LECTURE 3

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
What is a school of psychology? At the beginning of this module, we defined psychology and
gave a brief account of how it developed into a true science of human behaviour with its own
methods of study. In the history of psychology, different perspectives of explaining behaviour
evolved. This came as a result of strong differences of opinion about what psychology should
study and how it should do it. Schools of psychology can be thought of as groups of
psychologists who hold common beliefs about both the subject matter of psychology, that is,
what facets of mental processes and behaviours should be studied, and what methods of study
should be used. Thus, a school of psychology represents a view point or approach to the
explanation of behaviour. Most schools of psychology developed as a revolt against traditional
methods and beliefs at the time. Different schools provided ideas which influenced
contemporary approaches to psychology. In this lecture we are going to discuss various schools
of psychology and as we do this, keep your attention focused on how some of these schools
might have contributed to Teaching practices and understanding of the behaviour of Teachers
and criminals.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between various schools of psychology.
• State the major emphases and assumptions of various schools of psychology.
• Explain the major contributions of each school of psychology.
• Relate the various approaches of psychology to teaching processes.

3.3 Major Schools of Psychology

The Major Schools of Psychology include:
i. Structuralism
Structuralism is one of the earliest schools of psychology that was founded by Wilhelm Wundt
in 1879. Remember we said that Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in
German at the University of Leipzig and therefore he is considered as the founder of
experimental psychology. The setting up of this laboratory marked the break of psychology
from philosophy to science.

The goal of structuralists was to find the units, or elements, which make up the mind. They
thought that a first step in the study of the mind should be a description of those basic or
elementary units of sensation, image and emotion which compose it (Morgan et al., 1986).
They were mainly concerned with determining the components of conscious thought.

Wundt and other structuralists used a technique called introspection to study the structure of
behaviour. Introspection is a method in which subjects are asked to describe in detail their
thoughts and feelings. The assumption was that one can understand the structure of the mind
through the objective reports and reactions of the subject. For example, a subject might be
presented with a coloured light and asked to describe it as minutely as possible.

Structuralists inaugurated psychology as a science and established the importance of studying

mental processes. However, psychologists felt that structuralism was limited to only one area
of behaviour and had few practical applications. These psychologists who were mainly
Americans began a new school of psychology called functionalism.

ii. Functionalism
William James was the leading force in the functionalism school of psychology. Functionalists
felt that psychology should study “what the mind and behaviour do”. They were specifically
interested in the fact that mind and behaviour are adaptive – they enable an individual to adjust
to a changing environment. Psychologists in this school of thought were influenced by
Darwin’s theory of the survival for the fittest. Instead of limiting themselves to the description
and analysis of the mind, they did experiments on the ways in which learning, memory,
problem solving and motivation help human beings and animals to adapt to environments. In
short, as the name of the school implies, these early psychologists studied the functions of mind
and behaviour.

Functionalism had an impact on the development of psychology although it is no longer

considered a formal school (Huffman et al., 1987). It expanded the scope of psychology to
include research on emotions and observable behaviours. Functionalists initiated the
psychological testing movement, changed the course of modern psychology and were
responsible for extending psychology’s influence on diverse areas in industry. Other
Psychologists’ dissatisfaction with these initial schools of psychology led to the development
of new perspectives of looking at behaviour.

iii. Psychoanalytic Perspective

This approach was founded by Sigmund Freud (1956 – 1939), an Austrian physician whose
area of specialization was neurology (the study of disorders of the nerves and brain). It
developed because of his experience with his medical patients. In his treatment of neurological
patients, Freud noted that some of his patients presented symptoms that had no physical basis
like brain damage. These symptoms were real for the patients as if they had neurological
causes.

Freud suspected that these problems were psychological in origin and as a result developed a
complex and sophisticated model of human behaviour known as psychoanalytic theory. From
this theory he developed the treatment known as psychoanalysis. Freud believed that behaviour
is brought about by inner unconscious forces, drives or impulses over which the person has
little control. These urges and drives are hidden from the awareness of the individual. In other
words, they are unconscious. It is the expression of these unconscious drives which shows up
in behaviour and thought. For example, psychoanalysts believe that dreams and slips of the
tongue are manifestations of what a person is feeling within a subconscious psychic activity.

Freud also emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences on later personality
development. He coined the phrase, “the child is the father of the man”, to emphasize his
belief that our childhood experiences are stored in our unconscious state of mind and influence
our personality and behaviour when we are adults. For example, if you were neglected and
abused as a child, chances are high that you will lack affection and trust in other people. If you
are such a person, you may be cold and abusive in adulthood experience (Sindabi & Omulema,
1999).

