum levels for flour are prescribed, the
permitted bleaching and improving agents are listed and the amount of baking powder which must be added to all
flour except for self raising flour.
The Margarine Regulations
Requires amongst other things , that all margarines for retail sale must be fortified with vit A and vit D and that it
must be declared on the label.
Additives and Regulations
It lays down lists of permitted additives and standards of purity.
Aims of legislation
• To protect the health of the public w
• To ensure that there are no cases of food fraud e.g. wrong quantities
• To ensure that the trends in production and handling are in line with the consumers expectations.
Roles of the Environmental Health Officers in relation to the inspection and closure of catering facilities
• Carry out a quick initial inspection of all premises they visit enabling them to identify areas which might
affect the production of quality food.
• To act as an advisor and educator in the areas of food hygiene and catering premises (his/her function is to
improve the existing standard of hygiene and to advise how this may be achieved
• Organizing Environmental Health Programmes which may include talks and free literature.
• To enforce the law
• To enter upon, inspect or search premises, vehicles place or even aircraft if he/she so happen to believe
• that there is any food for the purpose of sale contravening the acts.
• To inspect any store, documents upon the premises which he/she believes is contravening the act.
• Open and examine any package founding or upon the premises which he or she believes is contravening
the act.
• Recommend closure of a catering establishment if it is not adhering to the Act.
PART B- SAFETY
Introduction
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Kitchens must be designed so that they can easily be managed. The management must have easy access to the
areas under their control and have good visibility in the areas which have to be supervised. Large operations
should work on separate work floors for reasons of efficiency and hygiene.
Product flows
This section must be subdivided into high risk and contaminated sections. High risk food is that which during the
process is likely to be contaminated. Contaminated food is that whish is contaminated on arrival before
processing, unprepared vegetables raw meat.
Work flow
Food preparation rooms should be planned to allow a workflow whereby food is processed through the premises
from the point of delivery to the point of sale
The building (construction details)
Floors should withstand a considerable amount of wear and tear. They must be capable of being cleaned easily,
smooth but nit slippery even without cracks or open joints or impervious. They must be cleaned with hot soapy
water at 7—80 degrees Celsius. Staff must be trained to clean the floors immediately after spillage. Floors need to
be resistant to grease and salts and should slope sufficiently to drain into grease trap. The angle between the wall
and floor should be covered. Timber floors are not suitable because they are absorbent, they wear quickly and the
joints can harbor moisture and dirty. The type of floor be dependant on its use.
Walls
Walls should be strong, smooth, impervious, washable and light in color. The joint between wall and floor should
be rounded for ease of cleaning. Tiling is the best wall surface because it is easily cleaned and requires no further
maintenance. Internal walls should be solid, as cavities or spaces provide harborage for pests, localized protection
of wall against damage may be needed.
Ceilings
Ceilings should be free from cracks and flaking. They should not be able to harbor dirt. They should be smooth,
durable light colored covered at the wall joints and easy to clean. A ceiling in the kitchen is necessary to prevent
dust from the roof or floor structure above.
Doors and Windows

Doors and windows should fit correctly and be clean. The glass should be clean inside and out so as to admit
maximum light. Windows provide natural light and ventilation. In food premises require natural lighting of a
minimum of 12% at the total floor area of the food preparation premises. An area of 5% of the floor area of the
food area should be openable windows for ventilation purposes. Windows may be fitted with fly screens, but this
normally cuts down the amount of light and ventilation significantly. Windows should be situated in a position
that will reduce glare and solar heat gain. Window ledges situated behind equipment are not easily accessible foe
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cleaning. Window seals should be higher than equipment and should be constructed in such a way to prevent their
use as shelves.
Ventilation
Adequate ventilation must be provided so that fumes from stoves are taken out of the kitchen and the stale air in
the stores, larder, still room etc is extracted. This will require the installation of canopies and extractor fans which
should be fitted with accessible filters and grease drip trays. This avoids cooking smells to linger in the kitchen
and become stale and is deleterious to standards of quality and cleaning
Lighting
Good lighting is necessary so that people working in the kitchen do not strain their eyes and cleaning can be done
properly. Natural lighting is preferable to artificial lighting.
Water systems
A properly designed kitchen is a basic to maintain high standards of cleanliness. Drains gullies, trap and
overflows must be kept clean and free flowing. Day to day maintenance and removal of food debris and
blockages reported immediately. Adequate supplies of hot and cold water must be available for keeping the
kitchen clean, cleaning the equipment and for staff use. Sinks and hand basins should be kept clean and free
flowing. Water supplies to food premises must be direct from mains supply. Constant and adequate supplies of
portable water are essential.
Toilets
Toilets should have hand washing and drying facilities and suitable provisions that are in direct contact with any
rooms in which food is prepared or stored
Hand washing facilities
Hand washing facilities separated from the food preparation sinks must also be available in the kitchen with
suitable means of drying the hands, for example hot air dryer, or dry clean towel. These sinks should be fashioned
with hot and cold water taps and an adequate supply of disinfectant hand cleaner, nail brush and paper towels.
Drainage
Drainage must comply with the requirements of the local authority and the systems must be designed to cope
without causing leakages or flooding. Grease raps should be incorporate and situated immediately outside the
building to remove grease from kitchen waste which would otherwise solidify to block drains.
Storage and disposal of waste
Suitable containers should be provided both inside and outside food premises. Collection of refuse from food
premises should be on a daily basis.
Hygiene of Kitchen equipment
Kitchen equipment should be designed that it can be
• Cleaned easily
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• Readily inspected to see that it is clean

Failure to maintain equipment and utensils hygienically and in good repair may cause food poisoning.
Material used in the construction of equipment must be
• Hard so that it does not absorb food materials
• Smooth so as to be easily cleaned
• Resistant to rust
• Resistant to chipping
Equipment must not be made from toxic materials, for example lead, and food mist be protected from lubricants.
Easily cleaned equipment is free from unnecessary ridges screws, ornamentation, dents crevices inside square
corners and has large smooth areas. Articles of equipment which are difficult to clean for example mincers, sieves
and strainers- are items where particles of food can lodge so allowing germs to multiply and contaminate food.
NORMAL CLEANING OF MATERIALS

Metal: As a rule all metal equipment should be cleaned immediately after use.
1. Portable items. Remove food particles and grease. Wash be immersion in hot detergent water. Thoroughly
clean with a hard bristle brush or soak till this is possible. Rinse in water 77°C.
2. Fixed Items. Remove all food and grease with a stiff brush or soak with a wet cloth using hot detergent
water. Rinse with clean water. Dry with clean cloth.
Abrasives should only be used in moderation as their scratching of the surface makes it more it more difficult to
clean the article next time.
Marble. Scrub with a bristle brush and hot water and then dry.
Wood. Scrub with a bristle brush and hot detergent water rinse and dry.
China, earthen ware. Avoid extremes of heat and do not clean with an abrasive. Wash in hot water and rinse in
very hot water.
Copper. Remove as much food as possible. Soak and wash in hot water with the aid of a brush. Clean outside
with a paste made of sand vinegar and flour. Wash well and rinse dry.
Aluminium. Do not wash in water containing soda as the protective film which prevents corrosion may be
damaged. When water is boiled in an aluminium pan a black stain results, this can be removed by using an acid
food, e.g. rhubarb. To clean, remove food particles. Soak wash in hot detergent water. Clean with steel wool or
abrasive. Rinse and dry.
Stainless steel. It is easy to clean. Soak in hot detergent water . Clean with a brush rinse and dry.
Tin . Tin which is used to line pots and pans should be soaked, washed in detergent water rinsed and dried.
Zinc. This is used to coat storage bins of galvanized iron and should not be cleaned with a harsh abrasive.
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Vitreous enamel. Clean with a damp cloth and dry. Avoid using abrasives
Equipment requiring particular care in cleaning (sieves, conical strainers, mincers, graters).
Extra attention must be paid to these items because food particles clog the holes. The clogs can be cleaned by the
using the force of water from the tap, by using a bristle brush and by moving the article, particularly a sieve, up
and down the sink , so causing the water to pass through the mash.
Whisks must be thoroughly cleaned where the wires cross.
Saws and choppers, Mandolins. These items should be cleaned in hot detergent water, dried and greased slightly
Tammy cloths, muslins and piping bags. After use they should be emptied, food particles scraped out, scrubbed
carefully and boiled. They should then be rinsed and allowed to dry. Certain piping bags made of plastic should
be washed in very hot water and dried. Nylon piping bags should be boiled.
Cleaning of large electrical equipment (Mincere, mixers, choppers, slicers, etc.)

1. Switch off the machine and remove the electric plug
2. Remove particles of food with a cloth, palette knife, needle or brush.
3. Thoroughly clean with very hot detergent water all removable and fixed parts. Play particular attention to
threads and plates with holes on mincers
4. Rinse thoroughly
5. Dry and reassemble
6. While cleaning see that the exposed blades are not left uncovered or unguarded and that the guards are
replaced. When cleaning is completed. Any specific maker’s instruction must be observed.
7. Test that the machine is properly assembled by plugging in and switching on.
Gas
Most gas used today is natural gas. It comes from underground sources in the seas. Natural gas is non-toxic and
odorless. When it is brought ashore a smell is added to it. This gives it the characteristic smell so it can be easily
detected. Gas passes into houses and other establishments through a gas meter which at present records the
amount used in cubic feet
There are two methods by which gas is burned:
1. By ignition at the burner head, when the oxygen needed for combustion is obtained from the surrounding
atmosphere,
2. By ignition at the burner head when part of the air is mixed with gas before hand, this is known as primary
air and trapped in a vent in the burner itself.
Gas is a safe fuel’
Gas Safety
What to do if you smell gas
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• Open the doors and windows to get rid of the gas

• Check to see if the gas has been left on, or if a pilot light has gone out. Is so turn the appliance off.
• If this is not the case turn the gas supply off at thee meter and phone the emergency service immediately
Do not attempt the following

• Do not turn any electrical switches on or off. You can use the phone to call the emergency services
• Do not smoke
• Do not use matches or naked flames.
Advantages
Convenient, labour saving
Free from smoke and dirt
Easily controlled with immediate full heat and the flames are visible
Special utensils are not required
No fuel storage required
Disadvantages
Some heat is lost into the kitchen
Regular cleaning is necessary for efficiency
Electricity
If a coil of wire is joined at both ends to another length of wire and a magnet is passed rapidly backwards and
forwards through the coil a current of electricity is produced. In the electricity generating stations the magnets
may be moved by turbines driven either by steam pressure or by water power and harnessed to drive generators.
Electricity cannot be seen heard tasted or smelt. Installed correctly it is a very safe source of energy, but misused
can kill or cause serious injury.
There are two kinds of electric current:
Direct current
Alternating current
The one most used is the A.C. it is then carried by cables through and transformers to local substations. The
consumer takes his supply of electricity from the substation. Electricity must have a complete circuit from the
source of supply through the load. Some substances are conductors of electricity some are insulators.
All substances allow electricity to pass through them. Those which allow electricity to flow freely are known as
conductors’ e.g. metal, carbon, tap water, damp earth. Those which do not allow electricity to freely are known as
insulators e.g. glass, porcelain, wood, rubber, leather, plastic, stone. A substance’s ability to be a good insulator
depends on many things, such as its working temperature the dampness of the surrounding area and its age. So
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when equipment is designed an insulator is chosen so that it does not deteriorate after prolonged use under the
conditions in which it is used. The human body also conducts electricity
Electrical terms
Watts-measure power-that is the rate at which any electrical appliance is using electric current for a given
pressure (voltage)
Voltage- measure pressure flow
Amperes- measures the rate of flow of current and can be obtained by dividing the watts and the volts
Ohms- measure the resistance of the wires to the passage of the electricity and is comparable with friction offered
by a water pipe t water flowing through it
Advantages
Clean to use and maintain
Easily controlled and labor saving
A good working atmosphere for working staff as no oxygen is required to burn electricity
Little heat is lost
No fuel storage is required
Disadvantages
Time is taken to heat up
Initial cost of equipment and maintenance costs
Special utensils are required
Coal
This is a black substance . Traditionally coal was the most often used fuel for grilling and it was considered the
best because of the flavor it gave to the meat being grilled .
Advantages
Low maintenance costs
Disadvantages
Cannot meet all cooking requirements
Storage of fuel
Dirt and dust from fuel
Labor costs to move fuel
Difficulty of control of heat
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Fires in hotel and catering establishments are fairly common and can result in injury or loss of life to employees
and customers.
Sources of fire
Fires can be caused by various sources e.g. bomb explosions, fuel, oil, electrical faults
Fire prevention
The basic knowledge for prevention of fire is really important and necessary
Components necessary for a fire to start:
• Fuel- something to burn
• Air- oxygen to sustain combustion
• Heat- gas, electricity.
•
If one of the three components is not present then the fire does not happen or it is extinguished.
Methods of extinguishing a fire
To extinguish a fire the three principal methods are
¾ Starving –removing the fuel
¾ Smothering removing the air
¾ Cooling removing the heat
The fire Triangle
It is composed of the following:
• Heat – is needed for the fire to burn
• Fuel is that which burns
• Oxygen- is present in air, so if air is excluded from the heat and the fuel the fire goes out.
NB. Should the clothes of someone working in the kitchen catch alight the action to be taken is quickly to wrap
the fire blanket around the person and place them on the floor. In so doing the flames have been cut off from the
source of air. In the event of a fire the door and windows should be closed to restrict the amount of air getting to
the fire.
Types of fire extinguishers
Choosing Fire Extinguishers
Identify the type of materials in the area
Class A: SOLIDS such as paper, wood, plastic etc

Class B: FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS such as paraffin, petrol, oil etc
Class C: FLAMMABLE GASES such as propane, butane, methane etc
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Class D: METALS such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium etc

Class E: Fires involving ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
Class F: Cooking OIL & FAT etc
Types of fire extinguisher
Water Fire Extinguishers:

The cheapest and most widely used fire extinguishers. Used for Class A fires. Not suitable for Class B
(Liquid) fires, or where electricity is involved.
Foam Fire Extinguishers:

More expensive than water, but more versatile. Used for Classes A & B fires. Foam spray extinguishers are
not recommended for fires involving electricity, but are safer than water if inadvertently sprayed onto live
electrical apparatus.
Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers:

Often termed the ‘multi-purpose’ extinguisher, as it can be used on classes A, B & C fires. Best for running
liquid fires (Class B). Will efficiently extinguish Class C gas fires, BUT BEWARE, IT CAN BE
DANGEROUS TO EXTINGUISH A GAS FIRE WITHOUT FIRST ISOLATING THE GAS SUPPLY.
Special powders are available for class D metal fires.
Warning: when used indoors, powder can obscure vision or damage goods and machinery. It is also very
messy.
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CO2 Fire Extinguishers:

Carbon Dioxide is ideal for fires involving electrical apparatus, and will also extinguish class B liquid fires,
but has NO POST FIRE SECURITY and the fire could re-ignite.
Wet chemical
Specialist extinguisher for class F fires.
For Metal Fires: A specialist fire extinguisher for use on Class D fires - metal fires such as sodium, lithium,
manganese and aluminium when in the form of swarf or turnings.
Colour Coding
Prior to 1st Jan 1997, the code of practice for fire extinguishers in the UK was BS 5423, which advised the
colour coding of fire extinguishers as follows:
Water - Red
Foam - Cream
Dry Powder - Blue
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Black
Halon - Green (now 'illegal' except for a few exceptions such as the Police, Armed Services and Aircraft).
All fire extinguishers should be manufactured in accordance to the British Standard Specifications; they should be
colored with a code to indicate the type and with operating instructions on them.
• Red (water)
• Cream (foam)
• Black (Carbon dioxide)
• Blue (dry powder)
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• Green- Halon (vaporizing liquid)

