LECTURE NOTES

RENEWABLE AND DISTRIBUTED ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES (R&DET)

(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – III)

Unit-I: Brief idea on renewable and distributed sources - their usefulness and advantages;
Wind Energy Systems: Estimates of wind energy potential - wind maps - Instrumentation for
wind velocity measurements - Aerodynamic and mechanical aspects of wind machine design
- Conversion to electrical energy - Aspects of location of wind farms.

BRIEF IDEA ON RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in several forms
such as heat, kinetic or mechanical energy, light, potential energy , electrical, or other forms.
Energy is the ability to do work. Energy sources could be classified as Renewable and Non-
renewable. The sun is the main source of energy on Earth. Other energy sources include coal,
geothermal energy, wind energy, biomass, petrol, nuclear energy, and many more. Energy is
classified into various types based on sustainability as renewable sources of energy and non-
renewable sources of energy.

Renewable energy is energy that is produced from natural processes and continuously
replenished. A few examples of renewable energy are sunlight, water, wind, tides, geothermal
heat, and biomass. The energy that is provided by renewable energy resources is used in 5
important areas such as air and water cooling/heating, electricity generation, the rural sector,
and transportation.

We can define renewable energy as those energies which can never be depleted. The
importance of renewable energy is invaluable. These types of energy sources are different
from fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, and natural gas. Some examples of renewable energy
sources are:

 Wind energy
 Solar energy
 Geothermal energy
 Hydropower
 Biomass energy

The sources could sustain for a longer period of time and can easily be renewed often.
Sustainable sources are biomass, nuclear power, geothermal, wind energy, solar power, tidal
power, and wave power.
The sources of renewable energy are known to be less polluting and therefore the whole
world is looking forward to new carbon emission norms, where carbon will play a major role
in developing new factories and industries. They will be rated according to the carbon
emission and the products that they are producing will be rated accordingly.

Types of Renewable Energy

1. Solar Energy: The radiant light and heat energy from the sun is harnessed with the
use of solar collectors. These solar collectors are of various types such as
photovoltaics, concentrator photovoltaics, solar heating, (CSP) concentrated solar
power, artificial photosynthesis, and solar architecture. This collected solar energy is
then used to provide light, heat, and different other forms of electricity.
2. Wind Energy: The energy we get from winds is known as wind energy. For this,
windmills have been used for hundreds of years to pump out water from the ground.
We use large tall wind turbines that allow winds to generate electricity. The natural
airflow on the surface of the earth is used to run the wind turbines. The modern-day
wind turbines range from about 600 Kilowatt to 5 Megawatts, for commercial
purposes these are rated with an output power of 1.5 to 3 Megawatts. The most
preferred locations for these wind turbines to be installed are the areas which and
strong and have constant airflows on offshore and sites that are at high altitudes. The
power generated from wind energy in 2015 met 4% of global energy consumption.
3. Hydroelectricity: According to statistics, hydroelectricity generated around 16.6% of
the global energy resources and constituted about 70% of all renewable electricity.
This energy is another alternative source of energy that is generated by the
construction of dams and reservoirs on the flowing water, the kinetic energy from the
flowing water is used to run the turbines which generate electricity. Tidal power
converts the energy of tides and Wave power which captures the energy from the
surface of the ocean waves for power generation. These two forms of hydropower
also have huge potential in electric power generation.
4. Geothermal Energy: It is the energy that is generated from the thermal energy which
is stored in the earth. The heat energy is captured from sources such as hot springs and
volcanoes and this heat is directly used by industries for heating the water and other
purposes.
5. Biomass Energy: This type of energy is derived from biomass which is a type of
biological material derived from living organisms and plant-derived materials which
are called lignocellulosic biomass. Biomass can be directly used via combustion to
produce heat and indirectly it can be used to convert to biofuels. Biomass can be
converted to other usable forms of energy such as transportation fuels like ethanol,
biodiesel, and methane gas.

BRIEF IDEA ON DISTRIBUTED SOURCES OF ENERGY

Distributed generation refers to a variety of technologies that generate electricity at or near
where it will be used, such as solar panels and combined heat and power. Distributed
generation may serve a single structure, such as a home or business, or it may be part of a
microgrid (a smaller grid that is also tied into the larger electricity delivery system), such as
at a major industrial facility, a military base, or a large college campus. When connected to
the electric utility‘s lower voltage distribution lines, distributed generation can help support
delivery of clean, reliable power to additional customers and reduce electricity losses along
transmission and distribution lines.

In the residential sector, common distributed generation systems include:

 Solar photovoltaic panels

 Small wind turbines
 Natural-gas-fired fuel cells
 Emergency backup generators, usually fueled by gasoline or diesel fuel

In the commercial and industrial sectors, distributed generation can include resources such as:

 Combined heat and power systems

 Solar photovoltaic panels
 Wind
 Hydropower
 Biomass combustion
 Municipal solid waste incineration
 Fuel cells fired by natural gas or biomass
 Reciprocating combustion engines, including backup generators

A distributed energy resource (DER) is a small-scale unit of power generation that operates
locally and is connected to a larger power grid at the distribution level. DERs include solar
panels, small natural gas-fueled generators, electric vehicles and controllable loads, such as
HVAC systems and electric water heaters. An important distinction of a DER is that the
energy it produces is often consumed close to the source.

When using renewable power sources, the intermittent nature of some resources creates a
need for using multiple renewable resources, as well as a means to tie them together, manage
and store their output. Energy storage such as batteries and fly wheels are required for
hardware such as wind and other turbine types, solar panels, and tidal generation units.

DERs are commonly used to manage a number of smaller power generation and storage
methods in residential, commercial and industrial sectors.They may be used by utility
providers, businesses and individuals in the production and storage of renewable power or for
backup power sources. The technologies are fundamental requirements of more advanced
power grids such as smart grids.

Benefits of distributed energy resources are as follows,

 The inclusion of distributed energy resources into the grid has several benefits.
Customers with DER assets can expect to pay less for electricity because they can sell
power back to the grid.
 In areas where there is a high reliance on wind, solar and other variable energy
resources (VERs), distributed energy resources can be used to help improve quality of
service and reliability of service.

SOURCES OF ENERGY

Sources of energy can be classified into:

 Renewable Sources
 Non-renewable Sources

Renewable Sources:
Renewable energy is derived from sources that are continuously refilled. Solar energy,
geothermal energy, wind energy, and hydroelectric power are some of the renewable energy
sources.

Renewable sources are generally allied with clean energy and green energy, but there are
some subtle differences between these three types of energy. Where clean energy is a type of
energy that does not release pollutants like carbon dioxide, the sources that are recyclable are
renewable sources, and the energy that comes from natural sources is green energy. There is
often a dispute between these types of energy because not all types of renewable energy are
truly green or clean. For instance, natural habitats can be damaged by some hydroelectric
sources, which eventually causes deforestation.

Characteristics of Renewable Energy Sources

1. Renewable resources have the capacity to restore themselves easily.

2. Ecological developments for a definite time period are required by renewable
resources to regenerate themselves.
3. Renewable energy can become non-renewable energy if it is utilised in an extreme
amount, that is, higher than the environment‘s ability to restore it.

 Renewable sources of energy are available plentiful in nature and are sustainable.
These resources of energy can be naturally replenished and are safe for the
environment.
 Examples of renewable sources of energy are: Solar energy, geothermal energy,
wind energy, biomass, hydropower and tidal energy.

Advantages of Renewable Sources of Energy

1. Renewable energy sources can never run out because these sources are continuously
filled by nature. For instance: solar energy can never run out until the Sun exists in the
solar system.
2. As compared to non-renewable sources like fossil fuels, renewable energy sources are
easily available to humans and are reliable because these energy sources are
distributed equally on the planet.
3. Renewable energy sources are environment friendly because they are produced
naturally, and they do not emit any harmful gases or pollutants that can cause damage
to the ozone layer or to the environment.
 4. Renewable sources require less maintenance as compared to non-renewable energy
sources. For instance, if you can see turbines in hydropower stations or in wind farms,
you will observe that these power generating systems do not require any external
system for rotating parts. Although their initial cost is high, once they are installed,
you can benefit from them for a lifetime.

Disadvantages of Renewable Sources of Energy

1. Renewable energy sources are not available round the clock because these sources are
natural forces that depend strongly on the weather condition. Therefore, when you
have bad weather conditions, renewable energy such as solar cells can‘t be used.
2. The efficiency of renewable energy is low because every type of energy requires a
particular kind of technology to convert it into electricity. Unfortunately, as compared
with traditional energy conversion devices, the efficiency of renewable sources and
technology is not that high.
3. The storage cost of renewable energy is very high, and also it requires a lot of space
for its installation.

Non-Renewable Sources:

The source of energy which will eventually run out with time is known as a non-renewable
energy source. Fossil fuels, such as gas, coal, and oil, are some examples of non-renewable
energy sources.

For a large number of industries, these natural resources are a major source of power;
however, there are several disadvantages to non-renewable energy, counting their negative
environmental influence and the fact they are in limited supply.

So, basically, a non-renewable resource is a finite natural resource because it cannot be

refilled at the speed at which it is consumed.

Characteristics of Non-Renewable Energy Sources

1. Non-renewable energy sources are also known as stock resources because they are not
obtainable in high quantities.
2. Non-renewable energy generally exists in the form of minerals which are present in
various forms in the lithosphere of the earth.
3. Non-renewable resources can be obtained in solids, liquids or gases, that is, all the
three states of matter, for instance, coal, petroleum and natural gas.
 4. A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that is found underneath the earth.
These type of energy resources do not replenish at the same speed at which it is used.
They take millions of years to replenish. The main examples of non-renewable
resources are coal, oil and natural gas.
5. Examples of non-renewable sources of energy are: Natural gas, coal, petroleum,
nuclear energy and hydrocarbon gas liquids.

