Foundations and

Retaining walls

CIVL3811
Engineering Design and
Construction

School of Civil Engineering |

Faculty of Engineering
THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

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 Introduction
Definition
Foundation: The structure, that transmits the load of the building to the underneath soil.

superstructure

substructure

column or wall load

Footing

undisturbed soil
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 Deep Foundations, piles and shoring systems

 Transferring all loads from superstructure to sub to ground. It depends on the soil strength or capacity if you
design shallow or deep.

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 Introduction
Selection of a Foundation type
Selection of a foundation type depends on ;
› ground conditions
› ground water level
› site environment (buildings nearby)
› type of structure that needs to be supported by the foundation system

Structural requirements ;

› need to transfer the loads into the undisturbed soil

› need to provide sufficient safety to the structure

Constructional requirements:

› use minimal resources

› constructed with a minimal cost
› time efficient construction techniques
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 High rise buildings differ to low rise buildings.

 Ground conditions even a few metres can be different at different places. Must do geotechnical evaluation at
your site.

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 1. The area investigated versus size and nature of development.
2.Degree of uncertainty in characterizing the site versus the cost of the
investigation.
3.Potential for optimization of foundation design. Geotechnical investigation
can cost 0.5 to 5% of project value but result in significant savings.

PILES SOFT SOIL

ROCK

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- You must do it in a large scale project, you can pay a very heavy price if you do not do it.
- Soft Soil  Must use piles in a soft soil to transfer the loads to the rocks.

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- If there is something wrong in shoring or supporting system, it can delay construction.

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- Need to have a uniaxial test, triaxial test and consolidation test before boring.

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Core logging report has different layers.

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 Introduction
Types of Foundations – Shallow Foundations
Pad foundation Strip foundation Beam foundation

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Mat/ Raft foundation

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FOR LARGE LOADS TRANSFERRING  MAT FOUNDATION

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Sketch of reinforcements for columns

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Edge Beam Shallow Foundation Detail

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 Introduction
Types of Foundations – Shallow Foundations

Raft foundation
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Raft foundations where entire load of building can be transferred.

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 Raft foundation

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Difficult to find out the location of the reinforcement from the columns or the shear walls
This is located inside the mat foundation or raft foundation
If you make a mistake of the columns, everything in the plan is changed (such as rooms, etc.).
If you make a mistake about the location of the size of columns, everything gets changed.
Always try to employ a reliable surveryor who knows how to use a total station very well. Ask the surveyor to find a
point as a benchmark and find the free level, then find the right coordinate system. Find out the main
reinforcement from the shear wall and always check with the benchmark. Check the right location multiple times.
Make sure the total station is calibrated.

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 Soil Properties
Allowable Soil Bearing Capacities
Typical allowable bearing capacities for different types of soil is given in the following
table. However, a thorough investigation on soil condition at the site need to be performed
prior to the selection of bearing capacities for critical soil conditions and large structures.

Allowable bearing capacity of soil , 𝒒𝒒𝒂𝒂=𝒒𝒒𝒖𝒖⁄𝑭𝑭.𝑺𝑺 1

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 - ultimate bearing capacity of soil 𝐹𝐹.𝑆𝑆- factor of safety

Material Allowable bearing capacity (kPa)
Soft clay 50-100
Medium dense clay 100-200
Stiff clay 200-400
Loose fine sand <100
Medium dense sand 100-300
Dense gravel 400-800
Shale 500-800
Sandstone 1,000-2,000
Bedrock 5,000-10,000
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Different types of soil capabilities.

- What are the bearing capacities of the soil.