NB Fire Blankets (canvas in texture e.g. one used to make tents must also conform to British standards
specifications.
Use of portable fire extinguishers
Water (red) fire extinguishers
• Water is used for fire in solid combustible materials such as wood plastic and paper.
• Water has better cooling properties than other agents; therefore it is especially suitable for fires that may
re-ignite if they are not cooled sufficiently
• Most water extinguishers contain carbon dioxide gas which expels the water.
Disadvantages
Because water is a good conductor of electricity it must never be used in live electrical equipment
Not to be sued on fat fires because it might cause ignited fat to spread
Foam (cream) extinguishers
• It puts out fire by forming a blanket over the fire and smothering it
• It is particularly good for putting out fat fires because the foam stays in position and so stops the fire re-
igniting.
• Foams can also be used on fires on solid materials
Disadvantages
• Foam is a conductor of electricity and must not be used on live electrical equipment.
Carbon Dioxide (Black) extinguishers
• Used in fires of inflammable liquid and has the advantage that it does not conduct electricity.
Disadvantages
• Carbon dioxide has limited cooling properties and hot fat may re-ignite
Halon (green)
• The halon known is known as BCF (Bromochlorodiflouromethane)
• This is a gas which does not conduct electricity
Disadvantages
• If used in an enclosed situation halon gives off a black cloud which can irritate the users throat and it
should not be inhaled
Other Extinguishers
Fire hoses-fire hoses are used for similar fires to those classified under water fire extinguishers. It is necessary to
be familiar with the instructions displayed by the fire hose before using it
Water Sprinkler Systems
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A water system consists of an array of sprinkler heads at ceiling level connected to ma mains water supply. In the
event of a fire the nearest sprinkler head above the fire operates when the temperature at the ceiling level rises
above a preset level, such as 68°C and sprays an area of 12 to 20 sq meters. Additional heads operate later if
necessary to control the fire.
First aid
This is the immediate treatment on the spot to a person who has been injured or is ill.
Aims
the key aims of first aid can be summarized in three key points:[4]
• Preserve life - the overriding aim of all medical care, including first aid, is to save lives
• Prevent further harm - also sometimes called prevent the condition from worsening, or danger of
further injury, this covers both external factors, such as moving a patient away from any cause of harm,
and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a
bleed becoming dangerous.
• Promote recovery - first aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the illness or injury,
and in some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster to a
small wound
First aid training also involves the prevention of initial injury and responder safety, and the treatment phase
First Aid Equipment

A first aid box should contain
• A card giving general first aid guidance
• 20 individually wrapped sterile adhesive, water proof dressings of various sizes
• Cotton wool
• 2 triangular bandages
• 2 sterile eye pads with attachment
• 4 medium sized unmedicated dressings
• 2 large sized unmedictaed dressings
• 2 extra large sized unmedictaed dressings
• Tweezers
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• Scissors
• Report book to record all injuries
All establishments should have first aid equipment and employees qualified in first aid.
First aid Procedures

Electric shock
• Switch off the power supply. Do not touch the patient until this is done.
• If this is not possible push the patient away from the appliance with a wooden handle or stick, free the
person by using a dry insulating a dry insulating material such as cloth, wood or rubber, taking care not to
use the bare hands otherwise the electric shock may be transmitted.
• If breathing has stopped give artificial respiration and send for a doctor.
Cuts
• All cuts should be covered immediately with a waterproof dressing after the skin round the cut has been
washed.
• When there is considerable bleeding it should be stopped as soon as possible
• Bleeding may be controlled by direct pressure by bandaging firmly on the cut.
• It may be possible to stop bleeding from a cut artery by pressing the artery with a thumb against the
underlying bone, such pressure may be applied while a dressing or bandage is being prepared for
application but not for more than 15 minutes
Fainting
Fainting may occur after a long period of standing in a hot, badly ventilated kitchen. The signs of an impending
faint are whiteness, giddiness sweating. A faint should be treated by raising the legs slightly above the level of the
head and when the person recovers consciousness, putting the person in the fresh air for a while and making sure
the person has not incurred an injury in fainting.
Choking
• A series of sharp blows between the shoulder blades may dislodge the obstruction. Try to get the person to
bent over so that the head is lower than the chest.
• If this does not work try to hook out the obstruction with a finger
• Small children should be turned upside down and hit in the back
• As a last resort the Heimlich maneuver. Stand or kneel behind the person with one arm around their
abdomen Hold your fist with your other hand. Pull both hands towards you quickly thrusting your elbows
inwards and upward to compress the patient’s abdomen. The aim is to push out and dislodge the
obstruction NB This may be injurious to a young child and should only be used for older children and
adults
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Heavy bleeding
• Lie patient down and raise injured part to reduce blood flow
• Press a clean pad onto wound and maintain pressure for 10 minutes until clot forms
• Remove loose dirt but do not probe wound.
• Apply a clean dressing firmly to the wound. If anything is lodged in put a dressing around it.
Nose bleeds
• Sit the person down with the head forward. Loosen clothing around the neck and chest
• Ask them to breathe through the mouth and to pinch the sift part of the nose
• After 10 minutes release the pressure, warn the person not to blow the nose after several hours
• If the bleeding has not stopped continue for a further 10 minutes
• If the bleeding has not stopped then , or recurs in 30 minutes obtain medical assistance
.
Burns and scalds
• Place the injured part gently under slowly running water or immerse in cool water , keeping it there for at
least 10 minutes or until the pain ceases in order to kill the pain and reduce risk of blistering.
• Do not remove clothing that has been burnt. Remove clothing that has been immersed in corrosive
material. Remove jewellery if possible as the area may swell. Cover the area with a clean cloth to reduce
the risk of an infection. Lie patient down and keep them warm.
• Badly burned patients may be given sips of water. Protect blisters do no burst them
• If clothing catches fire throw patient to the floor and smother flames with a rug or blanket.
• Do not use adhesive dressings apply lotions or ointments or break blisters.
Fractures or broken bones

There are three types:
Open fractures- Bone is protruding through skin
Closed fractures- no open wound may be internal damage to the organs
Dislocation-One or more bones pulled out of joint.
• Do not move the patient make them comfortable. Cover open wounds bandage it for support
• If possible raise the injured part to prevent swelling and pain, loosen clothing, cover patient with blanket
do not give patient anything to eat and drink.
PART C- HYGIENE
Defined as, the science of disease prevention which is concerned with all theoretical and practical consideration
of food borne infectious diseases. .
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Food hygiene is more than just cleanliness. It includes practices involved in:
• Protecting food from risk of contamination by harmful bacteria, poisons and foreign bodies.
• Preventing any bacteria present from multiplying to an extent which would result in an illness t consumers
or cause spoilage in food.
• Destroying any harmful bacteria in the food through cooking and processing.
Cost for poor food hygiene

• Food poisoning outbreaks and sometimes death
• Food contamination and food complaints
• Pest infestations
• Waste food due to spoilage
• Closure of food premises by local authorities
• Fines and costs of legal action taken because of contravention in hygiene legislation.
• Civil action taken by food consumers
• Los of production
• Reduce the shelf life of food.
Benefits of food hygiene

• Good hygiene can prevent food consumers from becoming infected with various food borne diseases
many of which can be fatal. Good food hygiene protects the health of the consumer
• Correct food hygiene design ad practice can protect both businesses and individual food handlers from
possible prosecution by local Authority Environmental Health Officers
• Satisfied customers, good reputation and increased business
• Increased shelf life of foods.
• Good working conditions and high staff moral and lower staff turnover.
• All these contribute to higher profits
Conditions conducive to rapid bacterial growth

Bacteria are minute, single celled organisms which can only be seen under a microscope. They are everywhere in
our surroundings, and as most bacteria cannot move around by themselves they are transferred to something by
coming into direct contact with it. Some bacteria are spore forming and these can withstand high temperatures for
long periods of time and these later grow and multiply once the conditions are favorable. Some bacteria produce
exotoxins (toxins outside their cells).these toxins mix with the food and symptoms of food poisoning follow
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within a few hours. Other bacteria cause food poisoning by virtue of large numbers of bacteria in food entering
the digestive system these normally produce endotoxins. Once these live bacteria die in the gut the endotoxins are
released in the gut and this result in food poisoning.
Conditions conducive for bacterial growth

Temperature- Food poisoning bacteria grow rapidly at body temperature 37°C. They grow between temperatures
of 10°C and 63°C. This is similar to a badly ventilated kitchen and for this reason foods should not be kept in the
kitchen but kept in the refrigerator or larder. Luke warm water is an ideal heat for bacteria to grow in. Washing up
must not take place in warm water as the bacteria are not killed and the conditions are ideal for their growth and
there cooking utensils may become contaminated. Hot water must be used for washing up. Boiling water will kill
bacteria in a few seconds, but to destroy toxins boiling for half an hour is necessary. To kill the most heat resistant
spores, 4to 5 hours of boiling is required. Bacteria are not killed by cold temperatures but the rate of bacterial
multiplication is reduced considerably.
Microorganisms can be classified into three groups on basis on their temperature requirements.
• Psychrophiles Cold loving organisms- Can grow well at temperatures below 20°C. optimum growth 10-
20°C e.g. pseudomonas species
• Mesophiles-organisms liking moderate temperatures- have an optimum growth of between 20-40°C
e.g Esherichia coli
• Thermophiles –organisms liking higher temperatures- can grow at temperature above 45°C e.g
Clostrudium botulinum.
Moisture- Bacteria require moisture for growth. They cannot multiply on dry food. Ideal foods for their growth
due to their high moisture content are meats custard, creams sauces etc.
Time- Under ideal conditions one bacterium divides into two every 20 minutes. In 6 to 7 hours millions of
bacteria will have been produced. Small numbers of bacteria may have little effect, but in a comparatively short
time sufficient numbers can be produced to cause food poisoning. Particular care therefore is required with foods
stored overnight especially if adequate refrigerated space is not available.
In 3 hours one bacteria can become 1 000 000.
Bacterial Growth Curve

Lag phase-the bacteria are growing at a very slow rate because they are trying to adapt to a new environment
Log phase- the microorganisms are growing at a very rapid rate since the are sufficient nutrients to support
growth
Stationary phase-the media has reached the maximum carrying capacity
Decline phase- there is depletion in the number of micro organisms due to :
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• Accumulation of toxic substances

• Decline of nutrients
• Alteration of pH due to different by-products
• Competition for oxygen
• Maximum size attained
a
pH- most microorganisms grow best under neutral

conditions (neutrophiles) and their growth is usually
inhibited by acids. Some bacteria will tolerate very low pH
e.g Lactobacilli which causes souring in milk with the
production of lactic acid and Acetobacter which converts
ethyl alcohol to acetic acid. These are known as
acidophiles. The basophiles are the microorganisms which
grow best under alkali conditions.
Oxygen- The amount of oxygen available affects the

growth of microorganisms. Moulds are aerobic i.e. they
require oxygen, while yeasts are either aerobic or anaerobic
depending on the conditions.
Bacteria are classified into four groups according to their oxygen requirements.
Obligate aerobes- Can only grow best if there is plentiful supply of oxygen
Facultative aerobes- grow best if there is plenty of oxygen available but can grow anaerobically.
Obligate anaerobes- Can grow if there is no oxygen present
Facultative anaerobes- grow best if there is no oxygen present but can also grow aerobically
FOOD POISONING AND ITS PREVENTION

Def: It is an illness caused by eating harmful or contaminated food.
Symptoms of food poisoning
• Abdominal pains
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea
Causes of food poisoning
• Chemical food poisoning
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• Biological food poisoning

• Bacterial food poisoning
• Viral food poisoning
Chemical food poisoning
• It is caused by the presence of toxic chemicals in food e.g. agricultural chemicals which are used in crop
production and carelessness in the home or industrial establishments
• Metallic poisons may arise from faulty cans, but this is rare
• Poisoning may also be caused by accumulation of certain chemicals in the body e.g. mercury and
cadmium which are usually found in fish taken from waters polluted by industrial waste and lead
poisoning has arisen as a result of drinking water that has passed through led pipes.
• Food poisoning may be caused by chemicals accidentally added to foods during preparation and cooking.
Viral Food Poisoning

• Certain viruses that cause vomiting and diarrheoa can be transmitted by water and food. Viruses require
living tissue for growth and therefore will not multiply in food. The food is only a means of transport into
the human body. They are destroyed by temperatures reached by food during cooking.
Biological food poisoning
• Caused by eating plants containing occurring substances which are harmful e.g. mushrooms of the
Amanita variety. These contain a toxin called amanitin which deactivate metabolic enzymes and this leads
to fatal results.
• Green potatoes contain a substance called solanine which causes stomach cramps, or even lead to death if
eaten in large quantities.
• Oxalic acid found in rhubarb and spinach can also be dangerous if taken large quantities. Oxalates also
interfere with calcium absorption.
• Some fish and shell fish are poisonous, some of then at certain times of the year
• Dutra stramonium, this is a weed and commonly grows in maize and sorghum fields. When the weed
accidentally gets into sorghum during harvesting it can cause poisoning. Sorghum is used for beer
brewing.
• Spinach when spinach is cooked and then cooled and then reheated, this converts the nitrites present in to
nitrates, in babies nitrates can be absorbed by haemoglobin in the blood thus preventing the haemoglobin
from absorbing oxygen. This condition is known as methanoglobinaemia of blue baby syndrome
Fungal food poisoning

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Some fungi produce mycotoxins which are poisonous to both plants and animals. Aspergillus flavus found in
groundnuts and other cereals produce and aflotoxin which affects poultry, cattle, pigs, sheep as well as humans.
Bacterial food poisoning
• The bacteria most frequently responsible for food poisoning are organisms of the Salmonella group,
Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum, listeria monocytogens,
campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli and bacillus cereus.
Reasons for the increase in food poisoning cases:
• Increase in the number of meals eaten away from home i.e. in canteens restaurants, so if food in a catering
establishment is contaminated with food poisoning bacteria large numbers of people may be affected.
• Catering establishments now produce more varied menus and this often involves keeping dishes warm
until they are required.
• There has been an increase in the number of establishments selling take way foods.
• There is some evidence that intensive farming methods results in more food being contaminated with food
poisoning bacteria e.g. there has been an incidence of salmonella in frozen chickens in recent years.
There are two main types of food poisoning
Infective food poisoning; - which is caused by eating food containing a large number of living bacteria. After
being eaten the bacteria establish themselves in the elementary canal and when they die they release an endotoxin
e.g Salmonella poisoning
Toxic food poisoning;- This is the type of food poisoning caused by eating food containing an exotoxin. The toxin
is released into the food while the bacteria are growing and multiplying in the food. The bacteria themselves may
be dead when the food is eaten e.g. staphylococcal poisoning.
Table 1. Bacterial Food Poisoning
Bacteria Source and foods Illness
responsible commonly affected
Infective food Incubation period Duration
poisoning
Salmonella, Raw or 6-72hrs but usually 1-8 days
especially inadequately 12-30 hours
salmonella cooked meat, milk,
typhimurium, eggs, poultry,
Salmonella carried by pets and
enteritidis rodents
Listeria Precooked chilled
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monocytogens cooked foods.