Advantages of Non-Renewable Energy

1. Non-renewable resources are high in energy. Resources such as coal and oil tend to
provide us more energy in comparison to renewable energy like solar or wind energy.
2. Huge profits can be generated in the mining of coal, selling of oil or the construction
of natural gas pipelines.
3. These resources are easy to use whether in a home or anywhere else.
4. Consumers can find non-renewable resources at a very cost-effective price.
5. For some people, new machines and other energy sources cannot replace their
traditional minerals like coal and oil. So, it is also known as traditional energy.
6. Non-renewable energy is easily found anywhere and everywhere. This implies that
they can be conveniently moved across the world. People living in areas that are not
easily approachable can make use of non-renewable energy as well.
7. Most importantly, non-renewable recourses are job-creating. Extracting, transporting
and refining are the parts of non-renewable sources that provide employment.
8. Most of the non-renewable sources are also quite easy to store.

Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Energy

1. One of the major disadvantages of non-renewable energy is that it is time-consuming.

Mining of coal, searching for oil, installing oil drills, building oil rigs, inserting pipes
to extract and transporting natural gases are very time-consuming processes. It also
takes a lot of effort.
2. Since non-renewable energy takes billions of years to form, they are slowly but
gradually vanishing from the earth. Using non-renewable resources indiscriminately
without thinking for our future generations could be selfish.
3. Non-renewable energy can be dangerous and can cause respiratory problems in
humans because sources like fossil fuels emit gases such as carbon monoxide.
4. The workers working in coal mines or oil drills are more prone to a number of health
risks. As a result, there are a large number of diseases, injuries and even deaths.
5. Sources like coal, oil and natural gas release a large amount of carbon dioxide when
burnt. As a result of these chemicals, they are rapidly destroying the ozone layer.
6. Oxides like sulphur oxide and others released while burning fossil fuels convert the
rain into acidic rain, which is harmful to wildlife as well as human beings.
7. Many non-renewable sources release smog which envelopes the buildings. Mostly in
modern cities, people complain about the same. Over time, black smog can make your
building and other property appear dark and dirty.
8. Sometimes it may be risky to transport non-renewable sources as huge cargo ships
and oil tankers crash and spill the contents in the sea or elsewhere. It can be deadly for
the sea animals and human beings who may come in contact with it.
9. To keep the power station working, every time we need to keep a huge amount of fuel
in reserve. This can be expensive and occupy a lot of space.
The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:

1. Solar energy
2. Wind energy
3. Hydro energy
4. Tidal energy
5. Geothermal energy
6. Biomass energy

SOLAR ENERGY

Sunlight is one of our planet‘s most abundant and freely available energy resources. The
amount of solar energy that reaches the earth‘s surface in one hour is more than the planet‘s
total energy requirements for a whole year. Although it sounds like a perfect renewable
energy source, the amount of solar energy we can use varies according to the time of day and
the season of the year as well as geographical location. In the UK, solar energy is an
increasingly popular way to supplement your energy usage. Find out if it‘s right for you by
reading our guide to solar power.

From home rooftops to utility-scale farms, solar power is reshaping energy markets around
the world. In the decade from 2007 and 2017 the world's total installed energy capacity from
photovoltaic panels increased a whopping 4,300 percent.

In addition to solar panels, which convert the sun's light to electricity, concentrating solar
power (CSP) plants use mirrors to concentrate the sun's heat, deriving thermal energy instead.
China, Japan, and the U.S. are leading the solar transformation, but solar still has a long way
to go, accounting for around just two percent of the total electricity generated in the U.S. in
2017. Solar thermal energy is also being used worldwide for hot water, heating, and cooling.

Advantages
  It is a perennial, natural source and free
 It is available in plenty
 It is non-polluting
 It does not emit any green house gases.
 Solar energy offers decentralization in most (sunny) locations, meaning self-reliant
societies.
 One of the biggest advantages of solar energy is the ability to avoid the politics and
price volatility that is increasingly characterizing fossil fuel markets.
 It doesn‘t result in the destruction of forests and eco-systems that occurs with most
fossil fuel operations.

Disadvantages

 Dependent on change in seasons / weather – hence they may not be used always
 Requires high initial investments for productive use
 Solar systems doesn‘t work at night directly but the battery bank, which stores energy
during day-time can be used during night.
 Solar electricity storage technology has not reached its potential yet.
 Solar panels are bulky. This is particularly true of the higher-efficiency, traditional
silicon crystalline wafer solar modules.

WIND ENERGY

Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar sight in
the UK with wind power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid. To
harness electricity from wind energy, turbines are used to drive generators which then feed
electricity into the National Grid. Although domestic or ‗off-grid‘ generation systems are
available, not every property is suitable for a domestic wind turbine. Find out more about
wind energy on our wind power page.
Harnessing the wind as a source of energy started more than 7,000 years ago. Now,
electricity-generating wind turbines are proliferating around the globe, and China, the U.S.,
and Germany are the world's leading wind-energy producers. From 2001 to 2017, cumulative
wind capacity around the world increased to more than 539,000 megawatts from 23,900
megawatts—more than 22 fold.

Some people may object to how wind turbines look on the horizon and to how they sound,
but wind energy, whose prices are declining, is proving too valuable a resource to deny.
While most wind power comes from onshore turbines, offshore projects are appearing too,
with the most in the United Kingdom and Germany. The first U.S. offshore wind farm opened
in 2016 in Rhode Island, and other offshore projects are gaining momentum. Another
problem with wind turbines is that they‘re a danger for birds and bats, killing hundreds of
thousands annually, not as many as from glass collisions and other threats like habitat loss
and invasive species, but enough that engineers are working on solutions to make them safer
for flying wildlife.

Advantages

 It is environment friendly
 Its freely and abundantly available

Disadvantages

 High investment requirement

 Wind speed is not uniform all the time which affects power generated

HYDRO ENERGY

Fig.: Overview of a hydropower plant

As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially developed. By
building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a controlled flow of water
that will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy source can often be more reliable
than solar or wind power (especially if it's tidal rather than river) and also allows electricity to
be stored for use when demand reaches a peak. Like wind energy, in certain situations hydro
can be more viable as a commercial energy source (dependant on type and compared to other
sources of energy) but depending very much on the type of property, it can be used for
domestic, ‗off-grid‘ generation. Find out more by visiting our hydro power page.

For centuries, people have harnessed the energy of river currents, using dams to control
water flow. Hydropower is the world's biggest source of renewable energy by far, with China,
Brazil, Canada, the U.S., and Russia being the leading hydropower producers. While
hydropower is theoretically a clean energy source replenished by rain and snow, it also has
several drawbacks.

Large dams can disrupt river ecosystems and surrounding communities, harming wildlife,
and displacing residents. Hydropower generation is vulnerable to silt buildup, which can
compromise capacity and harm equipment. Drought can also cause problems. In the western
U.S., carbon dioxide emissions over a 15-year period were 100 megatons higher than they
would have been with normal precipitation levels, according to a 2018 study, as utilities
turned to coal and gas to replace hydropower lost to drought. Even hydropower at full
capacity bears its own emissions problems, as decaying organic material in reservoirs
releases methane.

Dams aren't the only way to use water for power: Tidal and wave energy projects around the
world aim to capture the ocean's natural rhythms. Marine energy projects currently generate
an estimated 500 megawatts of power—less than one percent of all renewables—but the
potential is far greater. Programs like Scotland‘s Saltire Prize have encouraged innovation in
this area.

Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy

1. Electricity can be produced at a constant rate once the dam is constructed

2. The gates of the dam can be shut down if electricity is not needed, which stops
electricity generation. Hence by doing this, we can save water for further use in future
when the demand for electricity is high.
3. One of the biggest advantages of hydroelectric power plants is that they are designed
to last many decades, and so they can contribute to the generation of electricity for
years.
4. Large dams often become tourist attractions because the lake that forms in the
reservoir area behind the dam can be used for leisure or water sports.
5. The water from the lake of the dam can be used for irrigation purposes in farming.
 6. Since the water is released to produce electricity, the build-up of water in the dam is
stored to produce extra energy until needed.
7. Hydroelectric energy generation does not pollute the atmosphere because the
hydroelectric power plant does not produce greenhouse gases.
8. Hydropower plants can be considered a reliable energy generation source. Since
hydropower totally depends on water present on this planet, this energy source will
remain inexhaustible because of the water cycle as it continuously keeps on
maintaining balance on the Earth.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy

1. It is not an easy task to assemble a hydropower plant because the dams are extremely
expensive to build, and they require extremely high standards and calculations for
their construction.
2. It becomes important that the hydropower plant must serve for many decades because
of its high cost of construction, and this totally depends on the availability of water
resources.
3. If flooding happens due to natural calamities or the failure of dams, it would impact a
large area of land, which means that the natural environment can be destroyed.
4. People are forcibly removed from the particular area where a hydropower plant is
going to be assembled. This affects the day-to-day life of people living in that area.
5. A serious geological damage can be caused due to the construction of large dams.
6. To construct a hydro plant, it is important to block the running water source due to
which the fishes can‘t arrive at their favourable place, and as the water stops
streaming, the areas along the riverside start to vanish out which eventually influences
the life of creatures that depend on fish for food.

TIDAL ENERGY

This is another form of hydro energy that uses twice-daily tidal currents to drive turbine
generators. Although tidal flow unlike some other hydro energy sources isn‘t constant, it is
highly predictable and can therefore compensate for the periods when the tide current is low.
Find out more by visiting our marine energy page.

Tidal energy is produced by the surge of ocean waters during the rise and fall of tides. Tidal
energy is a renewable source of energy. During the 20th century, engineers developed ways
to use tidal movement to generate electricity in areas where there is a significant tidal
range—the difference in area between high tide and low tide. All methods use special
generators to convert tidal energy into electricity.
Tidal energy production is still in its infancy. The amount of power produced so far has been
small. There are very few commercial-sized tidal power plants operating in the world. The
first was located in La Rance, France. The largest facility is the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power
Station in South Korea. The United States has no tidal plants and only a few sites where tidal
energy could be produced at a reasonable price. China, France, England, Canada, and Russia
have much more potential to use this type of energy.