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 Pad Footings (Isolated Footings)
Pressure Distribution
Pressure distribution under a vertical load is shown in the figure below. There is no
bending moment transfer to the footing. The pressure distribution is uniform.
N

N N

q max

𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏
𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑁𝑁
𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚is the maximum bearing pressure

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Axial Force / Dimension of the Footing

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 Pad Footings (Isolated Footings)
Pressure Distribution

Reinforcement detail: Isometric view RF detail: Elevational view

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Detailing of interactions

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 Pad Footings (Isolated Footings)
Pressure Distribution
Pressure distribution under a vertical load and a moment
N
(a) 𝒆𝒆= 𝑴𝑴≤ 𝑳𝑳 𝑒𝑒
𝑵𝑵 𝟔𝟔 𝑳𝑳
(b) 𝒆𝒆>
N N 𝟔𝟔
M
𝑒𝑒
=

𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3(L/2 − 𝑒𝑒)

𝑁𝑁
𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚= 3 6
𝑁𝑁 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏
𝑞𝑞= ± 3 2 𝑏𝑏 2 − 𝑒𝑒
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼
To begin the design of an isolated footing, the vertical
𝑁𝑁 6𝑀𝑀
𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 4 column load 𝑁 𝑁 and the moment 𝑀 𝑀 are estimated for
+
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏2 service load condition. The dimensions 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑏𝑏 are
𝑁𝑁 6𝑀𝑀 then chosen so that the maximum calculated pressure
𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚= − 5
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏2 does not exceed the allowable bearing pressure of
The University of Sydney soil. 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚< 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚 7 Page 25

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 Combined Footings
Why we need Combined footings
In situations where two columns are fairly close to each other or neighbouring isolated
footings over lap, a combined footing can be used. When a structure has an edge column
closer to the boundary where symmetry of the column footing cannot be achieved, a
combined footing with adjacent interior column would provide a simple design solution.

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 Combined Footings
Soil pressure distribution
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴= 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴≠ 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵

𝑏𝑏1
𝑏𝑏1

𝑞𝑞1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑞𝑞2,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏

Constant pressure Varying pressure

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How footing is designed.

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 Combined Footings
Selection of Dimensions
The line of reaction force acting through the geometric centroid of the plate
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵
The width (b) and the length (L) of the footing can be
𝑏𝑏1 estimated from
𝑏𝑏× 𝑏𝑏× 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚= 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴+ 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵 8

𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Take first moment of area about left hand edge of the
footing to estimate length (𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴)of the footing.
𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴+ 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥= 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 + 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵(𝑏𝑏1+ 9
𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴)
𝑥𝑥
where 𝑥𝑥= 𝐿2𝐿 provides a symmetrical pressure
𝑏𝑏
distribution in the footing.

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 Combined Footings
Selection of Dimensions
The line of reaction force acting with an offset to the geometric centroid of the plate
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵
𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑡 𝑀𝑀𝑦
𝑞𝑞= ∓ 𝑥𝑥 10
𝑏𝑏1 𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚

1
𝐴𝐴= 𝐵𝐵× 𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚= 𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏3
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𝑞𝑞1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑞𝑞2,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚= 𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑡 × 𝑒𝑒𝑦𝑦 11
𝑅𝑅

𝑒𝑒𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏
𝑞𝑞2,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚< 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏/2

𝑏𝑏

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 Combined Footings
Determination of Moments and Tension Reinforcement
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Bending moment diagram

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Required reinforcement ratio (𝑝𝑝) can be

estimated from Eq.(12) where 𝑀𝑀∗is in 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝑘𝑘 Shear Force diagram
and 𝑑𝑑is in 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. Note that the amount is given
by the following equation is for 1m wide strip.
𝑀𝑀∗
𝑝𝑝= 2.7 × 2 12
𝑑𝑑

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 Combined Footings
Determination of Moments and Shear Forces
Longitudinal bending
𝑀𝑀1 𝑀𝑀2 𝑀𝑀5 𝑀𝑀3 𝑀𝑀4

0.7𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠

0.7𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑

𝑆𝑆1 𝑆𝑆2 𝑆𝑆3 𝑆𝑆4

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑

Plan view of the footing Part elevation of the footing

Critical sections for longitudinal bending , 𝑀𝑀1-𝑀𝑀5

Critical sections for flexural shear, 𝑆𝑆1- 𝑆𝑆4

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 Design of RAFT Foundation
Why we need RAFT foundations
In situations where isolated or combined footings aren’t capable of bearing the pressure
due to the large column loads, the use of a Raft foundation is opted. Raft foundations,
much like combined footings, are required to be checked for bearing pressure. In
addition, settlement and punching shear of the columns are also critical factors when the
design of a raft foundation is considered.