Learning Activity:
What factors cause criminal behaviour from a psychoanalytic view?
Freud’s perspective was criticized because of his research methodology in which he
exclusively applied the individual case study technique without comparing his data to normal
people as a control. Thus, critics contend that this theory applies to abnormal behaviour, if it
is applicable at all. Despite the criticism, his school of thought has had an impact on
psychotherapy (the application of psychological principles and techniques to the treatment of
psychological disorders) and psychiatry (the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders
especially with drugs).

iv. Gestalt Psychology

This school of psychology was founded in Germany around 1912 by Max Wertheimer and his
colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. Gestaltists felt that structuralists were wrong
in portraying the mind as being made up of elements. They maintained that the mind is not
made up of a combination of simple elements.

The German word gestalt means “form”, or “configuration, or organized whole”. The gestalt
psychologists maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole
sensory activity and the relationships and organization within this pattern. They felt that no
single aspect of behaviour could be understood by itself, but only as part of a “whole” pattern
of behaviour. Thus, to them the whole is greater and more meaningful than the individual
elements alone (the whole is greater than the sum of its parts). They also emphasized the
importance of the context or background in creating meaning for a specific event. For example,
if a child is involved in delinquency, the context and background (e.g., home or school
environment) are important in understanding the behaviour fully. This school of psychology
has made significant contributions in the understanding of personality and perception.

v. Behaviourism
What was the major emphasis of the behavioural perspective? Behaviourists felt that
observable behaviour should be the focus of study rather than mental processes and
unconscious experiences. The proponents of this school of thought include, J. B. Watson, B.
F. Skinner and F. L. Thorndike. Behaviourists felt that the scientific method in psychology
should be limited to the study of behaviours that can be directly observed and verified.
Watson believed that by controlling a person’s environment any desired behaviour could be
obtained irrespective of his/her talents, abilities, heredity and other factors.
Behaviourists believed that all behaviour can be viewed as a response to a stimulus (an object
or event that causes an organism to respond in the environment). For example, a baby who
cries upon seeing a nurse whenever he/she is taken to the dispensary is demonstrating stimulus-
response behaviour. The nurse is the stimulus and the crying is the response. According to
this school of thought, nearly all behaviour can be accounted for by learning. Behaviour that
has been rewarded in the past will likely be repeated again whereas behaviour that is not
reinforced is likely to become extinct.

Learning Activity:
What factors cause criminal behaviour from a behaviouristic point of view?

Watson and Skinner used animals (such as, rats, pigeons and cats) to study how behaviours are
acquired through learning and how behaviour can be changed. This perspective was criticized
for overemphasizing visible behaviour and environmental influences on behaviour to the extent
of ignoring thought and subjective experiences. This approach had significant influence on:
• How we learn new behaviours.
• How behaviour can be modified.
• The proper use of punishment and rewards.

vi. Humanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) are some of the most
influential psychologists associated with the humanistic approach. This school of psychology
developed as a reaction against the idea that behaviour is determined by forces beyond our
control or by environmental forces. It emphasizes on free-will, that is, the human ability to
make choices and decisions about one’s life. According to Huffman et al., (1987:34),
humanistic psychologists emphasized the importance of inner, subjective self, consciousness
and feelings. Humanists emphasize that human nature is naturally positive, creative and growth
seeking unless blocked by experience. We can freely choose to live more creative, meaningful
and satisfying lives. Thus, we are free to make choices and to decide how to behave. Each
one of us is seen as a unique individual with both the need and ability to fulfil our unique and
optimum potential according to Abraham Maslow. This school of thought has made major
contributions in counselling which is the process of assisting another person to find a solution
to his/her problems through discussion with a counsellor.
 Learning Activity:
From a humanistic point of view, what is likely to be the cause of criminal behaviour?

vii. Cognitive Psychology

The psychologist who is closely associated with this school of thought is Jean Piaget (1896 –
1980) who was a Swiss psychologist. This view was a reaction against radical behaviourists
like Skinner, who regarded cognition (thought) as outside the realm of psychology. The new
view came to be known as cognitive psychology and focused on reasoning and the mental
processing of information. Cognitive psychology is concerned with the acquisition, storage,
retrieval and use of knowledge. Cognitive psychology studies how we gather, encode and store
information from our environment using mental processes such as, perception, memory,
imagery, concept formation, problem solving, reasoning, decision making and language
(Huffman et al., 1995).
Cognitive psychologists take an information processing approach based on the idea that
humans are like computers in that both take in information, process it and produce a
response/behaviour. Thus, we do not just respond to environmental stimuli, we mentally
process the sensory input, appraise the situation and respond accordingly. For example, if the
same ridicule is directed to three students, their reactions may be different. One may cry,
another one may take it as a warning not to continue misbehaving and the third one may not
react at all. Their reactions can be explained in terms of how they process and interpret the
information.