In the United States, there are legal concerns about underwater land ownership and
environmental impact. Investors are not enthusiastic about tidal energy because there is not a
strong guarantee that it will make money or benefit consumers. Engineers are working to
improve the technology of tidal energy generators to increase the amount of energy they
produce, to decrease their impact on the environment, and to find a way to earn a profit for
energy companies.

Advantages of Tidal Energy

 Environment-friendly
 A highly predictable energy source
 High energy density
 Operational and maintenance costs are low
 An inexhaustible source of energy

Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

 High tidal power plant construction costs

 Negative influence on marine life forms
 Location limits
  The variable intensity of sea waves

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

By harnessing the natural heat below the earth‘s surface, geothermal energy can be used to
heat homes directly or to generate electricity. Although it harnesses a power directly below
our feet, geothermal energy is of negligible importance in the UK compared to countries such
as Iceland, where geothermal heat is much more freely available.

Used for thousands of years in some countries for cooking and heating, geothermal energy is
derived from Earth‘s internal heat. On a large scale, underground reservoirs of steam and hot
water can be tapped through wells that can go a two kilometers deep or more to generate
electricity. On a smaller scale, some buildings have geothermal heat pumps that use
temperature differences several meters below ground for heating and cooling. Unlike solar
and wind energy, geothermal energy is always available, but it has side effects that need to be
managed, such as the rotten-egg smell that can accompany released hydrogen sulphide.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy

 There are plenty of hot springs and natural pools across the world that emits
geothermal energy. The water from such a natural source of geothermal energy is
commonly used for bathing, warmth, and cooking.
 GHPs powered heating, and air-conditioning systems are more efficient as they use 25
to 50% less electricity than conventional systems. Ultimately, there is a decrease in
greenhouse gas emissions as well.
 Many buildings, sidewalks, and parking lots are heated using geothermal energy.
 Also, known as a green source of energy because it does not release hazardous
greenhouse gases. Thus, it is safe for both environmental and human health.
 Geothermal energy systems can adjust to various conditions.
 One of the best advantages of geothermal energy is that cold countries use geothermal
energy to heat greenhouses or heat water for irrigation.
 Iceland mostly uses geothermal energy to heat buildings and water using magma and
molten rock resources.
 It is a renewable, carbon-free, and sustainable source of energy. The Earth will
continuously transmit heat from its core for billions of years.

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

 Geothermal energy emits sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide.

 The regions that consist of geothermal plants often experience minor seismic activity.
 The power plants can also damage roadways, buildings, pipelines, and natural
drainage systems.
 Land subsidence can also occur in case geothermal energy yielders fail to inject back
the extracted water from the reservoir into the Earth.
 The method of drilling geothermal plants deep under the Earth proves to be dangerous
for the people involved in the process that is one of the greatest disadvantages of
geothermal energy.
 It is hard for developing countries to build thermal plants because of their high initial
cost.
 Geothermal energy emits out at a gradual speed from the Earth's mantle.
 The construction of geothermal sites may be hazardous for the environment as the
process may discharge highly toxic gases.
BIOMASS ENERGY

This is the conversion of solid fuel made from plant materials into electricity. Although
fundamentally, biomass involves burning organic materials to produce electricity, and
nowadays this is a much cleaner, more energy-efficient process. By converting agricultural,
industrial and domestic waste into solid, liquid and gas fuel, biomass generates power at a
much lower economic and environmental cost.

Biomass energy includes biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, wood, wood waste, biogas
from landfills, and municipal solid waste. Like solar power, biomass is a flexible energy
source, able to fuel vehicles, heat buildings, and produce electricity. But biomass can raise
thorny issues.

Critics of corn-based ethanol, for example, say it competes with the food market for corn and
supports the same harmful agricultural practices that have led to toxic algae blooms and other
environmental hazards. Similarly, debates have erupted over whether it's a good idea to ship
wood pellets from U.S. forests over to Europe so that it can be burned for electricity.
Meanwhile, scientists and companies are working on ways to more efficiently convert corn
stover, wastewater sludge, and other biomass sources into energy, aiming to extract value
from material that would otherwise go to waste.

Advantages

 Available locally and to some extent abundantly

  It is a relatively clean fuel when compared to fossil fuels. In a way biomass also
cleans our environment by trapping carbon- di-oxide

Disadvantages

 Drudgery involved in collection of fuel

 During indoor cooking and in the absence of sufficient ventilation fuels such as dung
cause air pollution which is a serious health hazard
 Unsustainable and inefficient use of biomass often leads to destruction of vegetation
and hence environmental degradation.

DISTRIBUTED SOURCES OF ENERGY

A distributed energy resource (DER) is a small-scale unit of power generation that operates
locally and is connected to a larger power grid at the distribution level. DERs include solar
panels, small natural gas-fueled generators, electric vehicles and controllable loads, such as
HVAC systems and electric water heaters. An important distinction of a DER is that the
energy it produces is often consumed close to the source.

When using renewable power sources, the intermittent nature of some resources creates a
need for using multiple renewable resources, as well as a means to tie them together, manage
and store their output. Energy storage such as batteries and fly wheels are required for
hardware such as wind and other turbine types, solar panels, and tidal generation units. In
order to get the most of the energy produced, these power sources and storage devices need to
be tightly managed by way of electronic management devices, which include inverters and
software such as Storage Distributed Resource Schedulers (SDRS).

DERs are commonly used to manage a number of smaller power generation and storage
methods in residential, commercial and industrial sectors. They may be used by utility
providers, businesses and individuals in the production and storage of renewable power or for
backup power sources. The technologies are fundamental requirements of more advanced
power grids such as smart grids.

Distributed energy resources (DER) refers to often smaller generation units that are located
on the consumer‘s side of the meter.

DERs are also designed for emergency power solutions in off-grid and grid-connected
systems. DERs for emergency power solutions encompass the full range of enabling
technologies such as renewable and nonrenewable DERs, energy storage systems, and
intelligent control technology. DERs‘ power solutions also ensure the power supply
sustainability and cost-effectiveness in an extensive scope of utilizations. DERs are used for
emergency power solutions in a variety of settings such as residential, commercial, industrial,
data centers, communication facilities, and modern security monitoring centers. The
advantages of DERs in emergency power applications include quick start-up, rapid raping to
full load, low duration of power interruptions, no interruption of the security system, and
support of continuous operation in various sectors of the economy. However, the operating
hours of the diesel generators, gas turbines, and microturbines are limited owing to high
emissions of air pollutants.

Examples of distributed energy resources that can be installed include:

 roof top solar photovoltaic units

 wind generating units
 battery storage
 batteries in electric vehicles used to export power back to the grid
 combined heat and power units, or tri-generation units that also utilise waste heat to
provide cooling
 biomass generators, which are fuelled with waste gas or industrial and agricultural by-
products.
 open and closed cycle gas turbines
 reciprocating engines (diesel, oil)
 hydro and mini-hydro schemes
 fuel cells.

While DER provides a range of benefits, it also includes a range of relatively new and
developing technologies. Power systems and networks need to adjust to the effects of these
new technologies. It is important that these initial issues are recognised and addressed, in
order to ensure that the benefits of DER can be fully realised.

Benefits of distributed energy resources (DER)

The inclusion of distributed energy resources into the grid has several benefits. Customers
with DER assets can expect to pay less for electricity because they can sell power back to the
grid.

In areas where there is a high reliance on wind, solar and other variable energy resources
(VERs), distributed energy resources can be used to help improve quality of service and
reliability of service.

Consumers who install DER units may be able to reduce the price they pay for electricity or
may obtain improved reliability outcomes.
DER may also help reduce the cost of power system augmentation, helping to reduce the
overall cost of supply faced by consumers.

 Increased electric system reliability

 An emergency supply of power
 Reduction of peak power requirements
 Offsets to investments in generation, transmission, or distribution facilities that would
otherwise be recovered through rates
 Provision of ancillary services, including reactive power
 Improvements in power quality
 Reductions in land-use effects and rights-of-way acquisition costs
 Reduction in vulnerability to terrorism and improvements in infrastructure resilience

DER is a faster and less expensive option compared to large high-voltage conventional
generating stations. The main benefits of a DER include (DER, 2020b):

 Lower cost
 High reliability
 High power quality
 Higher efficiency
 Energy independence

Increased penetration of DER may also help reduce the overall emissions intensity of the
NEM, by displacing other more emissions-intensive generation.

DER units are classified according to their size (installed capacity).

Classification Technical definition Typical installation

Less than 2kW and connected to low

Micro Rooftop solar PV
voltage network

Greater than 2kW and up to 10kW single Fuel cells, combined heat and power
Mini
phase or 30kW three phase systems

Greater than 10kW single phase or 30kw

Small Biomass, small hydro
three phase but no more than 1MW

Greater than 1MW but no more than

Medium Biomass, hydro, local wind generating units
5MW

Large Greater than 5MW Co-generation, hydro, solar thermal. Many

Classification Technical definition Typical installation
wind farms are distribution connected

Environmental Impacts of Distributed Generation

Distributed generation can benefit the environment if its use reduces the amount of electricity
that must be generated at centralized power plants, in turn can reduce the environmental
impacts of centralized generation. Specifically:

 Existing cost-effective distributed generation technologies can be used to generate

electricity at homes and businesses using renewable energy resources such as solar
and wind.
 Distributed generation can harness energy that might otherwise be wasted—for
example, through a combined heat and power system.
 By using local energy sources, distributed generation reduces or eliminates the ―line
loss‖ (wasted energy) that happens during transmission and distribution in the
electricity delivery system.

However, distributed generation can also lead to negative environmental impacts:

 Distributed generation systems require a ―footprint‖ (they take up space), and because
they are located closer to the end-user, some distributed generation systems might be
unpleasant to the eye or cause land-use concerns.
 Distributed generation technologies that involve combustion—particularly burning
fossil fuels—can produce many of the same types of impacts as larger fossil-fuel-fired
power plants, such as air pollution. These impacts may be smaller in scale than the
impacts from a large power plant, but may also be closer to populated areas.
 Some distributed generation technologies, such as waste incineration, biomass
combustion, and combined heat and power, may require water for steam generation or
cooling.
 Distributed generation systems that use combustion may be less efficient than
centralized power plants due to efficiencies of scale.

WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Wind is used to produce electricity by converting the kinetic energy of air in motion into
electricity. In modern wind turbines, wind rotates the rotor blades, which convert kinetic
energy into rotational energy. This rotational energy is transferred by a shaft which to the
generator, thereby producing electrical energy.

Wind power, form of energy conversion in which turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind
into mechanical or electrical energy that can be used for power.

Wind power is considered a renewable energy source. Historically, wind power in the form of
windmills has been used for centuries for such tasks as grinding grain and pumping water.
Modern commercial wind turbines produce electricity by using rotational energy to drive an
electrical generator. They are made up of a blade or rotor and an enclosure called a nacelle
that contains a drive train atop a tall tower. The largest turbines can produce 4.8–9.5
megawatts of power, have a rotor diameter that may extend more than 162 metres (about 531
feet), and are attached to towers approaching 240 metres (787 feet) tall. The most common
types of wind turbines (which produce up to 1.8 megawatts) are much smaller; they have a
blade length of approximately 40 metres (about 130 feet) and are attached to towers roughly
80 metres (about 260 feet) tall. Smaller turbines can be used to provide power to individual
homes. Wind farms are areas where a number of wind turbines are grouped together,
providing a larger total energy source.

Wind resources are calculated based on the average wind speed and the distribution of wind
speed values occurring within a particular area. Areas are grouped into wind power classes
that range from 1 to 7. A wind power class of 3 or above (equivalent to a wind power density
of 150–200 watts per square metre, or a mean wind of 5.1–5.6 metres per second [11.4–12.5
miles per hour]) is suitable for utility-scale wind power generation, although some suitable
sites may also be found in areas of classes 1 and 2. In the United States there are substantial
wind resources in the Great Plains region as well as in some offshore locations. As of 2018
the largest wind farm in the world was the Jiuquan Wind Power Base, an array of more than
7,000 wind turbines in China‘s Gansu province that produces more than 6,000 megawatts of
power. One of the world‘s largest offshore active wind farms, the London Array, spans an
area of 122 square km (about 47 square miles) in the outer approaches of the Thames estuary
and produces up to 630 megawatts of power. Hornsea One, which will come online in 2020
and span an area of 407 square km (about 157 square miles) near England‘s Yorkshire coast,
will be even larger, producing about 1,200 megawatts of power. By comparison, a typical
new coal-fired generating plant averages about 550 megawatts.

By 2016 wind was contributing approximately 4 percent of the world‘s total electricity.
Electricity generation by wind has been increasing dramatically because of concerns over the
cost of petroleum and the effects of fossil fuel combustion on the climate and environment.
From 2007 to 2016, for example, total installed wind power capacity quintupled from 95
gigawatts to 487 gigawatts worldwide. China and the United States possessed the greatest
amount of installed wind capacity in 2016 (with 168.7 gigawatts and 82.1 gigawatts,
respectively), and that same year Denmark generated the largest percentage of its electricity
from wind (nearly 38 percent). The wind power industry estimates that the world could
feasibly generate nearly 20 percent of its total electricity from wind power by 2030. Various
estimates put the cost of wind energy as low as 2–6 cents per kilowatt-hour, depending on the
location. This is comparable to the cost of coal, natural gas, and other forms of fossil energy,
which ranges between 5 and 17 cents per kilowatt-hour.

Challenges to the large-scale implementation of wind energy include siting requirements such
as wind availability, aesthetic and environmental concerns, and land availability. Wind farms
are most cost-effective in areas with consistent strong winds; however, these areas are not
necessarily near large population centres. Thus, power lines and other components of
electrical distribution systems must have the capacity to transmit this electricity to
consumers. In addition, since wind is an intermittent and inconsistent power source, storing
power may be necessary. Public advocacy groups have raised concerns about the potential
disruptions that wind farms may have on wildlife and overall aesthetics. Although wind
generators have been blamed for injuring and killing birds, experts have shown that modern
turbines have a small effect on bird populations. The National Audubon Society, a large
environmental group based in the United States and focused on the conservation of birds and
other wildlife, is strongly in favour of wind power, provided that wind farms are
appropriately sited to minimize the impacts on migrating bird populations and important
wildlife habitat.

How Do Wind Turbines Work?

Wind turbines work on a simple principle: instead of using electricity to make wind—like a
fan—wind turbines use wind to make electricity. Wind turns the propeller-like blades of a
turbine around a rotor, which spins a generator, which creates electricity.

Wind is a form of solar energy caused by a combination of three concurrent events:

1. The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere

 2. Irregularities of the earth's surface
3. The rotation of the earth.

Wind flow patterns and speeds vary greatly across the United States and are modified by
bodies of water, vegetation, and differences in terrain. Humans use this wind flow, or motion
energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating electricity.

The terms "wind energy" and "wind power" both describe the process by which the wind is
used to generate mechanical power or electricity. This mechanical power can be used for
specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this
mechanical power into electricity.

A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the aerodynamic force from the rotor
blades, which work like an airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across
the blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure
across the two sides of the blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger
than the drag and this causes the rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the generator, either
directly (if it‘s a direct drive turbine) or through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that
speed up the rotation and allow for a physically smaller generator. This translation of
aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator creates electricity.

Types of Wind Turbines

The majority of wind turbines fall into two basic types:

1. Horizontal-Axis Turbines
 Horizontal-axis wind turbines are what many people picture when thinking of
wind turbines. Most commonly, they have three blades and operate "upwind,"
with the turbine pivoting at the top of the tower so the blades face into the
wind.
2. Vertical-Axis Turbines
 Vertical-axis wind turbines come in several varieties, including the eggbeater-
style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. These turbines are
omnidirectional, meaning they don‘t need to be adjusted to point into the wind
to operate.

Wind Turbine components and their functions

In order to successfully convert wind energy to electricity, a Wind Turbine depends on its
specified components or parts. Wind turbine components are discussed in this article along
with their functions, in the order given below;

1. The Base or Foundation

2. The Tower
3. The Rotor
4. The Low-Speed Shaft
5. The Main Shaft Bearing
6. The Gearbox
7. The High-Speed Shaft
8. The Generator
9. The Nacelle
10. The Yaw Drive
11. The Pitch Control
12. The Braking System
13. The Controller
14. The Wind Vane and Anemometer
 15. The Transformer
16. The Transmission System

1). The Base or Foundation as one of the Wind Turbine Components

In most cases, the foundation of a wind turbine is installed deep in the ground, and cannot be
seen above it. This is one of the most relevant parts of the turbine; whose function is to hold
the entire structure upright and firmly in place.

In addition to supporting the weight of the wind turbine itself; the foundation helps to ensure
that the turbine is able to withstand the intense pressure from high-speed winds. This means
that it needs to be one of the heaviest and sturdiest parts of the turbine.

Wind turbine foundations are of different types. These types are often decided on the basis of
the size and type of the wind turbine itself, among other factors which may be considered. In
general, different types of foundations are used between onshore and offshore wind turbines.

When designing a foundation for onshore wind turbines, the main factors which are
considered include the site location and conditions. Asides these, the features of the turbine
itself are usually considered, such as its size and weight.

The site conditions that determine how a wind turbine foundation will be designed include
the geotechnical conditions (nature and bearing capacity of soils, groundwater depth, etc.)
and land-use pattern.

Onshore wind turbine foundations may be concrete pile or slab design. The dimensions
(width, depth) are also determined by the prevalent environmental conditions.

Parts of an offshore wind turbine are often designed slightly different from those of an
onshore wind turbine. This includes the foundation. Offshore turbine foundations may be
Monopile, Gravity-based, Jacket, Floating, or Tripod type foundations. Each of these is
discussed briefly below;

2). The Tower as one of the Wind Turbine Components

In most wind turbines, the tower consists of steel which has a tubular or cylindrical shape and
a height of about 50m to over 100m.

The tower is one of the parts of a wind turbine, whose design must be planned carefully, with
due consideration of different factors such as the size and weight of the turbine, and the
prevalent environmental conditions. It is generally agreed that the height of the tower of a
wind turbine determines how much wind it will be able to capture, and hence its efficiency
[6].
Taller towers are capable of reaching high-speed wind currents at high altitude. However, in
turbine design, efforts are usually made to make the height of the tower to be equal to the
diameter of the blades when rotating.

The tower of a wind turbine plays the important role or function, of bearing the rotor and the
nacelle [5]. There are various types of wind turbine towers, which are selected based on the
existing needs, and conditions. These types include the lattice tower, steel tubular tower,
hybrid tower, guyed tower and concrete tower.

3). The Rotor as one of the Wind Turbine Components

Composed of the turbine blades and the hub which connects them at the center; the rotor can
be described as the component of the wind turbine which is in charge of capturing and
converting kinetic energy in the form of wind.

The rotor captures wind (kinetic) energy using the turbine blades,

The turbine blades are designed as airfoil-shaped, light, and resilient parts of a wind turbine.
There are usually three of such blades, and they are usually efficient at capturing as much
wind energy within their vicinity as possible. They are also designed to be fairly resistant, so
as not to get damaged easily by intense winds.

When the blades capture wind, it uses the kinetic energy to achieve rotary motion. Because
the three blades are connected at the center by the hub, their rotation is transmitted efficiently
through a low-speed shaft, to the rest of the wind turbine system.

This transmission signifies a conversion of kinetic energy from wind, to mechanical energy
that causes rotary motion of the parts of a wind turbine. We can therefore say that the rotor
converts kinetic-mechanical energy.

4). The Low-Speed Shaft as one of the Wind Turbine Components

Directly connected to the rotor, the low-speed shaft bears its name as a result of the fact that
the rotation speed and frequency produced by the rotor is usually slow compared to that
which is needed to run the generator and produce electricity.