Untreated dairy
products
Escherichia coli Excreta, polluted 10-72 hrs but 1-5 days
water, raw or usually 12 -24 hrs
inadequately
cooked meat and
poultry
Campylobacter Raw and 3-5 days 2-3 days
jejuni inadequately
cooked meat, raw
ad inadequately
heated milk
Toxic food
poisoning
Staphylococcus Human nose 2-6hrs 6-48hrshrs
aureus mouth, skin, boils
and cuts. Raw milk
and cheeses
Bacillus cereus Rice cornflour 1-6hrs 24hrs
vegetables, dairy
products
Clostridiumm Animal and human 8-22hrs 12-48hrs
perfringens excreta, soil, dust,
poultry, stews,
gravies
Clostridium Soil, meat, fish and 6hrs-8days Death in 7 days or
botulinum vegetables slow recovery
inadequately
canned foods
SALMONELLA
• Food poisoning caused by the salmonella group of bacteria is called salmonellosis.
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• Salmonella group causes food poisoning by invasion of the body. They reach food directly or indirectly
from animal sources
• There are many different strains of salmonella, some of which their names originate from the places where
they were first observed.
• Salmonalla typhimurium, salmonalla enteritidis, salmonalla Newport, salmonella Dublin and salmonella
eastborne.
• The bacteria can survive outside the body for long periods and on warm moist food. Food must be grossly
infected with a large number of live bacteria before illness occurs.
Mode of transmission
• Excreta at the time of slaughter, human excreta
• From water (sewage)
• In the kitchen may be transferred from raw to cooked foods by hands
• Surfaces and utensils
• Illness is most likely to occur when the organisms are ingested in large numbers when they are allowed to
keep multiplying in food
• They can also be found in eggs
Symptoms
• Headache
• Fever
• General pain of the limbs
• Diarrhea
• Vomiting
Cases can be fatal especially in infants, elderly and sick people. The duration of the illness is 1-7 days
Reservoir –is domestic and wild animals including poultry, rodents and domestic cats, dogs as well as men
Prevention
• Multiplication of salmonalla can be prevented by keeping food below 5°C and cooking food thoroughly.
• The foods most infected are poultry, eggs, custard cakes, trifles and artificial cream.
• Avoid raw eggs and do not use dirty or crushed eggs
• Education of food handlers and home makers regarding hand washing, refrigeration cleaning and
protection of food against contamination
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• Recognition, control and prevention of salmonella outbreak among domestic animals

• Adequate cooking and heat treatment followed by measures to avoid recontamination and animal feed
• Protect food from contamination with rat and mouse faeces and from contact with house flies
• Periodic meat and poultry inspection by trained personnel with supervision of abattoirs, as well as federal
inspection
LISTERIA MONOCYTOGEN
This organism may cause the disease listeriosis.
Listeria bacteria can multiply at temperatures below those found in many domestic refrigerators and
commercial chilled food cabinets. They may stay dormant for several daysat these temperatures and then
multiply rapidly. Some pre-cooked chilled foods have been found to be dangerously contaminated by the
organism. Cook chill food should not be stored for more than five days at 40°C and they should be eaten
within 12 hrs if the temperature has reached 5°C. listeria bacteria are also fairly heat resistant and may
sometimes be present in pasteurized milk.
Listeria bacteria produce a toxic enzyme which may cause a serious illness if it enters the blood stream.
Listeriosis is especially dangerous to pregnant women and it may lead to abortion or the premature birth of a
baby itself infected with the disease.
Other vulnerable classes of people are the very young and elderly and those whose immune system has been
compromised by the illness.
ESCHERICHIA COLI
This organism is a common and normally harmless inhabitant of our intestines. There are many strains, however
there are some strains that may cause illness called Enterohaemorrhagic.
Symptoms
Stomach cramps, acute blood diarrhea lasting 4-10 days.
Incubation period Is between 12-72 hours and the symptoms may be similar to those of other typical food
poisoning or they may be dysentery like with prolonged diarrheoa and blood an mucus with the stools
Preventative measures
• Sanitary supervision of processing, preparation and serving of food stuffs especially those to be eaten raw
• Provision of safe water supplies
CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI
Causes a disease called campylobacter enteritis. Campylobacter can survive and multiply in the intestines and so
it possible to become ill after eating food which not heavily contaminated. Campylobacter can be present in a
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large number of foods, particularly poultry, unpasteurised milk and untreated water. The symptoms are fever
abdominal pain, watery or blood diarrhea.
STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREAS
These are facultative aerobes and therefore are able to survive without oxygen. They are not spore forming
bacteria. Staphylococcal poisoning is an intoxication not an infection. The skin and nose normally harbor
Staphylococcus due to purulent discharges and cooked foods such as meats, poultry intended to be eaten cold and
custards, trifles and creams are readily contaminated by hands. The toxin is formed by the organism growing in
the food before it is eaten and not after it has entered thus the incubation period can be as short as 2 hours but is
usually between 4-6 hours there is rapid onset of symptoms.
Symptoms
nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, diarrhea – sometimes followed by collapse.
Mode of Transmission
S. aureus is spread by food handlers during the cooking and preparation of food. Handling food rather than using
the appropriate utensils is perhaps the most common means of spread, particularly if the food handler is infected
with sores on his hands. Staphylococci are easily killed by heat, but the exotoxin they release into food is more
heat resistant and can withstand up to 30 minutes boiling point. In order to reduce the risk of staphylococcal
poisoning food handlers should take the following precautions.
Prevention
• A high standard of personal hygiene must be maintained.
• Foods should be handled as little as possible. Tongs should be used for cooked meats.
• Foods likely to cause food poisoning should be kept in a refrigerator e.g. sliced chopped meat, salads,
custards
• Temporary exclusion from food handling of any person suffering from pyogenic, skin, eye and respiratory
infections
• Education of food handlers in sanitation, proper refrigeration, hand washing and the dangers of working
with skin, eye or respiratory infections
CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS
Illness caused: perfringens
It is an anaerobic spore forming bacillus. The illness caused by this bacterium is due to the eating of food
containing a large number of living bacteria which subsequently release a toxin in the alimentary canal. The
symptoms are nausea, abdominal pains and diarrhea. The majority of C. perfringens outbreaks are caused by
reheated meat and poultry and by dishes such as mince and stews. The anaerobic conditions required for the
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multiplication of the bacterium are found in foods cooked in bulk. The bacteria are able to survive most cooking
processes by forming spores, though the heat resistance varies depending on the particular strain of C.
Perfringens. Some strains can survive for hours but others can survive for a few minutes. Spores that survive
germinate and start to multiply if the food is kept warm after or if the food is cooled slowly.
Prevention
Since C. perfringens forms heat resistant spores it cannot be assumed that the bacteria are killed during cooking.
In order to reduce the risk of C. perfringens poisoning, food handlers should take the following precautions
• Joints of meat weighing more than 2.7kg should be cut into smaller pieces before cooking
• Cooked meat and poultry should be cooled rapidly and stored in the refrigerator it may be necessary to
divide large volumes of meat in to smaller portions during storage.
• Serve meat dishes hot as soon as they are cooked or cool rapidly.
• Do not partially cook meat and poultry and reheat the next day
• Educate food handlers regarding the large scale cooking of meat dishes
Clostridium Botulinum
Resistance
C. botulinum is not able to grow below ph 4.5 so botulism is not caused by acid foods such as fruits. The spores
of some strains can resist boiling. Botulism reaches in height in 1to 8 days and death often occurs as a result of
paralysisn of respiratory centre; the fatality rate is about 70%. Life may be saved if the botulism antitoxin is given
in the early stages of the illness.
Sources. C. botulinum is found in the soil, particularly in marine muds and on the beds of fresh water lakes. It is
found on some fish and some vegetables. Since the organism is a strict anaerobe, it is only able to grow and
multiply in an oxygen free environment, such as is found in canned, bottled and packed foods. It also has been
found in the centre of large sausages and cheeses.
Food spoilage or contamination
Food spoilage occurs mainly as a result of chemical reactions involved in the process of ageing and decaying,
through the action no microorganisms or through a combination of both.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
This organism has been isolated from fish shellfish and other seafoods. A period of inadequate refrigeration is
generally required to allow for proliferation of bacteria to levels infectious to men
Disease caused:-Vibrio parahaemolyticus, gastroenteritis
Incuabtion period:- 16-48hrs
Symptoms:-
Profuse watery diarrhea free from blood or mucus, abdominal pain, vomiting fever, headaches cramps
Foods commonly associated with outbreak:- shellfish and seafoods
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Preventive measures
• Cooked sea foods must reach a temperature adequate to kill organisms. V.Parahaemolyitcus may surviv
cooking 80°C for 15 minutes
• Prevent contamination between raw and cooked foods
Bacillus Cereus
A gastrointestinal disorder, characterized by sudden onset of diarrhea, nausea and vomiting. It usually lasts 24
hours and is very fatal. The incubation period varies from 1-6 hours. B.Cereus is an anaerobic spore former whose
spores are resistant to heat. It is found in the soil and spores are often found in cereals and other foods. Some
spores may survive cooking and germinate into bacilli which under warm conditions (produce spores) grow and
produce toxins Outbreaks are normally associated with rice, vegetables and meat dishes
Preventive measures
• Foods which may have been contaminated with B.Cereus such as grain and vegetables should be coked
and refrigerated quickly
• Leftover food should be refrigerated and preheating should be performed rapidly to avoid contamination
Shigella sonei
It causes a disease called shigellosis
Incubation period:- 1-7 days
Symptoms:- fever abdominal pain, vomiting, watery diarrhea Foods associated with outbreak;- egg salads
puddings and Hawaiian paste
Yersinia enterocolitica
Causes a disease called yersiniosis
Incubation period:- 16-48 hours
Symptoms:- abdominal pains diarrhea and fever.
Food poisoning prevention

1. high standard of personal hygiene
2. Attention to physical fitness
3. Maintaining good clean working conditions
4. Maintaining equipment in good repair and clean condition
5. Adequate provision of cleaning facilities and cleaning equipment
6. Correct storage of food stuffs at the right temperature
7. Correct reheating of food
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8. Quick cooling of food prior to storage

9. protection of food from vermin and insects
10. Hygienic washing up procedure
11. Food handlers knowing how food poisoning is caused
12. Food handlers not only knowing but carrying out procedures to prevent food poisoning
Hygienic handling of food
Hygienic handling and storage of food is of prime importance if food poisoning is to be prevented.
Handling of food
Direct handling of food should be avoided whenever possible; food should be handled with utensils and should be
washed regularly to avoid cross-contamination. Food particularly meat and poultry should be cooked thoroughly
to ensure that all pathogenic bacteria and their toxins are destroyed. Special care should be taken with large joints
of meat cooked in the oven. Ideally these joints should not exceed 2.5kg. the cooking time should be long enough
to ensure that the entire joint reaches the temperature required for the destruction of bacteria and their spores. If
food is kept hot before serving, the temperature should be above 63°Cto ensure that bacteria do not multiply
within the food. Cold dishes should not be stored at room temperature but should be held at below 10°Cuntil they
are served. A well ventilated larder is a suitable place for storing cold dishes. The larder should be designed so
that any windows face north, thereby excluding light. If hot food is to be re-used later it should be cooked quickly
before placing it in the refrigerator. Hot food should not be placed directly in the refrigerator since heat will pass
to other food stored there and cause an increase in the multiplication of bacteria. When the food is reheated it
should be reheated quickly and thoroughly to ensure that any bacteria or toxins which may be present are
destroyed.
Storage of food
Whenever possible food, other than canned, preserved or dried food should be stored in a refrigerator, since
refrigeration is the most practical method of controlling bacterial growth. Most refrigerators operate at a
temperature between 1-5°C and can be used for the short term storage of various foods. Most pathogenic bacteria
are only able to multiply at a slow rate at temperatures below 10°C therefore food stored in the refrigerator is
reasonably safe. Many spoilage microorganisms can grow fairly well at a temperature of about 5°C and spoilage
can occur even within the refrigerator.
High protein foods with high moisture content such as meat fish milk and eggs should be stored at the coldest part
of the refrigerator that is just below the cooling unit.
Other foods such as fruits and vegetables are best stored at a slightly higher temperature and these should be
placed at the bottom of the refrigerator. Care must be taken to ensure that frozen foods particularly chickens and
joints of meat are thawed correctly prior to cooking. They must not be thawed in water or in a warm room since
this will encourage bacterial growth.
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Cross contamination between cooked and uncooked foods

Raw and uncooked foods should be kept separate. The same working surfaces and equipment should not e used
for both raw and ready to eat foods. Surfaces and equipment used for raw foods should be thoroughly afterwards.
Personal Hygiene
Germs and bacteria are found in and out of the body and they can be transferred on to anything with which the
body comes in contact. Personal cleanliness is essential to prevent germs from getting on to the food.
Personal cleanliness
Self respect is necessary in every food-handler because a pride in ones appearance promotes a high standard of
cleanliness and physical fitness. Persons suffering from ill health or who are not clean about themselves should
not handle food.
Bathing
Regular bathing at least once a day is essential otherwise germs can be transferred on to the clothes and so on to
food.
Hands
Hands must be washed frequently, particularly after using the toilet, after sneezing, smoking, before commencing
work, during the handling of food, especially after handling different food staffs. They should be washed with hot
water with the aid of a brush and soap, rinsed and dried on a clean towel, suitable paper towel or by a hand hot-air
drier. Hands and fingernails if not kept clean can be a great source of danger as they can so easily transfer harmful
bacteria on to the food. Rings watches jewelry should not be worn where food is handled. Particles of food may
be caught under a ring and germs could multiply there until they are transferred into the food
Watches should not be worn because foodstuffs e.g. salads and cabbage which have to be plunged into plenty of
water may not be properly washed because a watch is worn. Jewelry must not be worn since it may fall off into
the food.
Fingernails
These should always be kept clean (no varnish) and short as dirt can easily lodge under the nail and be dislodged
when for example making pastry, so introducing bacteria into the food. Nails should be cleaned with a nail brush.
Hair
Hair should be washed regularly and be kept covered where food is being handled. Hair which is not cared for is
likely to come out or shed dandruff which may fall of into the food. Men’s hair should be kept short as it is easier
to keep clean, it also looks neater. Women’s hair should be kept covered as mush as possible. The hair should
never be scratched, combed or touched in the kitchen, as germs could be transferred via the hands into the food.
Nose
The nose should be touched when food I being handled. If a handkerchief is used the hands should be washed
afterwards. Ideally paper handkerchiefs should be used and then destroyed, the hands being washed afterwards.
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The nose is an area where there are vast numbers of bacteria, it is therefore very important that neither food,
people nor working surfaces are sneezed over, so spreading germs.
Mouth
There are many germs in the area of the mouth, therefore the mouth nor lips should not be touched by the hands
or utensils which may come into contact with the food. No cooking utensils should be used for tasting food nor
fingers used for this purpose as germs may be transferred into the food. A clean teaspoon should be used for
tasting and washed afterwards. Coughing over food or working areas should be avoided as germs are spread long
distances if not trapped in a handkerchief, turn away from food and cover your nose and mouth when sneezing.
Even healthy people have microorganisms in their nose and throat. Use a paer handkerchief which should the be
thrown away. Hands should be washe dafterwards
Ears
The ear-holes should not be touched during food preparation as germs can be transferred.
Teeth
Sound teeth are essential to good health. They should be washed regularly and regular visits to the dentist are of
utmost importance so that teeth can be kept in good repair.
Feet
As food handlers are standing for long hours, care of the feet are important. They should be washed regularly and
the toe nails kept short and clean.
Tired feet can cause general tiredness which leads to carelessness and this results in a lowering of the standards of
hygiene.
Cosmetics
Cosmetics if used by food handlers should be used in moderation, they should not be put on the kitchen and the
hands should be washed well afterwards. Cosmetics should be put on a clean skin, not used to cover up dirt.
Clothing and cloths
A food handler should wear protective clothes
Clean whites and clean underclothes should be worn at all times. Dirty clothe enable germs to multiply at all
times and if dirty clothes come into contact with food the food may be contaminated.
Use clean cloth for handling hot items and wiping
Remove jewellery (rings, watches) before starting work, jewellery makes hand washing less effective and
bacteria can get under them
If suffering from an illness involving any of the following
Jaundice fever TB
Diarrheoa sore throat skin rash
Vomiting discharge from ear
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Other skin lesions(boils, cuts)