Learning Activities:
i. Briefly explain the cognitive approach?
ii. Summarize its key assumptions

Piaget and other cognitive psychologists believed that behaviour has a cognitive element. We
understand and actively interpret information. Piaget believed that the ability to process
information undergoes dramatic transformation as children grow from one stage of
development to another. According to Piaget, children understand the world in an entirely
different way from adults. Thus, the difference in behaviour in children and adults reflects the
difference in their ability to know, understand and reason about things and events around them
which develops systematically. As children, we need to see and feel things to know and
understand them, but as adults, we can know and understand things and events through abstract
reasoning and conceptual analysis.

Learning Activity:
Can criminal behavioural tendencies be inherited? Discuss with your fellow learners.

viii. Psychobiology
This school of thought explains behaviour in terms of the biological functioning of the body.
It emphasizes that genetic, physiological and neurological factors and processes determine
behaviour. The influence of the nervous system, particularly the brain is very crucial. A
normal human being depends on a properly functioning nervous system. Psychological
development is based on changes in brain growth, which are genetically determined, that is,
maturation. Normal behaviour or psychological or mental health are functions of a normally
functioning healthy nervous system. A problem or disease affecting the nervous system, which
includes the brain, will affect human behaviour, causing problems in learning and normal living
(Sindabi & Omulema, 2000).

ix. The Eclectic View

The various schools of psychology discussed are important in the historical development of
psychology. At any one time or another each was the dominant perspective. They influenced
thought and guided research in psychology. Most of the knowledge and content we have in
psychology today developed from these schools of thought.

Learning Activity:
Can one perspective in psychology exhaustively explain behaviour?

Most contemporary psychologists recognize that these perspectives are not mutually exclusive
from each other and hence the eclectic view/perspective which allows blending of ideas from
different perspectives. The eclectic approach adopts principles and practices from several
orientations or schools of thought. This approach holds that human behaviour cannot be
understood fully by taking one perspective. Each perspective focuses on a different aspect of
 human behaviour and as such may be seen as complementary rather than competing. In many
cases, they provide explanations of behaviour at different levels. All the explanations may be
right since they address the task of understanding human behaviour at different levels and
perspectives. Rather than speak of schools of psychology, most modern psychologist prefer to
talk about the five basic perspectives or approaches that influence the topics studied in
psychology. These are the psychoanalytic, behaviouristic, humanistic, cognitive, and
biological approaches. These are the major perspectives that are widely evident in modern
psychology. Therefore, when faced by a particular situation, you should select the ideas which
are helpful to the particular situation.

3.4 Summary

• A school of psychology represents a group of psychologists who held common beliefs about the
subject matter of psychology and the methods of study to be used.
• Structuralists attempted to identify elements of consciousness and that form the structure of the
mind.
• Functionalists studied the functions of mental processes and behaviour in adapting the
individual to the environment.
• Psychoanalysts examined psychological problems presumed to be caused by unconscious
thoughts and conflicts.
• The Gestalt school studied organizing principles of perceptual processes.
• Behaviourism emphasized observable behaviours and the ways they are learned.
• Humanistic psychology focused on free will and the assumption that our nature is positive and
growth seeking.
• Cognitive psychologists focused on the role of reasoning and mental processes in behaviour.
• Psychobiology attempts to explain behaviour in terms of complex chemical and biological
events within the brain.
• The eclectic view allows blending of ideas from different schools of psychology in order to
understand behaviour fully.

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? Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is a school of psychology?
2. Explain the difference between the two historical schools of psychology, that is,
structuralism and functionalism.
3. (a) In one or two sentences explain the major emphasis of the following
schools/perspectives in psychology:
• psychoanalytic
• gestalt
• behaviourism
• humanistic
• cognitive
• psychobiology
(b) Discuss the contributions of the six perspectives in 3a. in psychology.
4. Compare the cognitive approach with the psychobiological approach to psychology.
5. Explain how behaviour originates according to the behaviouristic approach to
psychology.