The low-speed shaft transfers the rotary motion (mechanical energy) of the rotor, to the
gearbox which amplifies it to produce higher-frequency rotation for the generator. Usually,
the low-speed shaft rotates at speeds of between 8-30 rotations per minute (rpm), and may
reach speeds of 60 rpm in exceptional cases.
5). The Main Shaft Bearing as one of the Wind Turbine Components

The main shaft bearing of a wind turbine is designed to support the low-speed shaft, by
effectively transmitting the rotary motion from the rotor, toward the gearbox. It is also
designed to minimize friction between the (rotary) moving parts of the turbine.

Because of the position and function of the main shaft bearing, it must be designed to
withstand large, changing magnitudes of radial and axial load. The main shaft bearing is
connected directly to the low-speed shaft, and usually has speeds that range between 8 and 60
rpm as well.

The fact that the main shaft bearing is exposed to harsh conditions implies that this is one of
the parts of a wind turbine which must be designed very carefully. Main shaft bearings are
generally expected to last for a minimum of 25 years.

6). The Gearbox as one of the Wind Turbine Components

The gearbox is the component which occupies the position between the low-speed main shaft
bearing, and the high-speed shaft.

Specifically, the gearbox plays the role of increasing the rotational speed (derived from wind
energy and transmitted through the rotor and low-speed shaft) of the drivetrain, to a level
which is sufficient to drive the generator and produce electricity.

A typical gearbox is composed of a set of interlocked gears that transfer and amplify the
cyclic motion from the low-speed shaft. This setup implies that the gearbox is constantly
exposed to large and irregular cyclic loads as a result of varying wind speeds.

The severity of cyclic stresses on the gearbox often leads to frequent failure and damage.
Because of the important function of this component, the gearbox is one of the parts of a
wind turbine which has undergone continuous modification and improvement over the years.
Increased efficiency and resilience of the gearbox will ultimately lead to increased electricity
output.

7). The High-Speed Shaft as one of the Wind Turbine Components

Unlike the low-speed shaft, the high-speed shaft rotates at relatively high speeds of a least
1000 rpm on the average.

This is because the high-speed shaft is directly connected to the gearbox. Its function is to
transmit the increased rotary speed from the gearbox to the generator. This increased rotary
speed is what drives the electric coil of the generator, and causes it to produce electricity.
The rotor, low-speed shaft, main shaft bearing, gearbox, high-speed shaft and generator, all
constitute what may be referred to as the drivetrain of the wind turbine. All energy
conversions and transmissions in a wind turbine, are handled by the drivetrain.

8). The Generator as a one of the Wind Turbine Components

Responsible for the conversion of mechanical energy to electricity, the generator is another
example of the important parts of a wind turbine.

This component consists basically of an electric coil (usually made of copper) which is
stationed within a magnetic field, such that it is under the influence of magnetism. By
rotating this coil at high speed within the magnetic field, electricity is produced, through the
process of electromagnetic induction [7].

The high-speed rotation which is needed to produce electricity is much higher than that which
can be provided by natural wind (kinetic) energy through the rotor. For this reason, the rate of
rotation is multiplied by the gear box, and the resulting mechanical energy is transmitted to
the generator through the high-speed shaft.

There are different types of generators used in wind turbines. They include; the AC
synchronous generator; the AC asynchronous generator (or alternator); and the DC dynamo.

9). The Nacelle as one of the Wind Turbine Components

Nacelle has the function of protecting all the parts of a wind turbine that are directly involved
in converting kinetic energy from wind into mechanical energy, and then electricity.

This implies that the nacelle is simply a housing component [11]. The parts which it protects
include the rotor, shafts, gearbox, generator and controller systems.

By enclosing these components in the nacelle, they are able to remain within a fixed and
well-planned configuration. The nacelle is installed on top of the turbine tower and is usually
very large, weighing hundreds of tons and stretching for more than 50 ft.

The design of a wind turbine is always such that the nacelle is accessible for maintenance or
repairs. In most cases, this is achieved by installing a system of lifts, ladders, and other climb-
assist technologies [3]. Some modern offshore wind turbines are equipped with a helicopter-
hoisting platform on top of the nacelle to enable tools and personnel to be lowered onto the
turbine for service purposes.

The yaw drive is another component which is usually positioned underneath the nacelle. It
makes the nacelle and the turbine blades to revolve on the axis of the turbine tower to face the
direction of the most favorable wind currents. This revolution of the nacelle and blades is
often called ‗yaw motion‘.
10). The Yaw Drive as one of the Wind Turbine Components

It is important to note that the yaw drive is found primarily in a horizontal axis wind turbine.

The function of this component, is simply to ensure that the nacelle of the turbine is
constantly facing the direction of best wind intensity and speed. By doing so, the wind
turbine is made to produce its maximal amount of electricity at every point in time [14].

Yaw drives move the nacelle and turbine blades about the axis of the turbine tower in a
horizontal rotary fashion. This is what is described as yaw motion. The yaw drive, along with
a series of brakes and bearings, constitute the yaw system.

11). The Pitch Control as one of the Wind Turbine Components

Adjusting the angular orientation of the turbine blades is the primary function of the pitch
control system [10]. This function is very important, because it determines how much wind
energy will be captured by the turbine blades, and prevents damage under extreme-wind-
intensity conditions.

The pitch control system actively monitors the orientation of the blades and the condition of
wind flow; using this information to continuously adjust the blades by rotating them, such
that they remain effective and operate within safe limits.

12). The Braking System as one of the Wind Turbine Components

One of the parts of a wind turbine which is fully involved in safety insurance is the braking
system.

The main function of the braking system of a wind turbine is to automatically stop the rotor
from moving [13]. This is necessary when the wind speed is above safe limits, or when
another part of the wind turbine is damaged or faulty. By stopping the rotor, hazards and
damages are minimized or prevented.

Two kinds of braking systems can be found in a wind turbine. These are the aerodynamic and
the mechanical braking systems.

Aerodynamic braking system is usually the main braking system in a wind turbine. It
provides a relatively fast, efficient and effective way to stop the turbine, which involves
turning the turbine blades to a 90-degrees position relative to the horizontal axis.

The mechanical braking system is less efficient than the aerodynamic system and usually
serves as an auxiliary (support) braking system. However, the mechanical braking system
rarely used in most wind turbines, as the safety function of stopping the turbine is usually
well-handled by the aerodynamic braking system.
While the aerodynamic braking system is spring-driven, and works based on hydraulic
pressure, the mechanical braking system works mainly by friction. Mechanical braking
system in a wind turbine is usually composed of brake pads and a rotating disc which when
clamped together, bring the blades of the turbine to a stop.

Mechanical braking system provides a means to bring the turbine blades to a complete halt,
and is therefore preferred only when it is necessary to achieve this motive.

13). The Controller as one of the Wind Turbine Components

With regards to regulating the operations of the entire system, the controller is one of the
most important parts of a wind turbine.

Basically, this component carries out power management, by supervising, assisting and
coordinating the operations of the other parts of the turbine. The controller helps to optimize
the power production of the wine turbine while minimizing the loads to which the system is
subjected.

In order to achieve this, a series of computers are used to continuously gather data concerning
the environmental conditions as well as the operational health of the turbine [2].

By the function of the controller, the turbine operates within defined limits of wind speed,
which is usually between 8 to 55 miles per hour (mph). This ensures that the turbine remains
productive and functions optimally without damage.

14-15). The Wind Vane and Anemometer as Wind Turbine Components

An anemometer and a wind vane are usually installed in wind turbines, as part of the safety
and controller systems. Respectively, these components help to acquire data concerning the
speed and direction of prevailing winds within the vicinity of the turbine.

The data acquired by the anemometer and wind vane are sent to the yaw drive and controller
systems, which determine the mode of operation of the turbine.

16). The Transformer as one of the Wind Turbine Components

Although it is not a major component, we can hardly discuss the parts of a wind turbine
without mentioning the transformer.

Basically, the transformer is an intermediary component, which occupies the important

position between the turbine and the utility grid. The transformer‘s function is to step-up (that
is; to increase or boost) the output voltage of the wind turbine [1].

When electricity is produced by the generator, it comes at a relatively low voltage compared
to that which is needed to transmit the power through electric lines without much loss in the
process. By increasing the voltage output of a wind turbine, the transformer ensures that
power is transmitted to (and distributed through) the utility grid, efficiently.

17). The Transmission System as one of the Wind Turbine Components

In wind turbines, the transmission system comprises of a series of electric circuits and cables
(transmission lines) that convey the power output of the turbine (after its voltage has been
stepped-up by the transformer) to the point(s) where this power is needed.

The transmission system is designed to reduce potential power losses to the barest minimum
while transmitting the produced electricity. In several cases, the transformer is considered to
be a component of the transmission system in a wine turbine.

INSTRUMENTATION FOR WIND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS

We collect wind data with various instruments. You can call them gadgets or devices in a
modern way. Anemometer is the most common of these tools. But there is more than one
instrument for measuring wind, considering that this is probably the most diverse weather
parameter.

Anemometer

Anemometer is a small tool that usually consists of a base and three cups that rotate on the
spire. In the process, they capture and measure wind speed and direction. Such instruments
are also called "cup anemometers". What is important to know about them is that they are
usually set at an altitude of 10 meters (32 feet) above sea level, which is the optimal altitude
for measuring the wind. So that the wind you see in the weather forecast is always measured
at this height. In extreme weather conditions, such as on top of mountains, a sonic
anemometer is usually used instead, which has no moving parts, so that they are not
damaged.
The cup anemometer is the simplest and most common style of an anemometer. It is
composed of 3 or 4 hemispherical cups that are mounted at equal angles to each other on
horizontal rods. The cups catch the wind which spins the device horizontally. The faster the
wind blows the faster the anemometer spins. A magnet is built into one of the arms which
creates a small current that counts the revolutions each time an arm rotates past a certain
point. This gives an accurate record of wind speed. An anemometer does not measure the
wind direction only the speed. These can be seen on many home weather stations.

Cup anemometer

Anemometer is a device for measuring the speed of airflow in the atmosphere, in wind
tunnels, and in other gas-flow applications. Most widely used for wind-speed measurements
is the revolving-cup electric anemometer, in which the revolving cups drive an electric
generator. The output of the generator operates an electric meter that is calibrated in wind
speed. The useful range of this device is approximately from 5 to 100 knots. A propeller may
also be used to drive the electric generator, as in the propeller anemometer. In another type of
wind-driven unit, revolving vanes operate a counter, the revolutions being timed by a
stopwatch and converted to airspeed. This device is especially suited for the measurement of
low airspeeds.