Raft foundation
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 Design of RAFT Foundation
Types of Raft foundations

Flat plate Plate with drop panels

Flat with Pedestals Waffle slabs

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SAFE Program for designing raft foundation

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 Design of RAFT Foundation
Soil pressure acting on the raft

𝑁𝑁
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝛾𝛾

𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑞𝑞

𝛾𝛾= Unit weight of soil

𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑡
𝑞𝑞= − 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝐴𝐴
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 Design of RAFT Foundation
Rigid method approach

› The RAFT is infinitely rigid, and therefore, the flexural deflection of the mat does not
influence the pressure distribution.

› The soil pressure is distributed in a straight line or a plane surface such that the
centroid of the soil pressure coincides with the line of action of the resultant force of
all the loads acting on the foundation

𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑙 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁4

3

𝑞𝑞𝐴𝐴,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑞𝑞𝐵𝐵,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡
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 Design of RAFT Foundation
Develop shear and bending moment diagrams for each strip by considering
the modified loads and the pressure obtained from the previous step.

Shear force diagram

Bending moment diagram

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 Introduction
Types of Foundations – Deep Foundations
Cast-in situ bored piles Driven piles

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Piles are used to transfer loads of building to lower layer.

Two methods  cast in-situ, driven, steel cage.

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Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur

Also Burj Khalifa in Dubai  USYD Professor Designed.

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Used for Bridges

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Detailing

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 Cast-in-Place Piles
Information on Drawings

– Maximum pile loads and moments

– Contract Levels
– Requirements for socket material
– Minimum length of the socket
– Reinforcement and concrete details
– Details of the permanent casing and driving shoe

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 Pile caps and spread footings
Proper detailing of the pile cap

https://www.carrabay.com.au/pile-cages/

https://www.thestructuralworld.com/2018/07/20/pile-cap-design/

The University of Sydney Page 45

Piles are always bent towards the inside and is a practical thing. Need to have pile caps

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 Pile caps and spread footings
Pile caps and spread footings might be designed
using the strut and tie method, or if their width is
large relative to their thickness, they can be
designed as beams.

https://ryanrakhmats.wordpress.com/2021/07/03/simplified-pile-caps-design-with-strut-and-tie-methods/

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233087801_
Evaluation_of_the_shear_strength_of_four_pile_cap_
using_strut_and_tie_model_STM/figures?lo=1

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Some elements are in tension and some in compression Strut and Tie Methdo

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 Numerical methods
P

d
L

P = working load
factor of safety = Pu/P = 2.5

• The load-deformation response of piles under axial load has been

extensively studied using numerical methods.

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 Numerical methods
• Based on the results, charts can be developed.
• Settlement of a pile depends on the various parameters of pile geometry and stiffness and soil
stiffness.

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 Numerical methods

https://www.midasbridge.com/en/solutions/substructure
s

https://www.midasbridge.com/en/solutions/substructures

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 Pile group settlement
P

d
ELEVATION PLAN

Settlement is the limiting design criterion for pile

groups in both sands and clays.

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 Pile Function
– Piles transfer loads on the bridge superstructure and substructure to the foundations.
– Pile loads are calculated during the bridge design process.
–

https://www.constructioncost.co/bridge-pile-cap-construction-details.html

The University of Sydney Page 51

This type of piles are used for bridges, especially long span bridges.
Driver Piles and Cast in Piles for Bridges.

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 Pile Resistance
Pile resistance is derived from friction on pile sides and from bearing on the
bottom of the pile
– Driven piles are used where they can be driven some distance into the soil to
the required resistance, or to refusal on rock
– Usually cheaper than cast-in-place piles
– Cast-in-place piles used where rock is close to the surface, or where vibration
and noise of pile driving operation is unacceptable

Cast-in-place piles for

Driven piles for
bridges
bridges

https://www.iceusa.com/blog/dooker-hollow-bridge-driven-piles/

https://www.geotech.net.au/capabilities/foundation-piling/bored-cast-in-situ.html

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The same technique used for bridges for piles was possibly used in the Burj Khalifa or other high-rise buildings.