These individuals should be assigned to another task
Wounds on hands and arms should be carefully bandaged with water proof materials, because wounds may
infected with pathogenic microorganisms
Prevention of infectious diseases
High standards of hygiene minimize food spoilage and help to ensure that when food is eaten it is wholesome and
as free from pathogenic bacteria, harmful viruses and moulds as possible. Many factors may affect the quality and
wholesomeness of food. Among them are
• The way in which it is grown, or in the case of animals, reared and fed.
• The design and cleanlinessof farm buildings, slaughterhouses and factories in which it is processed
• The premises equipment and conditions in which it is stored
• The care taken by food handlers to avoid contamination from other foods.
• The personal hygiene of food handlers
The basic aims of food hygiene practice can be summarized as follows

• Avoid contamination of food by bacteria , viruses and moulds
• Prevent multiplication of bacteria and moulds which nevertheless gain access to food
• Cook food thoroughly to destroy any bacteria, viruses and moulds
These three principles of good hygienic practice are explained below

Avoid contamination
• Keep raw and cooked foods separate. The same working surfaces and equipment should not be used for
both raw and ready to eat foods. Surfaces and equipment used for raw foods should be thoroughly cleaned
afterwards.
• Keep animals out of food areas and make sure that birds and insects do not have access.
• Do not use wash basins for food preparation or preparation sinks for washing hands
• Maintain high standards of personal hygiene. Thorough hand washing is essential especially after handling
raw meat or using the toilet. Clean towels disposable towels and hand driers should be used for hand
drying to prevent reinfection of clean hands by dirty towels
• Clean protective clothing should be worn in food areas and should be removed when leaving these areas
• Hands should be kept away from bacteria rich areas of the body including the mouth and nose.
Prevent multiplication of microorganisms
30
• Keep foods hot or cold. Avoid the temperature danger zone 5-65degrees Celsius in which bacteria
flourish. Food should be in this bacteria danger zone for as little time as possible. Bacteria can multiply
quickly in warm food at about 40 degrees Celsius the bacteria may double every 20 minutes. Some
bacteria are more resistant than others but in general almost all pathogenic bacteria are killed in 30
minutes at temperatures above 63degrees Celsius.
Cook food thoroughly

• Cooking times and temperatures must be sufficient to ensure that all bacteria and their toxins are
destroyed. If bacteria present in food are not killed when the food is cooked they may multiply when it is
cooling through the danger zone before being served.
• Keep cold dishes cold and hot dishes hot.
Food borne diseases

Cholera, typhoid and paratyphoid are diseases caused by harmful bacteria carried in food and water. Scarlet fever,
tuberculosis and dysentery may be caused by drinking milk which has not been pasteurized. To prevent diseases
being spread by food and water the following measures should be taken
1. water supplies must be purified
2. milk and milk products must be pasteurized
3. carriers should be excluded food preparation rooms
Chemical Spoilage
• Almost all of the food is produced by living organisms whether they are animals or plants and these are made
up organic compounds.
• These organic compounds are involved in a variety of complex and carefully controlled chemical reactions
which depend on enzymes.
• When the plant is harvested or when an animal is killed, the enzymes will still be active and will continue
catalyzing reactions which will affect the quality of the food.
• Fruit : when it is picked growth stops, but it will be alive and ripening.. Once ripe the fruit will deteriorate
quickly due to enzymes and microorganisms
• Vegetables: remain alive after harvesting and they are prone to deterioration due to enzymes and
microorganisms as well
• Meat: if meat is kept for too long at room temperature it becomes soggy and unwholesome, partly owing to
the break down of tits protein by proteolytic enzymes. Putrefaction will eventually set in with production of
slime and foul odors caused by Pseudomonas bacilli the meat will be offensive and inedible
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• In addition to spoilage caused by protein breakdown, meat may also suffer through oxidation of fats which are
always present. Unsaturated fats are most likely to become rancid through oxidation and therefore poultry,
pork, lamb and veal cannot be kept as long as because they have a high proportion of unsaturated fats.
Oxidized fats are one of the main causes of off flavors in cooked meats.
Microbial Food Spoilage
Microorganisms are extremely small living things; they can be seen by using an electron microscope.
• Microorganisms need water and nutrients before they cam multiply. They can’t multiply on clean dry
surfaces.
• Aerobes need oxygen for respiration, anaerobes don’t need oxygen for respiration
• Moist food kept in a warm place is most likely to be attacked my microbes which will feed on it and grow
on its surface, Microbes don’t multiply in low temperatures and they are killed in high temperatures.
• Some microbes produce toxins which are harmful to human beings and if food is contaminated it often
results in food poisoning
• Food that has been attacked by microorganisms may look offensive or have a peculiar smell. In many
instances its not possible to tell by looking at the food. In fact the food may still look wholesome but
heavily infected.
• The presence of microbes is not always harmful
• The microbes responsible for food spoilage are moulds bacteria and yeasts.
Moulds
• Moulds are a form of fungi. They are multi-cellular organisms
• They grow as fine threads or filaments which extend in length and eventually form a complex branched
network.
• Moulds also produce spores and can e carried considerable distances by air currents and in this infect food
.
• Most moulds require oxygen for development and this is why they are found on the surfaces of the food.
Meat, cheese and sweet food are especially likely to be attacked by moulds
• Moulds grow best at ph 4-6 and temperature 30°C, as the temperatures decrease so does the rate of
growth.
• It is difficult to kill moulds and their spores by heat treatment. To ensure complete destruction of all
moulds of their spores. Sterilization under pressure is necessary (i.e. above 100°C) OR the food may be
heated to 70 -80°Cfor 2 or more days so that any spores germinating between the heat treatments will be
destroyed..
Poisonous mycotoxins are produced and these can be harmful if present
Yeasts
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• Yeasts are unicellular microscopic fungi, they reproduce themselves by budding, i.e. by formation of a
small off shoot which becomes detached from the parent yeast cell when it reaches a certain size and
assumes an independent existence.
• Yeasts can also form spores but these are far less heat resistant than mould spores and bacterial spores.
• Yeasts occur in the soil and on the surface of the fruits.
• Yeasts grow in acid food (pH 4-4.5) with reasonable moisture content. Most yeast grow best in the
presence of oxygen between 20-30°C.
• Yeasts and yeast spores can easily be killed by heating to 100°C
• Yeast is also used for making bread, brewing beer and vinegar.
• They cause spoilage of many foods including fruit, fruit juices, jam wines and meat. Although they spoil
food yeasts are not pathogenic.
Algae
Algae are small plants. Some are visible with the visible to the naked eye, but many are microscopic. They
contain the green pigment chlorophyll or a similar pigment which enables them to photosynthesize. This means
they do not require complex organic substances but can utilize carbon dioxide from the air and water to make
food. Microscopic algae usually live in water. Although each cell can survive on its own they tend to grow in
mass and are often visible as green slime on the surface of ponds. Some types of algae such as chlorella can be
grown on the surface of the water, harvested and used as a source of protein..
Viruses
These are the smallest of all microorganisms varying in size. Unlike other micro-organisms viruses do not have a
cellular structure.
They are particles made up of a central core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. They cannot feed, grow
and multiply in isolation. They can only survive as parasites in larger living cells. To replicate a virus particle
attaches itself to a cell and the core of the virus penetrates its nucleus. The nucleic acid from the virus combines
with that of the cell and directs it to produce more virus particles. The new particles are then released to attack
other cells. The cell that was attacked first is injured or even destroyed by invading virus, therefore viruses are
always pathogenic.
Bacteria
33
• Bacteria are single cellular microorganisms. They are either spherical (cocci, rod shaped (bacilli) or spiral
(spirulla)
• Bacteria a re widely distributed, they are found in soil, air and humans as well as animal bodies.
Uncooked food will certainly be contaminated with bacteria
• Bacteria reproduce by binary fission i.e. the parent organism splits to form new ones. In favorable
conditions this fission may occur every 20 minutes and in 12hour a single bacterium can provide a colony
of 10¹º bacteria.
Vegetables and fruit

• These have dry, relatively non- porous
skins and their cell juices are mildly acidic.
They are thus more likely to suffer from the
growth of moulds and yeasts than from an
attack from bacteria.. Yeasts and moulds
are always present in the air but intact fruit
and vegetables are not at risk. However if
they are overripe and damaged so that cell
fluids leak into the surface, mould yeast
growth is highly likely. If other conditions
are favorable the food will deteriorate
quickly.
• Fruits and vegetables will remain in good condition for the maximum possible time if they are kept clean,
kept cool and handled with care.
Meat Spoilage
• Caused by bacteria and moulds.
• The surface is usually contaminated by bacteria from the hide and intestines when the animal is
slaughtered and when the carcass is cut up. Poultry is particularly prone to bacterial contamination and the
skin and interior surface usually harbor a large number of bacteria
• When microbes grow on the surface of the meat, they break down the protein molecules and grow to form
a bacterial slime, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and ammonia are formed and the surface of the meat becomes
34
grayish brown in colour owing to the conversion of myoglobin to metmyoglobin. As putrefaction

continues hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans and amines all of which are foul smelling are formed and
collectively demonstrate the inedible taste of meat.
Food preservation
• Microorganisms are present in the air, dust , soil, sewage and on the hands and other parts of the body.
They are also widely distributed on the food. Therefore food preservation is essential. This can be
achieved by killing microbes and storing food where further infection is impossible or by creating an
environment which slows down or stops their growth.
Refrigeration and freezing
• Microorganisms do not multiply nearly as rapidly at low temperatures as at normal temperatures. This is
taken advantage of in the domestic refrigerator. The temperature of the refrigerator is normally 4-5°C,
which is sufficient to chill the food and reduce the activity of microorganisms but insufficient ot give
along life. This is because microorganisms are not killed and can still grow and reproduce but at a much
slower rate. Moreover enzyme action continues although at a slower rate, leading to chemical changes in
food and loss in quality.
• Examples of food s that can be chilled are meat, vegetables, fruits and eggs.
• When meat is chilled the temperature is reduced to about 1°C and it remains in good condition for up to a
month.
• Although chilling to about 5°Cenables food to be stored for short periods, it must be frozen and stored at a
lower temperature if long term storage is required. Microorganisms are the main storage agents and they
become inactive at about -10°C while enzymes which cause chemical spoilage and consequent loss of
quality are largely inactivated below -18°C but a temperature of -29°C is employed commercially to
ensure high quality and a long storage life
• Most fresh foods contain at least 60% water, some of which is bound water- is tightly attached to
constituent cells. The rest is available water or freezable water being mobile. On average plant cells
contain 6% bound water and animals cells 12%
• The rate at which water is frozen is important. Good quality is if freezing is quick
Thawing
When frozen foods are thawed there is often loss of liquid known as drip which causes losses of soluble nutrients
in food. The extent at which drip occurs depends on the rate at which freezing is carried out, the duration and
temperature of storage and the cellular nature of the food. Plant material is most liable to drip because plant cells
have larger vacuoles containing more available water.
Chemical Preservatives
35
Chemicals have been used in the preservation of foods for many centuries, NaCl, sodium and potassium nitrate,
sugars, vinegar, alcohol, wood smoke, and various spices have come to be regarded as traditional preservatives.
The preservative action of concentrated sugar solutions.
• Sugar acts as a preservative when it is present in food in high concentration because it makes water
unavailable to microorganisms. The sugar present in sweets and jams acts in this way and helps spoilage
through mould growth.
• Condensed sweetened milk, which contains large amounts of sugar is another example of this principle, it
can be kept for several weeks after opening the can without growth of microorganisms occurring.
Microorganisms cannot tolerate high concentrations of alcohol and this is why fortified wines such as
sherry keep better than unfortified wines.
• Similarly vinegar discourages the growth of many microorganisms and it performs this function in pickled
food.
Preservation by salting and smoking
Curing is the method of preservation by salting and drying.
Lighter cures are used in bacon.
• Curing changes the colour of uncooked meat as a result of partial conversion of the protein myoglobin, to
the redder nitrosomyoglobin by nitrites present in the curing liquor.
• In the wet curing process, a concentrated salt solution, or brine is used. Sodium nitrate is traditionally
added to the brine and some of it is reduced to sodium nitrite during the curing process. It is actually
nitrite which acts as a preservative and sometimes sodium nitrite is often used in the place of sodium
nitrate.
• Although nitrite ions (NO2-), are the main antimicrobial agents in cured meats the other salts present also
help because they dissolve in the meat fluids to form a concentrated solution in which microbes cannot
flourish.
• The dissolved salts ‘capture’ some of the water molecules so making them unavailable to microorganisms.
The apparent water content (as far as the microorganisms are concerned) is lower than the actual water
content. The amount available is expressed as the water activity (aw) of a sample of food. Water itself has
a water activity of 1.00 and a saturated solution has an aw value of 0.75.
Water content and water activity of some foodstuffs.

Foodstuff Water Content (%) Typical aw value
Uncooked meat 55-60 0.98
Cheese 35-40 0.97
36
Bread 38-40 0.95

Jam 33-35 0.95
Cured meat 30-35 0.83
Honey 20-23 0.75
Dried food 18-20 0.76
Flour 14-16 0.75
Bacteria flourish best on food with high aw value, provided the other conditions are favorable. Many bacteria will
not grow below an aw value of 0.95 and an aw value of 0.91 is the lowest water activity level tolerable by normal
bacteria . Yeast and moulds can tolerate much lower aw values than bacteria. The minimum aw value tolerable by
normal yeasts and moulds are 0.88 and 0.80 respectively.
Smoking
• Smoking is another ancient technique of preservation. Smoking is carried out by hanging meat/fish
(usually heavily salted) above smouldering wood chips in smoke houses.
• Smoked food has an outer layer consisting of condensed tars, phenols and aldehydes which have a
powerful antimicrobial effect as well as a characteristic taste. The preservative effect is more or less
limited to the surface of the food but spoilage of the interior is delayed because the outer layer acts as a
bactericidal skin.
• Smoke contains many organic compounds. Polycyclic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic.
Dehydration
• Microorganism require water to survive, preservation by dehydration makes use of this facts. The water
content is reduced to below a certain critical value.
• Drying is usually accomplished by passing air of carefully regulated Temperature and humidity over or
through the food in tray driers, tunnel type driers or rotating drum driers. Heated vacuum driers are also
used|: the temperature necessary for dehydration under reduced pressure is much lower than that which
would be required at ordinary pressures.
• In vacuum drying the atmosphere above the food contains a much lower concentration of oxygen than the
normal methods of drying and this reduces the extent to which oxidative changes occur,
• Fruits and vegetables can also be dried in the sun
• A modern development of vacuum drying is freeze drying in which food is dried under a high vacuum.
Freeze drying is particularly attractive for drying heat sensitive food. Dehydration occurs without
discoloration and sensitive nutrients e.g. vitamins remain unharmed. Freeze dried foods practically remain
without any moisture
37
• Multiplication of microorganisms should not occur in properly processed dehydrated food, but they are
not immune to other types of food spoilage
• Those containing fats are prone to rancidity.
Preservation by heating
Canning:
• The food is sealed in a can which is then heated to such a temperature that all harmful microorganisms and
spores capable of growth during storage of the can at normal temperature are destroyed.
• No microorganism can gain access to food while the can remains closed, decomposition does not occur.
• Almost any type of food can be canned. Food is first cleaned and inedible parts such as fruit stones, peels
or bones are removed.
• Fruit and vegetables may be subjected to preliminary blanching before canning in order to soften them and
enable a larger amount to be pressed without being damaged.
• The lid is then loosely placed in position and the can and its contents are heated to about 95°C by hot
water or steam. The process known as exhausting causes the air in the headspace of the can to expand and
displace any remaining air from the fruit or vegetable tissues. Exhausting also reduces strain on the can
during subsequent heat treatment, it also reduces the amount of oxygen in the headspace so minimizes
internal corrosion of the can and oxidation of nutrients, particularly ascorbic acid after sealing. The can is
sealed when exhausting is complete and it then ready for heat sterilization or processing.
• Most canned food is processed in batch type cookers (which are large scale pressure cookers.)
• Processing conditions must be severe enough to ensure that all harmful microorganisms in the canned
food are destroyed. Bacterial spores are easily killed by heating in acidic conditions.
• Canned vegetables and meat are usually processed at 115°C, whereas fruits can be processed in boiling
water.
HTST Canning
By substantially increasing the temperature at which it is carried out it is possible to reduce the duration of heat
processing. Sterilization is a carried out at about 120°C in special equipment designed to achieve a high rate of
heat transfer. The food is the n cooled somewhat before sealing into cans which have been previously sterilized
with superheated steam. This procedure is known as aseptic canning. This can be used only for liquid or semi-
solid foods. The heating time varies from 6 secs to about 6min depending on the type of food being canned.
Advantages
• The food is cooked in thin layers there is less likelihood of some of it being over processed to ensure that
all of it is adequately processed.
• Large cans convenient for large scale catering can be used, because there are no problems about heat
penetration to the centre of the can.
38
Heat resistant microorganisms