A hot wire anemometer is an instrument used in fluid mechanics as a research tool. It

measures wind speed by running an electrical current across a very thin, short wire. The wire
is heated to a specific temperature. Since air flowing across an object cools it, the amount of
power needed to keep the wire at a constant temperature is used to calculate the wind speed.
The faster the wind is blowing the more electricity is needed to keep the wire hot. This
anemometer does not indicate the direction of the wind only the velocity or speed. Since this
uses a very thin wire and can be used in very tight spaces, it is often used for calculating
turbulent flow conditions in the manufacturing of cars and planes.
 Fig. Illustration of the hot wire anemometer working

Definition: The Hot Wire Anemometer is a device used for measuring the velocity and
direction of the fluid. This can be done by measuring the heat loss of the wire which is placed
in the fluid stream. The wire is heated by electrical current. The hot wire when placed in the
stream of the fluid, in that case, the heat is transferred from wire to fluid, and hence the
temperature of wire reduces. The resistance of wire measures the flow rate of the fluid.

In the constant current method, the anemometer is placed in the stream of the fluid whose
flow rate needs to be measured. The current of constant magnitude is passed through the
wire. The Wheatstone bridge is also kept on the constant voltage. When the wire is kept in the
stream of liquid, in that case, the heat is transferred from the wire to the fluid. The heat is
directly proportional to the resistance of the wire. If heat reduces, that means the resistance of
wire also reduces. The Wheatstone bridge measures the variation in resistance which is equal
to the flow rate of the liquid.

Wind vane

Wind vane is an old tool for measuring wind direction. It looks like a windmill with a sail
coming off it or as a construction of several rods crossed with each other. They can also have
figures of people and animals, houses, flags, and different objects on them — anything. Some
wind vanes are so interesting that they are works of art, and with the spread of more modern
wind gauges, they have even become real rarities, adorning the collections of meteorology
enthusiasts around the world.
Windsock

Windsock is another old tool for measuring wind direction. Yes, it literally looks like a sock
that is filled with air. This is how we know the direction of the wind. They also help you
visually understand wind speed: the stronger the windsock moves, the stronger the wind. For
a better visibility, wind socks are usually painted white and red one by one and look
something like lighthouses. Even with today's devices, windsocks are most often found in
airports as an ineffably simple and visible tool for determining wind direction.

Wind profiler

Wind profiler helps us to measure the wind at every 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) above sea
level, up to the extent of the troposphere between 8 and 17 kilometers (4.9 to 10.5 miles). The
wind profilers use radar or sound waves (SODAR) to determine wind speed and direction.
They may look like a nightstand but not always. Yes, we can rather classify this tool as big
and complex than small and simple, but we list it here to collect all the wind measurement
tools in one place.

WIND FARM

Wind farms are areas where many large wind turbines have been grouped together. They
―harvest‖ the power of the wind. These large turbines look a bit like super-tall windmills.

A large wind farm can have hundreds of wind turbines spread out over hundreds of miles.
The land between the turbines may be used for other purposes, such as regular farming. Some
wind farms are also located near bodies of water. There, they take advantage of winds that
blow across lakes or oceans.

Did you know that wind energy is actually another form of solar energy? Earth‘s shape and
rotation work with the Sun‘s uneven heating of the atmosphere to make winds.

Wind farms are built in areas known to be especially windy on a regular basis. The winds turn
the blades of the turbines. Then, the turbines turn the energy of the wind into mechanical
power. Generators then turn the mechanical power into electricity. That electricity is then
used to power homes.

You can think of a wind turbine as the opposite of a fan. A fan uses electricity to make wind.
Wind turbines do the opposite: they use the wind to make electricity! As the wind turns the
blades of a wind turbine, the blades cause a shaft to spin. The spinning shaft connects to a
generator that creates electricity.

Are you wondering why scientists looked to the wind as an energy source? There are plenty
of good reasons. Wind energy is free and renewable. Unlike most power plants, wind farms
don‘t emit pollution or greenhouse gases.

However, wind farms can cost a lot of money to set up. Over time, though, their cost is
competitive with other types of generating systems. Unfortunately, you can‘t make the wind
blow whenever you want it to. That means wind farms can‘t always meet electricity needs on
demand.

Over time, scientists believe new technologies will make wind power even more popular.
They believe people may one day store wind power in batteries for on-demand use. Wind
power already accounts for about 3% of the United States‘ electricity. Experts believe wind
power will account for 20% of the nation‘s electricity by 2030.

Larger areas can be covered by multiple wind turbines, forming a wind farm. Unfortunately,
adding a second or third turbine does not double or triple the energy yield. The wind farm
efficiency is
defined as the ratio of actual production of N wind turbines in the farm configuration to the
theoretical production of N undistrubed turbines. Good farms should have a farm efficiency
of at least 85%.

ASPECTS OF LOCATION OF WIND FARMS

There are many factors to consider when choosing a location for a wind turbine or wind farm,
such as (but not limited to) the wind resource potential in the area, proximity to existing
power lines, and potential environmental impacts.

This process of selecting a location for a wind energy project, known as ―siting,‖ includes
reviewing wind maps and data, securing permits and following ordinances, and ensuring best
practices for the size and proposed location of a project.

Careful siting requires thorough research and thoughtful public engagement. Resources from
the following categories aid in the critical project planning step of site selection for a wind
turbine or wind farm.

How to Select a Location for a Wind Farm?

Siting a Wind Turbine

The crucial factor in siting a wind farm (also called wind park or wind plant) is the annual
energy production and how the value of the energy produced compares to other sources of
energy. Using long-term is data therefore critical. Data should be collected at a potential site
for 2–3 years, after which other questions arise:

 What is the long-term annual variability?

 How well can we predict the renewable energy production?

Data on Wind Power

To determine whether historical data from a site is adequate to describe long-term wind
resources at another site, a rigorous analysis should be done. The annual hourly linear
correlation coefficient should be at least 0.90 between the reference site and off-site data.
Wind shear must also be factored in if the heights are different at the two locations. If the two
sites do not exhibit similar wind speed and direction trends and lack similar topographic
exposures, they will probably not have sufficient correlation value.

These wind power stations should continue to collect data even after a wind farm is installed.
The data improves siting of a wind farm and also provides reference sites for delineating
wind resources for single or distributed wind turbine in the region.

Renewable Energy Production

The number of met stations and duration of data collection to predict the energy production
for a wind farm vary depending on the terrain and the availability of long-term base data in
the vicinity. In general, numerical models of wind flow will predict wind speeds to within 5%
for relatively flat terrain and 10% for complex terrain, which means an error in energy of 15–
30%. A wind measurement program is therefore imperative before a wind farm is installed.
However, if a number of wind farms are already in the region, one year of data collection
may suffice.

For complex terrain, one met station per three to five wind turbines may be needed. For more
homogeneous terrain, a primary tall met station and one to four smaller met stations may
suffice.

The money spent on micrositing (siting of wind turbines over an area the size of a wind farm,
about 5–20 km2) is a small fraction of project cost, but the value of the information gained is
critical for estimating energy production accurately. Many problems with low energy
production are the results of poor siting.

Digital Maps on Wind Speed

Digital maps are useful for siting a wind farm as they give a general overview of wind
resource, provide confidence in the data, and provide information about land use and
transmission lines, and other features can easily be displayed on the same maps.

Wind Site Assessment Dashboard (formerly Wind navigator), a web platform based on
Google Maps, is an interactive tool that includes wind resource maps and world data. The
map provides wind speed data at custom height of 10–140m and a pointer to locate the
Vaisala provides a similar interactive
wind resource map (map, satellite, hybrid, and terrain views) and data for much of the world,
which features wind speed data for 20, 50, and 80m and with Wind GIS Data Layers,
resolution is at 90m. Remember that wind speed maps provide useful indicators of wind
energy, and wind power maps are the next step.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

A Geographic Information System is a computer system capable of holding and using

spatially oriented data. Geographic Information Systems typically link different data sets or
display a base set over which overlays of other data sets are placed. Information is linked as it
relates to the same geographical area. GIS mapping is an analysis tool, not simply a computer
system for making maps.

Geographic Information Systems allows a user to associate information with a feature on a

map and create relationships that can determine the feasibilities of various locations, for
example, a hierarchical system for locating anemometer stations for wind prospecting.

Wind Forecasting

Numerical models for predicting winds are becoming more accurate and useful, especially for
areas of the world where surface wind data are scarce or unreliable. When using them, it is
important to keep in mind that a small difference in wind speed can make a large difference
in renewable energy production. In the final analysis, surface wind data is still required for
wind farms.

MesoMap: This system was developed specifically for near-surface wind forecasting. It uses
historical atmospheric data spanning 20 years and a fine grid (typically 1–5 km). The model
provides descriptive statistics utilizing wind speed histograms, Weibull frequency parameters,
turbulence and maximum gusts, maps of wind energy potential within specific geographical
regions, and even the annual energy production data for a wind turbine of any height for
selected sites in a region.

WAsP: The Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program software was developed by
Denmark‘s Risoe National Laboratory to predict wind climate and power production from a
wind turbine. The predictions are based on wind data measured at stations in the region. The
program includes a complex terrain flow model.

Micro-siting of Wind Farms

Wind maps, data compiled by meteorological towers, models, and other criteria are used to
select wind farm locations. Further considerations for a wind farm developer are the type of
terrain (complex to flat plain), wind shear, wind direction, and spacing of wind turbines based
on predominant wind direction and availability, land cost, and requirements such as roads,
turbine foundations, and substations. In complex terrain, such as mountains and ridges,
micrositing is particularly important.

Satellite and aerial images are used in micrositing and are available from various sources;
some are free. Zoom Earth has the option of switching among sources, such as Google Maps,
Microsoft VE, and others. Although micrositing techniques of wind farm developers are
proprietary, satellite images show the layout of wind farms, and can provide good
information about siting from the images and topographic maps.