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 Driven Steel H-Piles
– Steel H piles

– Suitable for rural applications

– If there are no aggressive soil conditions (or
preventative measures are taken), then major
advantages for :
• Hard driving conditions
• High tensile forces and bending moments
• Very long piles

– Limits on driving stresses

• Conflicting views: range 0.85 Fy to 1.4 Fy
• Recommendations in AS 2159
– H section piles: 0.85 Fy

https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/foundation-design/steel-piles/40266/

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 Trench-box excavation shoring systems for
sewer installation
– Usually for shallow narrow excavations where the excavation
base is stable, and water is not present. These types of shoring
systems are prefabricated and pushed into the ground. The
trench walls are typically supported by connected braces. These
systems should generally not be used when ground deformation
control is important.

https://www.deepexcavation.com/en/resources/excavation-shoring-systems

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Deep Excavations and Different types

- Need to put enough shotcrete and ties
- Failure is increased and then boom.
- Moment transferring occurs until it fails.
- Need to have a good understanding of the soil.
- First technique is trench box and is good for narrow and shallow excavations.
- If ground water pressure (excess pore pressure is high) hard to use.

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 Sheet pile excavation shoring systems
– Steel or vinyl sheet piles are commonly installed
when groundwater is an issue and where the
ground allows installation of the sheet piles without
causing damage to adjacent structures.

http://projectmanagement123.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Method-Statement-Temporary-
Sheet-Piling-Sheet-Shoring.jpg

https://www.keller.com.au/expertise/techniques/sheet-piles
The University of Sydney Page 56

Can be installed used strut and tie to create some element.

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 Sheet Pile Walls
– Application: Temporary shoring and retention of
deep soils above and below water table.
– Usually restrained by multiple rows of anchors or
bracing/struts
– Relatively low cost
– Can be withdrawn and re-used.
Disadvantages
-Noise and vibration.
-Cannot penetrate rock.
-Relatively flexible, so can cause damage (cracking) to adjacent
structures.
-Some leakage through clutches.

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- Check durability of post construction

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Leaking shotcrete can be major problem.

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 Soldier Pile Walls
– Applications: For the retention of vertical excavations in stiff
clay or weak rock, above the groundwater table.
– Typically bored concrete piles/piers with infill shotcrete panels.
– May be restrained by “tie-back” ground anchors.
Advantages
-Relatively low cost shoring system
-Can socket into rock for restraint (cantilever).

Disadvantages
-Local instability of panel material between piles

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 Soldier Pile Walls

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Looks like you have piles and then you put steel mesh and shotcrete and/or panels.
The piles look like soldiers when standing up.

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 Soldier piled walls are a form of embedded retaining
wall that is used to retain the soil behind to allow the
ground level in front of the wall to be lowered, the
retained height can be increased with the use of
propping or anchoring.
Soldier Pile Walls with Tiebacks

https://www.deepexcavation.com/en/resources/retaining-
systems/soldier-pile-lagging-walls

https://www.keller.com.au/expertise/techniques/soldier-and-
The University of Sydney Page 62
contiguous-pile-retaining-walls

Can be in-situ or hammer piles. Best system according to faham.

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 Contiguous Pile Walls
•Application: Retention of dry soils, above the water table
to provide a stiffer wall adjacent to neighbouring properties or utilities (e.g.
buildings)
•Formed by bored or CFA (grout or concrete-injected) piles.
•Minimal shotcrete surface usually applied to exposed face, with strip drains
squeezed into the (25mm) gaps, if required.

The Universi ty of Sydney Page 63

https://www.keller.co.uk/expertise/techniques/contiguous-pile-walls

- Major Problem in long term  long term effect of creep and shrinkage problematic especially for saturated soil.
- Need to have a dry soil.
- Shrinkage is lethal when there is saturated soil.