• Bacterial spores are very heat resistant at high temperatures. The death of bacterial spores in heat treated
food follows a logarithmic course in which equal proportions of surviving cells die in each successive unit
of time. Thus if 10000 spores were present per unit volume were initially present and 9000were killed by
exposure to a particular temperature for one minute, 900 would be killed in the second minute , 90 in the
3rd minute , 9 in the 4th minute etc. One thousand many spores would be killed during the 1st minute of
exposure as during the fourth.
• Nutritive value of canned foods- Some nutrient losses occurs during heat processing and more thiamine
is lost during meat during processing.
• Reduction of ascorbic content also occurs during processing.
• Spoilage of canned food- Properly canned food remains edible for very long periods of the cans are not
corroded
Waste disposal
Waste material is a potential threat to food safety because it is a source of food contamination which can provide
food for a variety of pests. Waste can be divided into five groups.
• Dry non-food waste:-This comes mainly from packaging wood, cardboard, plastic, some of which cane
be sorted for resale. Cardboard, paper, glass can be recycled.
• Dry-food waste:- They can either be disposed off at source in a waste disposal unit which grinds the
waste into small particles, mixed with water and flushed into the drainage system. b) stored in galvanized
steel bins with close fitting lids for disposal to swill collectors
• Unsavory offensive food waste:- This should be disposed off immediately where possible using a waste
disposal unit
• Waste cooking oils and fats. Large quantities have a resale value, small quantities can be absorbed into dry
food waste
• Bulky waste:- This can be disposed off either by a)incineration only by using specific equipment or in
isolated areas or b) by compaction.
The refuse site should be clean, located in an easy to clean area with a water supply for washing down and
adequate drainage. For general internal rubbish plastic or paper lined bins which can be destroyed with the
rubbish are preferable to other types of bins.
PART D- NUTRITION
Definition
39
Nutrition: Nutrition is the sum total of the processes involved in the taking in and the utilization of food
substances by which growth repair and maintenance of the body are accomplished. It involves ingestion,
digestion, absorption and assimilation. Nutrients are stored by the body in various forms and drawn upon when
food intake is not sufficient.
Appetite: an instinctive physical desire for food and drink.
Nutrients: any substance that is assimilated (taken in) by an organism that is needed for the organism to live,
grow breathe move excrete waste or reproduce e.g. proteins, vitamins etc.
Diet: A diet is the usual selection of food eaten by a person or animal.
Malnutrition: Malnutrition is the condition that develops when the body does not get the right amount of
nutrients it needs to maintain healthy tissues and organ function.
Protein
Proteins are found in all living cells of animals and plants. Proteins must be provided in the diet for growth and
the repair of the body, but any excess is usd to provide energy. Protein molecules consist of chains of hundreds or
even thousands of amino acids joined together. The proteins are classified into 2 major groups the fibrous
proteins and globular proteins.
FIBROUS PROTEINS
These are much simpler than globular proteins, are made up of individual zigzag polypeptide chains which are
held together by cross links to form elongated or fibrous molecules with a fairly stable but elastic nature (there are
some fibrous proteins that are inelastic in nature. They are characterized by being rather insoluble substances.
Table 1: Simple classification of proteins
Type Solubility and function Examples and sources
Animal
Fibrous • Insoluble, elastic proteins forming Keratin (hair), collagen
the structural part of tissues. (connective tissue), elastin
• There are elastic and non elastic (tendons arteries) myosin
fibrous proteins e.g. ά-keratin is the (muscles)
elastic form and β-keratin is the non-
elastic form.
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Inelastic fibrous protein Elastic

fibrous protein
Globular • Relatively soluble. Part of all fluids Enzymes, protein

of all body cells. Many food hormones, enzyme
proteins. albumins, globulins
• These are more complex than (blood)
fibrous proteins because the helix Casein (milk), albumin
chain is folded into a more complex (egg-white)
irregular bulky shape.
Diagram
41
Plant •
Glutelins • Insoluble in neutral solutions. Glutenin (wheat), hordenin
Soluble in acids and alkalis (barley) oryzenin (rice)
Prolamines • Insoluble in water. Soluble in Gliadin (wheat), zein
alcohol (maize)
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Protein is an essential part of all living matter; it is therefore needed for the growth of the body and for the repair
of body tissues. There are two kinds of proteins.
1. Animal protein found in meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, cheese.
2. Vegetable protein found mainly in the seed of vegetables. The proportion of protein in green and root
vegetables is small. Peas, beans and nuts contain most protein and the grains of cereals such as wheat have
a useful amount because of the large quantity eaten.
• Protein is composed of amino acids., and the protein of cheese is different from the protein of meat
because the number and arrangements of the amino acids are not the same . A certain number of
the amino acids are essential to the body and have to be provided by the food. Non-essential aa are
those that the body can synthesize. Proteins containing all the essential amino acids are said to be
of high biological values.
Table 3: Essential and non-essential amino acids
Essential amino acids Non-essential amino acids
Valine Glycine.
Leucine Alanine
Isoleucine Norleucine
Phenylanine Tyrosine
Threonine Serine
Methionine Cysteine
Tryptophan Cystine
Lysine Ornithine
Histidine (essential for infants) Arginine
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Histidine (Non-essential in adults)

Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid
• The human body is capable of changing the other kinds of amino acids to suit its needs.
• It is preferable that the body has both animal and vegetable protein so that the complete variety of
the necessary aa are available.
Function in the body
• Proteins are vital to basic cellular functions, including cellular regeneration and reproduction.
• Cellular and tissue provisioning.-Protein is an essential component for every type of cell in the body
including muscles, bones, etc and protein is required since the body is constantly undergoing renewal and
repair of tissues.
• Hormone and enzyme production.-Amino acid are the basic components of hormones, which are
essential chemicals responsible for regulating bodily functions and processes e.g. insulin. Enzymes play
an essential role as biological catalysts in biological reactions.
• Fluid balance: - The presence of blood protein molecules such as albumins and globulins are critical
factors in maintaining fluid balance in the body to prevent edema.
• Energy provision:- Protein is not a significant source of energy of the body, but however if there is not
enough carbohydrates being ingested, protein is used as energy needs for the body.
Digestion
• During digestion proteins are broken down into amino acids.
• Peptidases are the hydrolyzing enzymes which operate by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the peptide links in
the protein molecule so breaking down the protein into smaller units.
• In the stomach the gastric glands secrete pepsinogen which at pH2 becomes activated forming the enzyme
pepsin.
• The action of pepsin is extremely specific it produces peptones. The enzyme rennin is also present and
brings about the coagulation casein in milk and its important only in babies
• In the small intestines enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin continue the hydrolysis of peptones to
dipeptides which are broken down into amino acids by a series of dipeptidases.
• Proteins are thus completely hydrolyzed to amino acids before passing from the small intestines into the
blood
Effects of protein deficiency
44
Protein enrgy malnutrition constitutes the largest health problems in developing countries. In such countries PEM
is the largest cause of death and many as half the children do not reach the age of 5.
• Protein deficiency can lead to reduced intelligence or mental retardation.
• Kwashiorkor is a malnutrition disease which arises after a period of breast feeding, children are weaned
into a diet in which the staple food is the main part of the meal and is lacking in protein. The symptoms
include apathy, swollen liver, reddish hair, stunted growth, flaky skin, and edema of the ABDOMEN and
the legs.
• Pellagra is associated with PEM due to deficiency to niacin. It is characterized by muscle wasting.
• Marasmus- while it is caused by lack of food it is made worse by susceptibility to repeated infections
caused by poor hygiene. Marasmus produces shrunken dehydrated children with wasted muscles, it iis
often accompanied by diarrhea.
• PEM is as a result of poverty and ignorance. Tradition also plays aprt resulting in the father of a family
being given meat or any other protein available while the rest of the family having to make do with other
food remains.
• Both of these conditions are common in developing countries due to the general shortage of food. This
condition can be counteracted by eating protein rich foods e.g. peanut butter, meat, milk, eggs, milk etc.
Excessive protein consumption
• The body is unable to store excessive protein. Proteins are digested into amino acids which enter the blood
stream. Excess proteins are then converted into usable molecules by the liver in a process called
deamination. Deamination converts nitrogen from amino acids to ammonia which is then converted to
urea in the kidneys and the urea is then later excreted as urea in the urine.
• The excess of some amino acids may be converted into those that are lacking. (Transamination)
• Excessive protein also results in demineralization of the bone and a deterioration of kidney function in
patients with kidney disease.
• Any excess of amino acids will be used as a source of energy or converted to body fat.
Effects of cooking on protein
Protein is coagulated by heat. The process is gradual for example when heat is applied to egg white it thickens,
becomes opaque and then firm. Overheating will harden the protein making it tough unpalatable and shrunken.
This characteristic coagulation of protein when heated is employed in its use as a coating for deep and shallow
fried foods and in the development of crust in bread formed by the protein gluten in wheat.
Ways of denaturing proteins
• Heat: Normal cooking methods
• Salting by adding salt
• Mechanical action: whipping eggs
45
• Enzymes meat tenderizers

• Acid by adding acid
Effect of heat on proteins
As heat is increased the kinetic energy of the protein molecules increase and therefore the bonds are broken due to
the increased vibration. Therefore the protein chains start to unfold and may come into contact with other chains
and new weak bonds are formed. The effect of heat on most globular proteins e.g egg albumin is coagulation to
form a gel like structure. However when fibrous proteins are heated they contract and squeeze out the associated
water e.g when fillet steak is heated the protein myosin coagulates at about 71°C. If the temperature continues to
increase the protein contracts and squeezes much of the water associated with it and thus becomes drier and
eating quality is impaired.
Effects of acid on proteins
Proteins can also be denatured by acids. E.g. in the precipitation of casein from milk the pH of the milk is lowered
by the addition of the microorganism lactobacillus which ferments the disaccharide o lactic acid. As lactic acid
accumulates in the system, the pH is lowered to approximately 5.4. It is at this ph That casein coagulates and it
precipitates out of solution. This process is applied in the making of cheese, yoghurt and sour cream.
This is also evident if vinegar is added to water for poaching eggs
Effect of mechanical action on proteins
The bonds that maintain the shape of protein molecules are so weak that they can easily be broken by physically
agitating them. E.g in making meringues. By whipping egg whites air is incorporated and also the physical action
causes the protein to unfold and take on a new form. (Foam structure is formed).
Gluten gives bread dough both elasticity and plasticity. Gluten is formed by two proteins gliadin and glutenin.
During kneading the gluten molecules are rearranged from a tangled mass to a series of parallel sheets.
Carbohydrates
• There are 3 major categories namely- Monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Functions in the body
The function of carbohydrates is to provide the body with most of its energy and heat. Starch is composed of a
number of glucose molecules and during digestion the starch is broken down into glucose which is later broken
down during the process of respiration into energy, carbon dioxide and water.
Monosaccharide
These are single sugar units very simple e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose etc.
• Glucose and fructose are the only monosaccharide present to any extent in an average diet. They
occur in honey in roughly equal amounts and in glucose syrup which are extensively used by food
manufacturers for sweetening in the production of food.
46
• Honey consists of about 20% water and about 76% glucose and fructose. 4% is made p small
amounts of unconverted sucrose and some other disaccharides and minor quantities of minerals,
vitamins and flavor producing compounds.
• Fructose is the sweetest carbohydrate.
• Galactose does not exist as such in foods but is produces when lactose is broken down during
digestion
Disaccharides
These are sugars with 2 subunits joined together
Properties
• Sweet but do not have the same degree of sweetness
• When sugars are heated they caramelize
• Sugars can act as preservatives if large amounts are present in food
• Made of two subunits e.g. maltose (glucose+glucose), sucrose (glucose+fructose) and Lactose
(galactose+glucose).
Sources
• Sucrose is found in cane sugar and beet
• Lactose is found in milk
• Maltose is found in cereals. It is produced naturally during the germination of grain.
Sugars are also grouped on the basis of where they occur in foods. (i.e inside or outside the cell walls of food.)
Sugars
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Food contained inside the cell walls of food Sugars not contained within the cell walls of food
Fructose, glucose and sucrose found within the Non-milk mostly sucrose
walls of fruits and vegetables
Milk and milk products- lactose
47
Polysaccharides
These are complex carbohydrates made up of many sugar units joined together by glycosidic bonds through
repeated condensation processes.
Properties
• Not sweet and are usually tasteless
• Insoluble in cold water
Sources
• Whole grains: rice, oats, barley, tapioca,
• Powdered grains: Flour, corn flour, ground rice.
• Vegetables potatoes, peas, beans.
• Unripe fruit: Bananas, apples, cooking pears.
• Cereals: Cornflakes, shredded wheat etc.
• Cooked starch: cakes biscuits
• Pastes: Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli.
Polysaccharides in food fall into three major groups
1. Starch is the most important polysaccharide. It is the major food reserve of plantsand is a mixture of two
polysaccharides called amylose and amylopectin. Starch is a white powder and does not have a sweet
taste.
2. Glycogen is a carbohydrate found only in animals, where small amounts are stored in the liver and
muscles, and act as an energy reserve. Glycogen is composed of branched chains of glucose units, but
unlike amylopectin it is soluble in water. We do not eat very much of glycogen because it breaks down
again to glucose after the animal has been slaughtered
3. Non-starch polysaccharides(NSPs) or dietary fibre, provide the rigid and fibrous structure of
vegetables fruits and cereal grains. They form the main part of the food that is not digested.
NSPs are made up of the following
a) Cellulose consists of many thousands of glucose units. It cannot be digested by man because we do
not have the necessary enzymes to break it down. Cellulose is important for providing roughage or
bulk in the diet and therefore assisting in the passage of digestible materials and waste products
through the intestines.
48
b) Pectin and other similar polysaccharides are found in many fruits and some root vegetables e.g.
turnips. Apples and the peel of some citrus fruits are particularly rich in pectin. Its main importance is
as a gelling agent e.g. in jam making.
c) Hemicelluloses and other polysaccharides are found in small amounts.
Functions
• Energy glucose is oxidized in the cells with the release of energy. This energy can be used for physical
activity but more usually it is needed by body cells for normal functioning
• Converted into body fat
Digestion
Digestion of starch starts in the mouth; the enzymes responsible for the breakdown of starch are the amylase
enzymes which breakdown starch to maltose. Further breakdown of starch occurs in the small intestine where the
pancreatic juices released by the pancreas contain amylase which breaks down the undigested starch to maltose.
The intestines also release intestinal juices which contain the following enzymes sucrase, maltase and lactase. The
enzymes catalyze the following reactions respectively.
Sucrose glucose +fructose
Maltose glucose+ glucose
Lactose glucose + galactose
Excess intake
Any carbohydrate eaten in excess will be converted to glycogen and stored in the muscle tissue as well as the
liver. Once the glycogen stores are filled the excess is converted to fat and is stored beneath the skin in the
adipose tissue and other parts of the body.
Insufficient intake
The insufficient intake of carbohydrates usually results in low energy levels and fatigue normally sets in.
The insufficient intake may also result in the glycogen stores being used up, and then the body ends up targeting
its fat stores for its energy requirements.
Once the fats have been used up the body ends up targeting the proteins for its energy requirements and this
normally occurs when someone is going through severe starvation
49
Cooking effects on carbohydrates