Economic and institutional issues also affect micrositing. An example is the Waubra wind
farm project in Australia, which involves environmental, cultural, heritage, and
environmental management issues. Since installation, many residents have expressed
opposition, claiming health effects caused by wind farms.

Offshore Wind

Ocean wind observations provide complementary sources of information for siting of a

offshore wind farm. The advantages of ocean wind maps are:

 Some satellite wind maps are public domain

 All offer global coverage allowing observation of large areas without large numbers
of meteorological towers
 All are accessible in archives spanning several years
 Accuracy is sufficient for wind resource screening
 They quantify spatial variations
 They are available at resolutions of 400m, 1.6m, and 0.25 degree
 Software has been developed for their use

The major problems with ocean winds are:

 Data are for 10m height and values of wind shear are not known
 Standard deviations are around 1.2 to 1.5m/s on mean wind speed
 Data are not available or not as reliable within 25 km of shore

Geographic Information Systems provides very flexible and powerful tools for terrain
analysis relevant to wind energy prospecting. They can help reclassify existing wind maps
and identify areas showing potential as possible wind farm sites. In addition, Geographic
Information Systems can be used to quantify wind power potential and, in conjunction with
numerical models, estimate annual energy production.

After a location is selected, Geographic Information Systems and topographical maps can be
used for micrositing. Wind turbines should be located within a wind plant area to maximize
annual energy production.

SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATION FOR WECS

The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence wind energy
conversion machines should be located preferable in areas where the winds are strong and
persistent. Although daily winds at a given site may be highly variable, the monthly and
especially annual average are remarkably constant from year to year.
The major contribution to the wind power available at a given site is actually made by winds
with speeds above the average. Nevertheless, the most suitable sites for wind turbines would
be found in areas where the annual average wind speeds are known to be moderately high or
high.

The site choice for a single or a spatial array of WECS is an important matter when wind
electrics are looked at from the systemspoint of view of aeroturbine generators feeding power
into a convertional electric grid.

If the WECS sites are wrongly or poorly chosen the net wind electrics generated energy per
year may be sub optimal with resulting high capital cost for the WECS apparatus, high costs
for wind generated electric energy, and low Returns on Investment. Even if the WECS is to
be a small generator not tied to the electric grid, the sitting must be carefully chosen if
inordinately long break even times are to be avoided. Technical, Economic, Environmental,
Social and Other actors are examined before a decision is made to erect a generating plant on
a specific site.

Some of the main site selection consideration are given below:

1. High annual average wind speed:

2. Availability of anemometry data:
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site:
4. Wind structure at the proposed site:
5. Altitude of the proposed site:
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:
7. Local Ecology
8. Distance to road or railways:
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users:
10. Nature of ground:
11. Favourable land cost:

1. High annual average wind speed:

The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values of velocity of wind, the small
increases in velocity markedly affect the power in the wind. For example, Doubling the
velocity, increases power by a factor of 8. It is obviously desirable to select a site for WECS
with high wind velocity. Thus a high average wind velocity is the principle fundamental
parameter of concern in initially appraising WESCS site. For more detailed estimate value,
one would like to have the average of the velocity cubed.
2. Availability of anemometry data:

It is another improvement sitting factor. The aenometry data should be available over some
time period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built and that this should
be accomplished before a sitting decision is made.

3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site:

This important curve determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence is the principal
initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and hence revenue return o the
WECS machines.

It is desirable to have average wind speed ‗V‘ such that V>=12-16 km/hr (3.5 – 4.5 m/sec)
which is about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS generators ‗cut in‘ i.e., start
turning. The V(t) Curve also determines the reliability of the delivered WECS generator
power, for if the V(t) curve goes to zero there be no generated power during that time.

If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than if the calm periods
are short. In making such realiability estimates it is desirable to have measured V(t) Curve
over about a 5 year period for the highest confidence level in the reliability estimate.

4. Wind structure at the proposed site:

The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the V(t) Curve was flat, i.e., a smooth
steady wind that blows all the time; but a typical site is always less than ideal. Wind specially
near the ground is turbulent and gusty, and changes rapidly in direction and in velocity. This
depature from homogeneous flow is collectively referred to as ―the structure of the wind‖.

5. Altitude of the proposed site:

It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the useful WECS electric
power output. Also, as is well known, the wind tend to have higher velocities at higher
altitudes. One must be carefully to distinguish altitude from height above ground. They are
not the same except for a sea level WECS site.

6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:

One should know about terrain of the site to be chosen. If the WECS is to be placed near the
top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill facing the prevailing wind, then it may be
possible to obtain a ‗speed-up‘ of the wind velocity over what it would otherwise be. Also the
wind here may not flow horizontal making it necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the
aeroturbine is always perpendicular to the actual wind flow.

It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the prevailing wind into a
pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.
7. Local Ecology

If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower structure cost. If trees or
grass or vegetation are present, all of which tend to destructure the wind, the higher hub
heights will be needed resulting in larges system costs that the bare ground case.

8. Distance to road or railways:

This is another factor the system engineer must consider for heavy machinery, structure,
materials, blades and other apparatus will have to be moved into any choosen WECS site.

9. Nearness of site to local centre/users:

This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and hence losses and cost. After
applying all the previous string criteria, hopefully as one narrows the proposed WECS sites to
one or two they would be relatively near to the user of the generated electric energy.

10. Nature of ground:

Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS are secured. Ground
surface should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later wash
out the foundation of a WECS, destroying the whole system.

11. Favourable land cost:

Land cost should be favourable as this along with other siting costs, enters into the total
WECS system cost.

12. Other conditions such as icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not present at
the site, as they may affect aeroturbine blades or environmental is generally adverse to
machinery and electrical apparatus.

TYPES OF WIND TURBINES

The majority of wind turbines fall into two basic types: HORIZONTAL-AXIS TURBINES,
and VERTICAL-AXIS TURBINES.

HORIZONTAL-AXIS TURBINES: Horizontal-axis wind turbines are what many people

picture when thinking of wind turbines. Most commonly, they have three blades and operate
"upwind," with the turbine pivoting at the top of the tower so the blades face into the wind.

The working principle of a HAWT is based on a lift, which is the force that pushes an object
upward when air flows over its surface. The blades of a HAWT are shaped like airfoils, which
create a pressure difference between their upper and lower surfaces when the wind blows.
This pressure difference causes the blades to rotate around the horizontal axis, which in turn
drives the shaft and the generator to produce electricity.

The rotor plane of a HAWT must be aligned with the wind direction to maximize its
efficiency. Therefore, a HAWT has a wind sensor and a yaw system that adjust the orientation
of the nacelle according to the wind direction. A HAWT also has a pitch system that changes
the angle of attack of the blades to control their rotational speed and power output.

 Horizontal-axis turbines are similar to propeller airplane engines. Horizontal-axis

turbines have blades like airplane propellers, and they commonly have three blades.
The largest horizontal-axis turbines are as tall as 20-story buildings and have blades
more than 100 feet long. Taller turbines with longer blades generate more electricity.
Nearly all of the wind turbines currently in use are horizontal-axis turbines.
 Horizontal axis machines have emerged as the most successful type of turbines. These
are being used for commercial energy generation in many parts of the world.
 They have low cut-in wind speed, easy furling and, in general, show a high power
coefficient.
 However, their design is more complex and expensive as the generator and gearbox
are to be placed at the top of the tower. Also, a tailor yaw drive is to be installed to
orient them in the wind direction.

The advantages of HAWTs are:

 They have higher efficiency than vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) because they
can capture more wind energy with less drag.
 They have lower torque ripple and mechanical stress than VAWTs because they have
fewer changes in aerodynamic forces during each rotation.
 They can be installed offshore on floating platforms or fixed foundations, where the
wind speed is higher and more consistent.

The disadvantages of HAWTs are:

 They require a tall tower and a large land area to avoid turbulence and interference
from nearby structures or terrain.
 They are more expensive and complex to install and maintain than VAWTs because
they have more moving parts and electrical components.
 They are more susceptible to fatigue and damage from high winds, storms, lightning,
birds, or ice.
 Aerial photo of a horizontal wind turbine at the National Wind Technology Center (NWTC)
in Colorado.

VERTICAL-AXIS TURBINES: Vertical-axis wind turbines come in several varieties,

including the eggbeater-style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. These turbines
are omnidirectional, meaning they don‘t need to be adjusted to point into the wind to operate.

Vertical-axis turbines look like egg beaters. Vertical-axis turbines have blades that are
attached to the top and the bottom of a vertical rotor. The most common type of vertical-axis
turbine—the Darrieus wind turbine, named after the French engineer Georges Darrieus who
patented the design in 1931—looks like a giant, two-bladed egg beater. Some versions of the
vertical-axis turbine are 100 feet tall and 50 feet wide. Very few vertical-axis wind turbines
are in use today because they do not perform as well as horizontal-axis turbines.

The working principle of a VAWT is based on drag, which is the force that opposes the
motion of an object when air flows over its surface. The blades of a VAWT are symmetrical
or asymmetrical, which create different amounts of drag when they face or oppose the wind
direction. This drag difference causes the blades to rotate around the vertical axis, which in
turn drives the generator to produce electricity.

The rotor plane of a VAWT does not need to be aligned with the wind direction because it can
capture wind from any direction. Therefore, a VAWT does not have a yaw system or a wind
sensor. However, a VAWT may have a pitch system that changes the angle of attack of the
blades to control their rotational speed and power output.

 In these machines, the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of the wind.
 The main advantages of a VAWT compared to HAWT are
  The vertical axis wind turbine receives wind from any direction, and hence the
yawing system is not required.
 The generator, gearbox, etc. can be installed at the bottom of the tower, hence their
tower design and installation is simple.
 Inspection and maintenance is easier.
 They are lighter in weight and cheaper in cost.

VAWTs are generally not self-starting and have a low power coefficient, these are the major
disadvantages. They require a mechanism to start from the stationary position. Additionally,
there is a possibility of running the blades at a very high speed and causing damage to the
system.