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 Secant Pile Walls
•Application: Retention of soils below the water table for
watertight basement construction.
•Formed by CFA (grout or concrete-injected) piles.
•Can be either ‘hard-soft’ or ‘hard-hard’ piles.
• ‘Hard-soft’ walls formed by primary, reinforced (structural) piles
and unreinforced or low strength grout.

https://railsystem.net/secant-pile-walls/

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 https://railsystem.net/secant-pile-walls/
The University of Sydney Page 66

Popular when low excess pore pressures in the water.

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 Secant Pile Walls

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Need to have right shoring and support systems for deep excavations.

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 Diaphragm Walls
Applications:
-Permanent retaining wall below water table.
-Stiff retention system; fewer anchors needed.
-Can socket wall into rock, for cut-off wall.
-Over 30m depth with good verticality control.

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 Find place of water table for geotechnical investigation.

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 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40515-021-00208-0/figures/1

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 Types of Retaining Wall

• Gravity walls

Rely on their weight

for the stability of
the wall

• Embedded walls

Mobilise earth pressures

in the ground to provide
resistance

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- Gravity retaining walls

- Embedded walls perform like a canitilever beam so significant movement at the end region.

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 Retaining Walls

Gravity walls Gabion walls

Crib walls

Cantilevered walls
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Gabion not too popular in AUS.

Crib Walls people are interested sometime.es

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 Introduction
Retaining Walls

Buttress wall Bridge abutments

Reinforced earth walls

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Bridge Abutment  performs as a retaining wall on both ends. They transfer lateral (axial and movement)

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 Abutments in bridges
The abutment provides the connection
between the bridge deck and the approach
road. It refers to both the vertical or sloping
face between the upper and lower ground
levels, and also the concrete support for the
bridge superstructure.

https://civilengineeringbible.com/article.php?i=261

https://www.beco-bermueller.de/en/applications/civil-engineering/bridge-abutments/

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Stress-Distribution-on-Bridge-Abutment-due-to-Live-Saranya-
Umashankar/6158130f3cd8fa576e461d8af434011ede773a98

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Need to take into account the liquefication of the soil.

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 Reinforced Earth Retaining Structure
– This is a type of retaining system for soil that uses artificial
reinforcement imbedded into soil or rock to stabilise a wall at
the face of the soil that holds it in place.

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 Gabion Caged Stone Wall
– Gabions cages are rectangular box shaped cages made of thin wired
steel mesh (similar to chicken mesh) which may be filled with rocks.
These may then be stacked and tied together with steel wire.

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Popular in Italy and spain, steel mesh and provides stability against lateral loads. No drainage system can cause
huge problems for this.

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 General Guidelines
AS 4678 : 2002
This standard is applicable to retaining structures and reinforced soil structures that are
commonly constructed for engineering works and infrastructure. Such structures are
typically up to 15 m in height.
Structures of unusual shape, of large retained heights (in excess of 15 m) or founded in
unusual ground conditions (such as soft ground, land slips, steep sides or deeply inclined
gullies), together with structures subject to sustained cyclic loading, are outside the
provisions of this Standard.

Structures shall be classified in accordance with following table.

Structures where failure would result in minimal damage and loss of access where the
wall height (H) is greater than 1.5 m are deemed to be classification B structures.
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Better understanding between all retaining walls to get a general understandings.

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 Soil Types
Cohesive soil:
Sticky soil such as clay or clayey silt whose strength depends on the surface tension of
capillary water.
Cohesionless soil:
Any free-running type of soil, such as sand or gravel, whose strength depends on friction
between particles.

(a) (b)

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Get some feeling of the soil

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 Soil Properties

General soil properties can be classified as in Table D4: AS 4678. However, it is

required to obtain accurate data from the site geotechnical report.

AS 4678-Section D3
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 Soil Properties

Unit weight (𝛾𝛾) of soil and similar materials are given in Table D1: AS 4678.

AS 4678-Section D3
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 Cantilevered Walls
Failure Modes

Overturning Sliding

Global overturning
Bending of components
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Failure modes in cantilever walls  mostly overturning.

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 Cantilevered Walls
Typical Section

Finished ground surface

Stem / wall Temporary excavation line

Backfill
height

backfill Existing ground

Toe Heel

Typical drainage system

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Actions and Reaction in a cantilevered wall.

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 Cantilevered Walls

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