Thorough cooking is essential if starch is to be absorbed, uncooked starch granules are not digestible. For
example, insufficiently cooked pastry or bread. When cooked the starch granules swell and burst and then the
starch can be digested. Foods containing starch have starch granules covered with cellulose walls which break
down when heated or made moist. When browned as with crust of bread. Toast roast potatoes, the starch forms
dextrin and these taste sweeter. On heating with milk or water the starch grains swell and burst, thus thickening
the product. This thickening process is known as the gelatinization of starch.
Fats
There are 2 main groups of fats. Animal and vegetable fats.
Sources
Fats can be divided into:
• Solid fat
• Oils (fat which is liquid at room temperature).
Fats are obtained from the following foods:
Animal origin: - dripping butter, lard, cheese, bacon, meat fat. Oily fish which are rich in omega 3
polyunsaturated fats
Vegetable origin:- margarine., cookig fat, nuts soya bean
Oils are obtained from the following foods:
Animal origin: - cod liver oil Vegetable origin:- from seeds and nuts.
Fatty Acids
• Fatty acids are those organic acids which are found in fats chemically bound with glycerol
Glycerol back bone
• The commonest fatty acids contain 16 and 18 carbon atoms.
• The fatty acids can be classified as:
1. Saturated fatty acids in which the carbon atoms are linked together by single bonds e.g. stearic acid.
2. Mono-unsaturated acids in which there is only one double bond in the carbon chain e.g. oleic acid
3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in which there are two or more double bonds in the carbon chains
e.g. linoleic acid, contains 2 double bonds.
• The more the double bonds that carbon hydrogen chain posses the greater are its degree of instauration.
• The degree of instauration is important in determining its properties
• All natural fats contain both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, but the greater the proportion of the
unsaturated fatty acids the lower the melting point of the fat.
50
• Fats which are high in unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. olive oil, sunflower seed oil) are therefore liquid at
room temperature e.g. butter.
Table 2: Sources 0f saturated and ply-unsaturated fats
High in saturated fats Dairy products and other Butter, cream, milk,
products cheese, liver, lamb, beef,
pork, coconut oil
High in poly-unsaturated Vegetable oils Corn oil, soya oil,
fats Nuts sunflower seed oil
Essential fatty acids (EFAs)

• These are essential to the body and cannot be made by the body and so must be supplied in the food
• There are 2 Essential Fatty Acids, linoleicacid and linolenic acid
• Most vegetable oils and some fish oils are good sources of essential fatty acids
EFAs have important functions in the body. They form part of the structure of all cell membrane; they provide the
raw materials from which the raw materials from the hormones known as prostaglandins .
Function of fats on the body
• The function of fat is to protect vital organs of the body,
• to provide heat and energy,
• and certain fats also provide vitamins ADEK.
• Some essential fatty acids form part of the cellular membranes,
• Required for the formation of hormones such as prostaglandins
Digestion of fats
• The liver secretes bile which is then secreted into the bile duct. Bile emulsifies fat into smaller fat droplets
some bile is stored by the gall bladder.
• Small intestines:- Pancreatic lipases brings about the partial hydrolysis of some fat molecules into glycerol
and fatty acids. These free fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed through the villi into the lymph vessel
where they are re-synthesized into fat molecules that are more suitable for use by the body.
Effects of deficiency
The amount of essential fatty acids required by the body is relatively very small therefore there is no known
deficiency. If the amount supplied in the diet is reduced the body compensates by making more itself. The body
normal has more cholesterol than it needs and some of the excess is made into bile salts which help the digestion
of fats.
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Effects of excessive intake

• Fats accumulate in the body due to excessive intake of foods. Fats if consumed to excess is stored under
the skin because they cannot all be absorbed into the bloodstream. Or else the person will have high
cholesterol level.
• Obesity, this is the state when a person has an excessive amount of body fat. Obese people are more likely
to suffer from diabetes than slimmer people and this may lead to kidney failure and blindness.
• Coronary heart disease is associated with the high build of fatty material especially cholesterol in the
blood.
Cooking effects of fats
The nutritive value of fat is not affected by cooking. During cooking processes a certain amount of fat may be lost
from the food as with the grilling of meat for example.
Effects of heat on fats
1. Slip point: this is the temperature at which the fats melt into a liquid fat the temperature ranges from
between 30-40°C
2. If the temperature is too high 135°C-245°C the smoke point of that fats may be reached at which
temperature blue smoke containing acrolein appears indicating incipient decomposition.
3. If the temperature is raised above the smoke point the rate of decomposition increase rapidly. This may
result in a fire this is called the flash point.
Rancidity
One way that rancidity develops is when the fat molecules are split by a reaction with water that releases fatty
acids and glycerol. The reaction involves an enzyme (lipases) and it is called hydrolytic rancidity
Rancidity
• Hydrolytic rancidity occurs when water splits fatty acid chains away from the glycerol backbone into
glycerides.
• Oxidative rancidity occurs when the double bonds of an unsaturated fatty acid reacts chemically with
oxygen.
• Microbial rancidity refers to a process in which microorganisms such as bacteria use their enzymes,
including lipases, to break down chemical structures in fat.
• In each case these chemical reactions result in undesirable odors and flavors.
• Free fatty acids produced by hydrolysis can undergo auto-oxidation. Oxidation primarily occurs in
unsaturated fats by free-radical mediated processes. These processes can generate highly reactive
molecules in rancid food and oils which are responsible for producing unpleasant and noxious odors and
flavors. These chemical reactions can also destroy nutrients in food. Under some conditions, rancidity and
the destruction of vitamins occurs very quickly.
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Table: Factors affecting rancidity in fats

Factor Effect
Water Necessary for development of rancidity by hydrolysis
Heat Speeds most chemical reactions including development of rancidity
Lipases Present in certain foods and causes rancidity
Metal ions Speeds up development of rancidity in fats
Light Speeds up oxidative rancidity
Salt food Speeds up development of rancidity
particles
Prevention of rancidity
• Antioxidants are often added to fat containing foods in order to delay the onset or slow the
development of rancidity due to oxidation. Natural antioxidants include flavonoids, polyphenols,
ascorbic acids (vitamin C) and tocopherols (vitamin E). Synthetic antioxidants include butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene(BHT), propyl gallate and ethoxyquin. The
natural antioxidants tend to be short lived, so synthetic anti oxidants are used when longer shelf life is
required.
• In addition, rancidity can be decreased but not completely eliminated by storing fats in cool dark
places with little exposure to oxygen, since heat and light accelerate the rate of reaction of fats with
oxygen. The addition of anti microbial agent can also delay or prevent rancidity due to the growth of
bacteria or other microbes.
Effects of heat on fats

When fats are heated these are the following changes that take place
• Slip point the temperature at which the solid fat melts into a liquid fat. The temperature
Vitamins
Vitamins are chemical substances which are vital for life, and if diet is deficient in any vitamin ill health results.
As they are chemical substances they can be produced synthetically.
GENRAL FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS
To assist the regulation of body processes e.g.
1. To help the growth of children
2. To protect against diseases.
Vitamin A -Retinol
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SOURCES
Cod-liver oil, Kidney, butter, cheese, eggs, milk, herring, carrots, spinach, watercress, tomatoes, apricots
Function:
1. Assists in the growth of children
2. Helps the body to resist infection
3. Enables people to see better in the dark
4. Necessary for healthy skin and also for normal growth and development
NB. Carotenes found in vegetables can be converted to retinol in the wall of the small intestines during
absorption and hence vegetables have considerable vitamin A activity. B- carotene is also an antioxidant and
protect easily oxidized nutrients e.g. PUFAs from oxidation.
Vitamin A is fat soluble therefore it is found in fatty foods. It can be made in the body from β-carotene, the
yellow substance found in many fruits and vegetables. Dark green vegetables are a good source of vit A, the green
color of chlorophyll masking the yellow of carotene.
Fish liver oils have the most vitamins A. The amount of vit A in dairy produce varies. Because cattle eat fresh
grass in summer and stored feeding stuffs in winter, the dairy produce contains the highest amount of vitamin A
in the summer.
Kidney and liver are also useful sources of vitamins A.
A long term deficiency of vitamin a may lead to a condition known as night blindness which makes it difficult to
see in dim light. Night blindness is caused by a shortage of a retinol derivative called rhodopsin or visual purple
which is essential for the proper functioning of the retina at the back of the eye. Night blindness is common in
some parts of Asia and Africa where the diet is deficient in vitamin A. An adequate intake of vitamin A is
essential for the maintenance of healthy skin and other surface tissues such as mucous membranes. Long term
deficiency may cause an eye disease known as exophthalmia in which dead cells accumulate on the surface of the
eyes causing them to become opaque. The cornea may become ulcerated and infected a condition known as
keratomalacia and blindness is a common sequel.

Retinol is not soluble in water and an excess above the body’s need is not excreted in the urine but accumulates in
the liver. This is why animal liver is such a valuable source of vitamin A. The liver of a well nourished person
may contain sufficient retinol to permit subsistence for several months without further intake of retinol or
carotene. Because retinol accumulates in this way an excessive intake should be avoided. Mothers who give their
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babies vita supplements in the form of fish liver oil should take particular care not to exceed the recommended
dose. Including adults who take the vitamin A pill should not overdose. Headache, hypertension, high cholesterol,
diarrhea
Effects of cooking
Retinol and carotenes are highly unsaturated and so they are easily destroyed by oxidation, especially at high
temperatures. They are much more susceptible to oxidation after extraction from food than when in animal or
plant tissues. Losses due to oxidation processes during cooking are small, but considerable losses may occur
during storage of dehydrated food if precautions are not taken to exclude oxygen. Apart from this sensitivity to
oxidation, retinol and carotenes are reasonably stable and are slowly destroyed at the temperatures used for
cooking. They are almost insoluble in water and so there is little or no loss by extraction during boiling of
vegetables.
Vitamin D- cholecalciferol
This vitamin controls the absorption of calcium. It is therefore necessary for healthy bones and teeth.
Like vitamin A. it is fat soluble.
Sources of vitamin D
An important source of vitamin D is on the action of sunlight on the deeper layers of skin
Fish liver oils, oily fish, Margarine to which vit D is added, dairy produce, egg yolk
Compared with vit A there are fewer sources of vit D., the fish liver oils being the most important.
Vitamin D is needed for the absorption of calcium and phosphorous in the body. In its absence the body is unable
to make use of these elements and they are lost in the feaces. Phosphorous and calcium are both needed in the
formation of bones and teeth.
Deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets in the young, and the related bone disease is osteomalacia in those whom
bone growth has ceased. Rickets is characterized by curvature of the bones in the limbs. The disease has been
successfully treated by exposure to long periods in the sun. Rickets is often found in conjunction with dental
caries because vit D is necessary for the proper calcification o teeth.
Excessive intake of vt D can be harmful. Too much calcium can be absorbed from the diet and the excess is
deposited in the kidneys where it causes damage and eventually death can result. There is a particular danger in
that babies who are given vit D in the form of fish liver oil could receive an excessive intake unless the
recommended dosage is carefully observed.
Fragile bones, hypertension, high cholesterol levels, diarrhea
VITAMIN E -Tocopherols
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Sources- plant seed oils

• Vit E protects easily oxidized nutrients such as unsaturated fatty acids, retinol and vitC from oxidation.
• Helps prevent the occurrence of serious eye disease called retrolental fibroplasia which affects premature
babies. This disease is caused by the action of oxygen on the developing blood vessels in the baby’s eyes
Effects of deficiency- results in the development of retrolental fibroplasia in premature babies.
Effects of excessive intake: blurred vision headaches,vomiting
VITAMIN K- Naphtoquinones
Sources- vitamin K is present in most foods but green leafy vegetables are the richest source. Bacterial synthesis
in the bowel provides humans with vitamin K in addition to that obtained from food stuffs.
Its essential for normal blood clotting, without vitamin K the liver is unable to synthesize prothrombin which is
the precursor of the blood clotting enzyme thrombin.
There’s is little danger of vitamin K deficiency. But in the absence of vitamin K a life threatening hemorrhagic
disease may occur in new born babies since they lack the bacteria which produces vitamin K in the gut and may
are given supplements.
Effects of excessive intake: Jaundice in infants, liver damage

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin B
The B group of vitamins comprises of several vitamins which have similar functions. In the body they are largely
concerned with the release of energy from carbohydrates. They are all soluble to a greater extent in water and
since the body lacks the capacity of storing them any excess is excreted in the urine. The members of the B group
vitamins are
• Thiamine (vit B1)
• Riboflavin (vitB2)
• Niacin (nicotinic acid)
• Pyrodoxine (vit B6)
• Pantothenic acid
• Biotin
• Cobalamine
• Folate
Thiamine (vit B1)
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Sources:- yeast, bacon, oatmeal, pea, whole meal bread

Function
Vitamin B is required to:
• Utilise carbohydrates by living cells. As a result its present in all natural foods to some extent.
Unfortunately it’s often absent from processed foods because it has been removed or destroyed in the
preparation of the food for the market.
• Promotes normal appetite and growth
The deficiency disease beri-beri which is caused by a deficiency of thiamine.
Symptoms being loss of appetite, emaciation and enlargement of the heart. A deficiency of thiamine causes a
check in the growth of children together with the loss of appetite and other symptoms such as irritability, fatigue
and dizziness.
Anxiety, hysteria, nausea
In common with other water soluble vitamins. Thiamin is not is not stored by the body and any excess is rapidly
excreted in urine. A regular and adequate supply of the vitamin is essential.
Effects of cooking
Thiamin is water soluble, as much as 50% may be lost when vegetables are boiled. Potatoes boiled in their skins
retain up to 90% of their thiamin compared with retention of about 75% in the case of boiled potatoes. Thiamin
decomposes on heating though it is fairly stable at the boiling point of water and little loses occurs at this
temperature in acidic conditions. In neutral or alkaline conditions break down is more rapid. Foods which have
been subjected to higher temperatures as in roasting or n processing during canning may have a large proportion
of their thiamin destroyed. Meat loses about15-40% of its thiamin when boiled, 40-50% when roasted and 75%
when canned.
Riboflavin (vit B2)

Sources:- Riboflavin is widely distributed in plant and animal tissues. Liver, kidney, fortified cornflakes, cheese,
eggs beef, milk, bread, liver, kidney, beer, cabbage, potatoes
In the body riboflavin is esterified with phosphoric acid or pyrophosphoric acid and forms part of the coenzymes
involved in the variety of oxidation-reduction processes concerned with the release of energy from protein, fat
and carbohydrate in living cells.
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A deficiency of riboflavin produces a check in the growth of children and lesions on the lips and scaliness at the
corners of the mouth may occur. The tongue and eyes may also become irritated.
Excessive intake
When riboflavin is eaten it is stored temporarily in the liver until its need by the body. It is not possible to store
large amount in this way, however it is necessary for regular and adequate amounts to be eaten.
Effects of cooking
Heating causes little breakdown of riboflavin and little or no loss during canning. Meat loses about a quarter of it
riboflavin during roasting. Greater losses occur if riboflavin is heated under alkaline conditions such as occur
when bicarbonate of soda is added to the water used for boiling vegetables. Although riboflavin is stable to heat it
is sensitive to light especially in milk. Up to three quarters of the riboflavin may be destroyed by exposure to
direct sunlight for 3 hours. The substances produced when riboflavin breaks down in this way are oxidizing
agents capable of destroying the vitamin C present in milk. The fats in the milk may be oxidized producing
unpleasant off-flavors.
Niacin (nicotinic acid and nicotinamide)
Sources; Found in both animal and plant tissues. Main sources are meat, potatoes, bread and fortified cereals.
Nicotinamide occurs in the body as part of two essential enzymes concerned in a large number of oxidation
processes involved in the utilization of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Aids nerve function and digestion
Deficiency
A severe deficiency of niacin can cause the disease pellagra which is characterized by dermatitis, diarrheoa and
symptoms of mental disorder. Less severe deficiencies can produce one or more of these symptoms. Pellagra has
long been associated, like many other deficiency diseases with a low standard of living. In particular pellagra
result from subsistence on a diet consisting mainly of maize.
Excessive intake;- Skin flushing
Pyridoxin or vitamin B6
Pyridoxine is the name given to a group of three pyridine derivatives, pyridoxal, pyridoxol pyridoxamine. All
three compounds are inter-convertible in the body and they are equally potent as vitamins. Vitamin B6 is found in
foods which contain the other B vitamins. The main sources in the diet are potatoes and other vegetables, milk
and meat. Symptoms of vitamin B6 deficiency in animals can be produced by feeding them with a diet devoid of
the vitamin. It is not easy to do the same things with humans although various skin lesions are reputed to be
caused by vitamin B6 deficiency. Infants fed on milk powders devoid of vitamin B6 were found to suffer from
convulsions but responded quickly to treatment with the vitamin.
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Function
Vitamin B6 functions as a coenzyme for a large number of enzymes involved in amino acid metabolism
Effects of deficiency:- Depression, confusion and convulsions in infants
Pantothenic acid
This vitamin is a pale yellow oil. It is found in a wide variety of plant and animal tissues. It is soluble in water and
it is rapidly destroyed by treatment with acids and alkalis or by heating in the dry state. Pantothenic acid is an
essential constituent of coenzyme A which is concerned in all metabolic processes involving addition or removal
of an acetyl group. Such processes are of great importance in the many complex transformations occurring within
the human body, especially those concerned with the release of energy from carbohydrate, protein and fat.
Biotin
Biotin is another widely distributed vitamin which is required in minute amounts as a coenzyme involved in the
metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. Many foods contain biotin. Liver and kidney are good dietary sources and
smaller amounts are found in egg yolk, milk and bananas. Such small amounts of biotin are required by the body
that sufficient amounts may be produced by the microorganisms present in the large intestines. Consequently
dietary sources and there is no evidence of biotin deficiency. Except in infants where it results in scaly skin,
fatigue and pain. Raw egg white contains a protein like substance called avidin which combines with the biotin of
the yolk to form a stable compound. This is not absorbed from the intestinal tract and therefore the biotin is not
available to the body.
Cobalamin or vitamin B12
Cobalamin is a deep red crystalline substance. The presence of cobalt gives this vitamin its characteristic red
color. Cobalamin is found in small quantities in all animal tissues but it absent from foods of vegetable origin. It
is required by the body in extremely minute amounts and vegetarians usually obtain sufficient from eggs and
milk. Vegans who abstain from foods of animal origin including dairy foods may suffer from a deficiency.
Fortunately , cobalamin can be made from a mould used to produce the antibiotic streptomycin and supplies are
available for vegans from this source.
Cobalamin found in avocado research.
Function
Coabalamin plays a part in the production of nucleic acids and in the complex process of cell division in the
body. It is especially important in conjunction with folate and iron, for the formation of red blood cells. It is also
involved in the formation of the myelin tube or sheath which surrounds each nerve fibre.
Deficiency
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Some people are unable to absorb cobalamin from their diet suffer from a serious disease known as pernicious
anaemia, in which extreme anaemia is accompanied by degeneration of the nerve tracts in the spinal chord.
Pernicious anaemia is caused by the absence from the gut of an intrinsic factor which is essential for the
absorption of cobalamin. It is NOT a deficiency disease because if the intrinsic factor is absent, it will occur even
when the diet contains sufficient cobalamin.
Folate
Folate is the name given to a group of closely related compounds derived from folic acid, Folates are involved in
the body in conjunction with cobalamin in the production of nucleic acids and in particular in the formation of
red blood cells. A deficiency of folate may cause a particular type of anaemia called megalosblatic anaemia. This
is similar to the anaemia caused by the non-absorption of cobalamin but it is not accompanied by degeneration of
nerve cells which is a feature of pernicious anaemia. Pregnant women are prone to develop this type of anaemia.
Folate deficiency during pregnancy may lead to premature birth and low birthweight. If a mothers diet is deficient
in folate before conception or during the early stages of pregnancy there is evidence of an increased risk that the
baby will be born with neural tube defects such as spina bifida.
Folates are found in small amounts a wide variety of foods, liver, green vegetables potatoes. Fortified cornflakes
are good sources of the vitamin.
Folates are easily destroyed during cooking and a good deal can be lost in the water used for cooking vegetables.
Even greater losses occur if sodium bicarbonate is added to the water to preserve the green colour of green
vegetables.
Magnesium
A human contains about 20-25g and most of it is found in the bones as magnesium phosphate. Magnesium is also
present in ionic form in all tissues where it plays a part in many reactions involved in energy utilization.
Sources
Magnesium occurs widely in foods. It is present in green vegetables as a part of the chlorophyll molecule and
vegetables provide two-thirds of magnesium in an average diet. Meat is also a good source as a consequence of
animals eating grass and other vegetation.
Zinc
An adequate intake of zinc is essential for the maintenance of good health. It forms part of the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase found in red blood cells, which assists in releasing carbon dioxide from venous blood passing through
the lungs. Zinc is also a constituent of several other enzymes, and it plays a part in protein and carbohydrate
metabolism. Prolonged absence of zinc can lead to retarded physical and mental development in adolescents.
Other mineral elements
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The body requires small quantities of other mineral elements and these are referred to as trace elements. Normal
diets provide a sufficient supply of all the trace minerals except for fluorine and iodine.
Iodine
Sources- milk, sea food, iodized salt
Iodine is carried around the body in blood as iodide and is absorbed in the thyroid in the neck where it is
converted to the hormones thyroxine and tri-iodothryonine. These two hormones are concerned with the general
metabolic metabolic activity of the body and control the rate of energy production of cells.
When the diet provides insufficient iodine, the thyroid gland may increase in size in an attempt to compensate for
the deficiency a condition known as goitre. Some vegetables are known to be goitrogenic i.e. capable of causing
goitre e.g. cabbages and cauliflower contains toxins called goitrogens.
Fluorine
Traces of fluoride in the diet are beneficial in protecting teeth against decay especially in children below the age
of 8 years. Dietary fluoride hardens tooth enamel. Fluoridation of water reduces the incidences of dental caries,
particularly in young children.
Table 2 Some trace elements
Element Approximate Average Main food sources Functions in the body

average adult body
daily intake content
Cobalt (Co) 0.3mg 1.5mg Liver and other meat Required for formation of red
blood cells
Copper (Cu) 3.5mg 75mg Green vegetables Component of many enzyme
fish, liver AAs. Necessary for
haemoglobin formation
Chromium 0.15mg 1mg Liver, cereals beer Contained in all tissues.
(Cr) yeast Involved in glucose
metabolism
Flourine (F) 1.8mg 2.5g Tea, seafood water Required for bone and tooth
formation
Iodine (I) 0.2mg 25mg Milk seafood, iodized Component of thyroid
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salt hormones
Manganese 3.5mg 15mg Tea, cereals pulses, Forms part of some enzyme
(Mn) nuts systems
Molybdenum 0.15mg ? Kidney cereals, Enzyme activation
(mo) vegetables
Selenium 0.2mg 25mg Cereals, meat, fish Present in some enzymes.
(Se) Associated with vitamin E
activity
Non-starch polysaccharides Dietary fibre

Dietary fibre comes from the cell walls which form the structural support of the plant from which the food
originated. E.g cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, lignin. NSPs differ from starch in that they cannot be digested by
the enzymes in the small intestinesand they enter the bowel unchanged.
Sources: wheat, maize, rice, oats, barley, rye, vegetables
Functions of NSPs
• Prevents constipation-NSPs absorb water in the small intestines leading to formation of softer and larger
stools.
• NSPs speeds the passage of food through the alimentary tract
• Helps prevent many bowel diseases such as appendicitis, diverticular diseases in which distended pockets
are formed in the bowel walls.
• They are of value to diabetes mellitus sufferers in which the concentration of glucose in the blood exceeds
the normal levels. Diet high in fibre slow down the release of glucose in the blood stream and in this way
the symptoms of diabetes are minimised.
• Lowers the blood cholesterol levels in some individuals therefore the risk of coronary heart disease is
reduced.
Digestion of dietary fibre
NSPs are unaffected by the enzymes of the digestive system and it passes more or less unchanged to the large
intestines. Once there it is attacked and broken down by harmless bacteria which inhabit the bowel and is partly
converted to short chain fatty acids, carbon dioxide hydrogen and methane. The short chain fatty acids are
absorbed into the blood stream and hence contribute to the body’s energy intake. The hydrogen formed during
NSP breakdown is absorbed and subsequently expired in the breath.
The carbon dioxide and methane are not absorbed however it results in flatulence.
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Constipation is characterized by longer transit of food through the intestinal tract and formation of hard small
stools.
May result in bowel diseases such as diverticular diseases
Effects of excess intake
Diets with a high NSP content may also have high phytate (natural toxin) content. This toxin complexes with iron
and calcium and may interfere with their absorption.
Water
Sources:- water, beverages and food.
Water is unlike other essential nutrients in that most of it does not undergo chemical changes within the body
Function
• Transports nutrients through the body
• To dissolve substances or to hold them in colloidal suspension
• Water remains liquid over a wide temperature range and this property enables water to provide a liquid
medium in which thousands of reactions necessary to life can occur.
• Some water is involved in chemical changes e.g. enzymic and hydrolytic breakdown of nutrients during
digestion
Deficiency- feel faint, thirsty all these are signs of dehydration
Excess intake- most of it lost through urine and sweat
Dietary needs of special groups
Babies’ diet-Mother’s milk is the ideal food for the baby and all mothers should be encouraged to breastfeed. It is
desirable that breast feeding continues throughout the first year of a baby’s life. Mother’s milk provides the
correct balance of nutrients for the baby’s needs except for vitamin C. The infant’s requirements of energy and
protein over the first six months of life are provided by breastfeeding and no nutrient supplement should be
required as long a mother is receiving an adequate diet. Nursing mothers are advised to take vitamin supplements
to increase calcium intake.
Another advantage of breastfeeding is that the milk is available at the right temperature and in the right quantity.
Also with breast feeding the risk of infection is decreased compared to bottle feeding, the young baby is protected
by antibodies and other substances in the mother’s milk at a time when its own protective mechanisms are not
properly developed. Breastfeeding reduces the risk of diarrhea from contaminated milk because the milk passes
from mother to baby without any external contact. Non-nutritional advantages of breastfeeding include fostering
of a close physical relationship between mother and baby and a beneficial effect on the health of the mother.
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Bottle feeding:- For many mothers there may often be a good reason why they cannot breast feed in which case
they will bottle feed their baby using commercial baby milk. Cow’s milk has a composition very different from
that of human milk and on its own is an incomplete food for babies; hence has been modified to make it
equivalent to breast milk. Although such attempts have not been successful there are many commercial products
that are satisfactory. Commercial baby milks are normally in concentrated form –either dried or evaporated and
are reconstituted by the addition of water. Cow’s milk is modified in a number of ways so that it more closely
resembles human milk. The main objects are to reduce the mineral and protein content and increase the lactose
content. In addition such products are easily fortified with vitamin D as neither mother’s milk nor cows’ milk
contains sufficient amounts for the baby’s needs. In some products the animal fat of cows’ milk is replaced by
vegetable oils. Ordinary skimmed milk is not good for the babies as it contains less vitamin A and has lower
energy content than cows milk
Nutritional requirements for infants

Recommended Dietary requirements
Age Calcium Magnesium Phosphorous Iron Vitamin D Vitamin K
mg/day mg/day mg/day mg/day IU/day mcg/day
0-6 months 400 40 300 6 300 5
6-12mths 600 60 500 10 400 10
1-3 years 800 80 800 10 400 15
Calcium, phosphorous, vitamin D
Formula fed infants generally consume more than the recommended daily allowance of calcium, phosphorous and
vitamin D, breast fed infants consume less total calcium from breast milk but retain similar amounts to formula
fed babies because of better absorption of calcium from breast milk.
Iron deficiency
Breast fed infants are at risk for iron deficiency because while iron in breast milk is well absorbed, iron level in
breast milk are inadequate about a fifth of unsupplemented breast fed babies develop evidence of iron deficiency
by nine months of age. Iron fortified cereals starting around 4 to 6 months greatly reduces the risk of Iron
deficiency.
Vitamin K
Breast milk is low in vitamin K. Before mamdated use of vitamin K in the new born baby, the devastating
hemorrhagic disease of the new born occurs in 1in 200 babies. The condition has been almost eliminated by
vitamin K use at birth.
Flouride
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While adequate dietary fluoride helps prevent tooth decay an unsightly mettling and structural and structural
weakening of permanent teeth known as flourosis has become more prevalent. Younger children get a significant
amount of fluoride from water supplied and swallowing toothpaste.
Nutritional requirements for children

Nutrition guidelines recommended for adults are inappropriate for most children under the age of five, because
children have small stomachs and so need plenty of calories and nutrients in a small amount of food to ensure
they grow properly.
While low fat diets are recommended for older children and adults, toddlers need diet that contains good amounts
of fats. This fat should come from food that contains plenty of other nutrients, like meat, fish and full fat milk
rather than high fat food that contains few vitamins and minerals for example cakes, biscuits and chocolates. They
should not eat too much fibred rich food as they may fill them up so much that they cannot eat enough to provide
them with adequate calories and nutrients
Nutritional requirements for children
Toddlers
Nutrition guidelines recommended for adults are inappropriate for most children under the age of five. This is
because young children only have small tummies and so need plenty of calories and nutrients in a small amount
of food to ensure they grow properly. As a child grows milk alone is insufficient. At four moths or later solids
should be introduced to a child’s diet. The child should continue to have plenty of milk while he or she is
gradually let it not the family’s diet.
Points to remember
• always introduce new foods gradually
• Serve small portions of food, however should be as nourishing as possible and make it as attractive as
possible.
• Encourage children to be sel-reliantand start teaching them good table manners at an early stage. Introduce
them to their own plate and cutlery to encourage sense of ownership
• Do not give your children rich spicy or greasy foods. It is too much for their digestive systems
• Sugar is not good for children’s teeth and sweet things in between meals soil their appetite.
While low fat diets are recommended for older children and adults, below five need diet that contain good
amounts of fats.
This fat should come from food that contains plenty of other nutrients like meat, dry fish and full fat milk rather
than from high fat food that contains few vitamins and minerals e.g. cakes, biscuits and chocolates.
Meanwhile young children should not eat too many fibre rich foods as these may fill them up so much that they
cannot eat enough to provide them with adequate calories and nutrient.
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School children
As kids approach school age they should gradually move towards a diet that’s lower in fat and higher in fibre and
by the age of five their diets should be low in fat, sugar salt and high in fibre with five fruits and vegetables per
day just like adults. Fortunately whatever their age children can easily get a balanced diet and lower the risk of
becoming obese by eating a variety of foods from the four main groups. Children in this age group are very active
and grow very fast. Consequently their meals should include energy foods as well as food for growth. The choice
of food is widened as they grow older
Bread, other cereals, potatoes, these starch foods which include pasta provide energy fibre, vitamins and minerals.
Fruits and vegetables- these provide fibre, vitamins minerals and are a source of antioxidants.
Milk and dairy products- these provide calcium for healthy bones teeth, proteins for growth, vitamins and
minerals.
Meat, fish, pulses, eggs- these foods provide proteins and vitamins and minerals especially iron. Pulses contain
fibre.
Teenagers
Teenage years are a period of rapid physical and emotional growth and changes. At this stage they are encouraged
to eat a variety of foods and regular exercise. Rapid growth, greater needs, body image influences and erratic
eating means good food is as important in the teen years. Some nutrients are especially important at this stage.
E.g. teens should eat iron rich foods and the equivalent of a pint of milk daily, yoghurt, cheese, baked beans leafy
vegetables and fortified breakfast cereals will contribute to the body’s iron needs. Girls start to menstruate at this
stage and this regular loss of blood may trigger anaemia. They should eat foods rich in iron
Aim for five portions of fruits and vegetables every day and eight glasses of water. Encourage five meals per day
from all the food groups and healthy snacks in between meals.
The physical changes of adolescence have direct influence on a person’s nutritional need. Teenagers need
additional calories, protein, calcium and iron.
Calories
Adolescence need additional calories to provide energy for growth and activity. Boys aged between 11-18 years
need between 2000-2800 calorires per day. Adolescent girls need 2200 calories each day. This is a significant
increase from childhood requirement. To meet this calorie need teens should choose a variety of healthy foods
such as lean protein sources, low fat dairy products, whole grain foods, fruits and vegetables.
Protein
Protein is important for growth and maintenance of muscles. Teens need between 45-60g of protein each day by
eating pork beef, chicken, eggs and dairy products. Protein is also available from certain vegetable sources
including, soy food beans and nuts.
Calcium
66
Adequate calcium intake is essential for development for strong dense bones during the adolescent years and
young adulthood years. Inadequate intake of calcium during teenage years puts individuals at risk for developing
osteoporosis later in life. Teenagers are encouraged to consume three to four servings of calcium rich food every
day e.g. milk yoghurt, cheese, cereals etc.
Iron
As adolescents gain muscle mass, more iron is needed to help their new muscle cells obtain oxygen for energy. A
deficiency in iron causes anemia which leads to fatigue confusion and weakness.
Pregnant and lactating women
• 4-6 servings of carbohydrate
• 5-6 servings of vegetables
• 4 servings of fruits
• 2 servings from milk dairy
• 2 servings from meat
Energy requirements
Energy requirements are increased with pregnancy due to the growth of the unborn baby and placenta.
Physical activity has health benefits for the mother prepares the body for childbirth. Healthy eating is important
for the pregnant women and their unborn babies. There are many nutritional issues to consider ensuring good
health of both woman and baby during and after pregnancy. A wide varied diet is vital in supporting the growth
and development of the fetus and the maintenance of the woman’s own health
During pregnancy there is increased requirement for most nutrients. Energy , iron, folate, iodine, zinc, vitamin
C. Her diet should include foods which contain plenty of dietary fiber to guard against constipation
for the safety of the unborn baby a pregnant mother should be mindful of listeria, mercury, alcohol, caffeine.
Iron
The increased needs of pregnancy and lactation can normally be satisfied from the body’s iron stores in the
absence of losses through menstruation. Supplementation of the dietary intake is usually only required when the
maternal iron stores are low at the start of the pregnancy.
Folate
Pregnant women are prone to develop megalobalstic aneamia. Folate deficiency during pregnancy may lead to
premature birth and low birth weight. If a mothers diet is deficient in folate before conception there is a
probability that the baby will be born with neural tube defects such as spina bifida. Therefore pregnant women are
encouraged to take supplements.
Vitamin A
This vitamin is responsible for the normal growth and development of the baby. Pregnant women need this
vitamin in large quantities
67
Sedentary workers
Nature demands from every form of life a certain amount of activity or motion. Intestinal congestion which is
almost universal in sedentary workers is caused in nearly all cases by consuming a quantity of food in excess of
physical demand. The diets therefore have to be light. The diet may include foods such as fruits, fish, and
vegetable and should be a little low on fat and carbohydrates. Ailments suffered from sedentary workers are
indigestion, constipation and anemia. In dealing with each and all of these conditions including obesity which is
normally as a result of sedentary habits, the first thing is to limit the quantity of food to the normal requirement of
the body and in extreme cases a diet below the normal should be observed. Then with proper care as to the
selection, combination and proportions of food and an increased amount of exercise and deep breathing, a person
of sedentary habits should be made as healthy and strong as the manual laborer.
Manual workers
Manual workers need a diet high in energy giving foods than sedentary workers. Adults need less body building
foods than children. Energy foods should contain more fats than carbohydrates because carbohydrates are difficult
to digest while one is doing physical work. They need more water and salt to replace that which has been lost
through sweat
Invalids
Children seem to get sick very suddenly. Invalids are people who have been weak through illness or injury.
Convalescents are people recovering from serious illness or an operation. Both invalids and convalescents have
specific dietary needs. It is important to follow the doctor’s instructions when looking after a sick person. During
an illness the patient may run a very high temperature. They consequently loose their appetite and it is not
necessary to give them solid food. A fluid diet is ideal.
Dehydration
The main concern with children is their high risk dehydration through loss of fluids with vomiting and diarrhea.
This is also true with adults, but due to body size it takes longer to be dehydrated. The main aim is to get fluids
into the child. It is best to encourage small sips they will not tolerate large volumes in one go including fluids
with some energy value is worth trying if they can tolerate it. If the child has been sick for along period of time
try an oral dehydration fluid. These fluids have the right balance of sugar and salts and these are an important
source of electrolytes sodium and potassium. Which are lost through vomiting and diarrhea.
Introducing food for invalids
As invalids get better slowly introduce food back into the diet. keep the rough fibrous type of food low initially.
Bland foods are also better tolerated than rich food. It is best to offer things frequently and in small amounts.
Some children will bounce back easily and resume a normal diet quickly. Others may take sometime before they
start feeling comfortable with a wide range of food
Breads for invalid food
68
Use white bread and use only a scraping of butter or margarine. Adding marmite is a good way of replacing salt.
Dry toast is also a good option
Fruit and vegetables
Fruits – try bananas, stewed fruits such as apples peaches. Apply
Vegetables- try boiled or mashed root vegetables which could be easier to tolerate e.g. potatoes, pumpkin, and
carrots.
Protein choice natural
Egg- poached boiled scramble
Fish steamed
Plain chicken
Plain lean roast meat
Cereals.
Elderly people
Elderly people may suffer from an inadequate diet for a variety of reasons including loneliness, poverty, reduced
enjoyment of food due to loss of taste and smell mental and physical lethargy, or illness or inability to chew and
digest food properly , For these reasons elderly people often suffer from malnutrition than the rest of the
population. Energy needs decreases with age because of the reduction of physical activity therefore carbohydrates
should not be excessive. There elderly need a high protein diet to repair worn and torn tissues. Old people suffer
from loss of calcium from a bone disease called osteoporosis. Although this condition cannot be prevented or
remedied by diet, foods which are rich in calcium such as milk and cheese should be included in the diet of the
elderly. Among those elderly who are malnourished, the nutrients most likely to be deficient are vitamin C, D and
folate. Many old people have inadequate intakes of folate and this may be because they eat few green leafy
vegetables. There are some particular hazards for older people e.g. old people who have difficulty in peeling fruits
or cooking potatoes may lack sufficient vitamin C, while the housebound will have little or no chance of being in
the sunshine and consequently may lack vitamin D. Vitamin supplements may well be beneficial
Food habits for Zimbabwe’s different cultural groups

A number of cultural groups exist in Zimbabwe and each has their own traditional way of eating their food. The
differences arise from the different types of foods how they are prepared and cooked and eating habits.
Indigenous Zimbabweans for example, sit on mats or mud steps and eat their food from the same plate, with or
without individual side plates. This approach is slowly falling away and a more individual approach is being
adopted i.e. food is either dished into single plates or spooned from a common big plate into individual smaller
69
ones. The Moslems buy their meat from special Halal butcheries. This is because these butcheries kill the animals
and chickens in a special way.
Special Diets
Vegetarian diets
There are three main types of vegetarian regime, the ova-lacto-vegetarian diet, which consists of foods of plant
origin together with eggs and dairy products; the lacto vegetarian diet which is similar but excludes eggs and the
vegan diet which excludes all foods not of plant origin. Vegetarians in the first two categories get animal protein
from eggs and dairy products and can easily obtain a nutritionally adequate diet if care is taken to eat a sufficient
variety and quantity of food. Vegans can also achieve a diet which is satisfactory in most respects, but unless care
is taken it is difficult for them to receive sufficient vitamin B12, and possibly vitamin D from their very restrictive
diet.
Although a carefully contrived vegetarian diet can be nutritionally adequate, it should be borne in mind that plant
proteins are usually of lower biological value than animal proteins unless a variety of plant proteins are eaten on
the same day, preferably as a part of the same meal so that the absence of an essential amino acid in the proteins
of one food can be complemented by its presence in another. The table below shows the amino acid strength and
weaknesses of the food which figure prominently in vegetarian diets.
Table 4: Essential amino acids composition of vegetarian food groups
Food groups Weaknesses Strengths
Pulses or legumes Tryptophan, methionine, Lysine
cysteine*
Cereals Lysine, isoleucine Tryptophan,methionine,
cysteine*
Seeds and nuts Lysine Tryptophan, methionine,
cysteine*
Other vegetable foods Isoleucine, methionine Tryptophan,lysine cysteine*
Eggs None Tryptophan, lyisine,
methionine, cysteine*
Dairy foods None lysine
Cysteine* is not an essential amino acid because the body can make from mentioning but its presence spares
methionine
The maximum nutritional benefit will be obtained by combining foods in such a way that the amino acid
weaknesses of one group are compensated by the strength of another. For example, when food of cereal origin is
eaten at the same time as a pulse, as in the case of bake beans on toast, the two proteins combined provide high
70
quality protein. It is important that young children are provided with high quality protein to sustain a high rate of
growth so proteins in the diets of vegetarian children and especially vegan children should be from mixed
sources.
Lacto-vegetarian diets usually contain more fat because of the amount of milk and other dairy products
consumed. Vegetarian and vegan diets are normally richer in EFA linoleic acid than the diet of non-vegetarians.
The calcium intake of lacto and ovo-lacto vegetarian is usually high but that of vegans very low. Most vegans do
not eat white bread and hence do not have the benefit of calcium carbonate which is added to flour.
Iron is normally poorly absorbed from plan sources and so the iron content of a vegetarian diet needs to be higher
than that of a non-vegetarian diet to provide the same amount of iron to the body. Vegetarians who consume milk
and dairy products usually have an adequate vitamin intake and are unlikely to suffer from vitamin deficiencies
but vegan diets may lack vitamin D and vitamin B12. Natural vitamin D is found in dairy products which are not
eaten by vegans. A deficiency may be avoided by eating margarine which is fortified with synthetic vitamin D.
Cobalamin can be attained from commercially growing bacteria which produces streptomycin.
Low fat diets exclude or severely limit foods which are high in fat but allow other foods to be eaten freely. Fats
have more than twice the energy value than carbohydrates or proteins, so that a low fat diet is likely to be a low
energy diet. This type of diet is currently recommended by many doctors because lowering fat intake, and
particularly lowering saturated fats is considered to be healthy and may be a way of reducing coronary heart
diseases.
High fiber diet:- (whole food diet) are very popular and aim at establishing a diet that has a low energy value
but a high NSP content. Whole food is rich in NSPs have the advantage that they have a low energy value while
because of their capacity to hold considerable amounts of water, they provide bulk which gives a feeling of
fullness. Moreover it is believed that an increased intake of NSPs lowers the blood cholesterol levels and
therefore lowers the risk of obesity. Another advantage is that whole foods are eaten in place of refined
convenience foods.
Gluten free diet;-
A glutei free diet is a diet completely free from ingredients derived from glutein containing cereals;- wheat,
barley, rye etc as well as the use of gluten as a food additive in the form of flavoring, stabilizing or thickening
agent. It is recommended amongst other things in the treatment of coelic disease, migraines. Additionally the diet
may exclude oats. Gluten free foods e.g. corn, potatoes, rice and cassava
71

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• Food standard Advisory Board’

Doors and Windows

• Readily inspected to see that it is clean

NORMAL CLEANING OF MATERIALS

Cleaning of large electrical equipment (Mincere, mixers, choppers, slicers, etc.)

• Open the doors and windows to get rid of the gas

Do not attempt the following

Choosing Fire Extinguishers

Identify the type of materials in the area

Class A: SOLIDS such as paper, wood, plastic etc

Class D: METALS such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium etc

Types of fire extinguisher

Water Fire Extinguishers:

Foam Fire Extinguishers:

Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers:

CO2 Fire Extinguishers:

Dry Powder - Blue

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Black

• Green- Halon (vaporizing liquid)

First Aid Equipment

First aid Procedures

Fractures or broken bones

Cost for poor food hygiene

Benefits of food hygiene

Conditions conducive to rapid bacterial growth

Conditions conducive for bacterial growth

Bacterial Growth Curve

• Accumulation of toxic substances

pH- most microorganisms grow best under neutral

Oxygen- The amount of oxygen available affects the

FOOD POISONING AND ITS PREVENTION

• Biological food poisoning

Viral Food Poisoning

Fungal food poisoning

monocytogens cooked foods.

• Recognition, control and prevention of salmonella outbreak among domestic animals

Food poisoning prevention

8. Quick cooling of food prior to storage

Cross contamination between cooked and uncooked foods

Other skin lesions(boils, cuts)

The basic aims of food hygiene practice can be summarized as follows

These three principles of good hygienic practice are explained below

Prevent multiplication of microorganisms

Cook food thoroughly

Food borne diseases

Vegetables and fruit

grayish brown in colour owing to the conversion of myoglobin to metmyoglobin. As putrefaction

Water content and water activity of some foodstuffs.

Bread 38-40 0.95

Heat resistant microorganisms

Inelastic fibrous protein Elastic

Globular • Relatively soluble. Part of all fluids Enzymes, protein

Histidine (Non-essential in adults)

• Enzymes meat tenderizers

Cooking effects on carbohydrates

Essential fatty acids (EFAs)

Effects of excessive intake

Table: Factors affecting rancidity in fats

Effects of heat on fats