The advantages of VAWTs are:

 They have lower installation and maintenance costs than HAWTs because they have
fewer moving parts and electrical components.
 They have lower noise levels than HAWTs because they rotate at slower speeds.
 They can be installed on rooftops or near buildings because they have lower heights
and smaller footprints than HAWTs.

The disadvantages of VAWTs are:

 They have lower efficiency than HAWTs because they have more drag and less lift.
 They have higher torque ripple and mechanical stress than HAWTs because they have
more changes in aerodynamic forces during each rotation.
 They cannot be installed offshore because they are less stable and durable than
HAWTs.
 Vertical-axis wind turbines

AERODYNAMIC AND MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF WIND MACHINE DESIGN

A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the aerodynamic force from the rotor
blades, which work like an airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across
the blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure
across the two sides of the blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger
than the drag and this causes the rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the generator, either
directly (if it‘s a direct drive turbine) or through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that
speed up the rotation and allow for a physically smaller generator. This translation of
aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator creates electricity.
Aerodynamics is a branch of fluid dynamics, the study of the motion of air with forces and
moments that act on the body. Aerodynamics plays a vital role in the flight of the aeroplane
and helicopter, rocket technology, designing high speed and fuel-efficient cars, reducing the
drag on the athlete in sports events and a lot more engineering applications. For example, the
aerodynamics of the wind turbine is an important area to increase power output and design a
large turbine blade.
The blade on a wind turbine can be thought of as a rotating wing, but the forces are different
on a turbine due to the rotation. This section introduces you to important concepts about
turbine blades. In normal operation, the rounded front portion of the blades is oriented in the
direction of rotation and the flat portion faces the wind. The front of the blade is referred to as
the leading edge and the back is referred to as the trailing edge, as illustrated in Figure 1a.

Fig. 1: Air Moving Past a Turbine. (a) The rounded leading edge is oriented in the direction
of rotation. (b) A lift force is created by pressure differences that are perpendicular to the
apparent wind direction. This force tends to bend the blades and create a smaller rotational
force.
 Fig.: Forces acting on the wind blade

Lift Force
Lift is a component of an aerodynamic force exerted on a body that is perpendicular to a fluid
(such as air) flowing past it. For an airplane wing, it is the force that lifts the plane, hence the
term lift.
In a wind turbine, the term lift is a bit of a misnomer because it does not lift the blade; rather,
it is a force exerted in a direction that is perpendicular to the apparent wind direction rather
than the true direction. See Fig 1. In this case, lift is shown related to the airflow rather than
the wing, as would be the case for an airplane wing.
Assume the flat part of the blade is facing the true wind. As the blade turns, air that flows
across the leading edge appears as a separate component of the wind; thus, the apparent wind
direction is shifted to oppose the direction of rotation.
The rotation of the blade causes a lift force that is perpendicular to the apparent wind
direction. A small portion of this force goes toward turning the blade.
The lift force rotates with the blades so it constantly changes direction. The motion of the
blades is opposed by the force required to spin the generator, friction in the system, and drag.
Drag Force
The drag force is friction caused by air, which opposes the motion. This force is made as little
as possible so that as much of the lift as possible can go into useful work (turning the
turbine).
Drag is expressed in terms of the drag coefficient, which is a dimensionless number.
Typically, the only area of a wind turbine blade used in the calculation of drag is the front
area (leading edge) of the blade.
Design engineers aim for the smallest amount of drag. The smaller the drag, the more
efficient the turbine is in harvesting wind energy. To reduce drag, blades are made relatively
narrow.
A typical drag coefficient for wind turbine blades is 0.04; compare this to a well-designed
automobile with a drag coefficient of 0.30.
Even though the drag coefficient for a blade is fairly constant, as the wind speed increases,
the amount of drag force also increases. The lower the drag coefficient number, the better the
aerodynamic efficiency.
Drag forces are caused by the air molecules that hit the surface of the blade facing the wind.

Airfoil drag force

A major component of the drag force acts in the direction that is parallel to the main shaft of
the rotor.

Drag Force major component direction

The magnitude of the drag force varies with the wind speed and the size and shape of the
blade.

Drag force parameters

Drag forces have a cantilever beam effect on the blade, causing the maximum stress at the
joint between the blade and the hub which is connected to the main shaft of the wind turbine.

Maximum Bending Moment at the Hub from drag forces

 Maximum Stresses from Drag forces
Lift Force
When the wind passes over the blade, the pressure difference between the front and back of
the blade causes the lift forces.

Airfoil lift Force

Pressure difference across the airfoil

Pressure difference direction

The forces and moments on the body are due to pressure and shear stress distribution. The
pressure acts perpendicular to the surface, which acts as a load on the wind turbine and shear
stress is the frictional force tangential to the surface. The pressure difference between the
bottom of the blade and the top of the blade generates the lift force (perpendicular to
freestream velocity) the wind turbine blade generates the power by rotating the generator.

Fig.: Aerodynamic forces in the aerofoil.

Lift force is given by,

Where,

 L = lift force (N)

 ρ = density of air (Kg/m3)
 V = wind velocity (m/s)
 S = blade span area (m2)
 CL = coefficient of lift

The lift force on the wind turbine blade is proportional to the square of the wind velocity
gains essential parameters in the wind energy generation. The blade span area depends on the
length and width of the blade throughout the cross-section and CL depends on the shape
(aerofoil selection) and orientation (pitch angle) of the blade. Aerofoil is a streamlined, cross-
sectional blade shape that produces high lift compared to other shapes. The aerofoils were
first used in the aeroplane wings to generate lift and are now widely used for energy
production. Terminologies define the shape of the aerofoil, the frontal part is the leading edge
and rearward part is the trailing edge, and the chord line is the straight line connecting the
leading edge to the trailing edge. A mean locus between the upper and bottom of the aerofoil
is the mean camber line and the maximum distance between the chord and camber line is
called camber. The well-known and basic aerofoil series is NACA aerofoil. NACA stands for
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which designed aerofoil with a series to
understand the shape easily. For example, in a NACA-4 series aerofoil, the first digit
represents maximum camber at 0–9.5% chord, the second digit represents the location of
maximum camber at 0–90% chord and the last two-digit represents the thickness of the
aerofoil at 1–40% chord. NACA-0012 is a symmetrical aerofoil with zero camber at 12%
chord thickness. NACA-2412 is asymmetrical aerofoil with 2% chord of maximum camber,
location of camber at 40% of chord, and 12% thickness of chord.

A major component of the lift force acts in the ever-changing tangential direction as the rotor
rotates

The tangential direction of the lift force

The tangential component of lift forces

The magnitude of the lift force varies with the wind speed and the size, and the shape of the
blade. As generator load increases, the amount of lift must also increase, within the limits of
prevailing wind conditions
Lift forces also have a cantilever beam effect on the blade, causing the maximum stress at the
joint between the blade and the hub which is connected to the main shaft of the wind turbine
 Cantilever beam effect of lift forces on the blade

Maximum Stresses on Blade due to lift forces

The drag forces and the lift forces are perpendicular to each other;so are their cantilever beam
effects on the blades
 Lift and drag forces perpendicular to each other

The cantilever beam effect of lift and drag forces are perpendicular to each other

Angle of Attack
The angle at which the wind strikes the turbine blade is called the angle of attack.
When the wind blows at a low angle over a blade, as shown in Figure 2a, the blade has a
certain amount of lift, as indicated by the vertical arrow.
As the angle of attack increases, the lift also increases, as shown in Figure 2b.
At a steep angle of attack, turbulence begins, reducing lift and increasing drag; this point is
called stall and is shown in Figure 2c.
Depending on the wind speed and blade shape, a critical angle of attack is reached, at which
point the lift is at a maximum. At steeper angles, the turbine blade begins to lose its ability to
convert energy from the wind.
Fig. 2: Angle of Attack. As attack angle increases, lift increases until the airfoil begins to stall
at a high angle of attack. At this point, turbulence begins, causing the lift to decrease and drag
to increase. Stall begins at this point.

Lift-to-Drag Ratio
The lift-to-drag ratio is a ratio of the lift force to the drag force, and it varies across the blade.
The higher the lift-to-drag ratio, the more efficient the turbine blade is at converting wind
energy into torque, which produces more electricity from the generator.
Turbine blades have the highest lift-to-drag ratio near the tip of the blade. The blade has more
material with very high strength near the hub because of the higher stresses in that region,
and less material near the narrow tip. For this reason, lift is increased and drag is reduced
near the tip.
Various factors affect drag, including the materials used to construct the blade, wind speed,
air density, and air temperature. Even dirt and bugs on the blade affect drag. Drag is also
affected by how the blades are oriented.
Stall occurs at very high angles to the wind and the blade no longer has lift. A wind turbine is
subjected to the highest and lowest winds that flow at its location.
When high winds occur, the turbine blades increase their speed, and the output of the
generator may increase to the point at which the generator becomes overheated and damaged.
Also, high winds may damage the turbine blades and the tower if the generator is allowed to
increase its output at an uncontrolled rate.

Turbine Blade Tip Speeds

The tip of the turbine blade travels at the highest speed of any part of the turbine blade when
it is rotating. Because of this speed, the tip passes more air as it travels and hence generates
more lift.
Tip speed is defined as the speed at the blade tip as it rotates through the air.
Because the tip is rotating at the highest speed, it comes under considerable stress caused by
centrifugal force.
Blades are specified for a maximum tip speed and they are tapered to reduce lift at the ends
because the faster-moving tip can still generate sufficient lift.
High tip speed is defined as speeds between 65 and 85 m/s, which is about 145 to 190 mph.
High tip speeds are needed to make the turbine blade more efficient. At very high speeds, the
turbine blade may receive too much stress, which can cause deterioration due to micro-
fracturing.
A turbine blade must be designed to withstand the maximum stress. A specification that is
important is the ratio of the tip speed to the wind speed, or the tip speed ratio (TSR).
Tip speed can be determined from the rotational speed, which is ωR where ω is the rotational
speed in radians per second and R is the radius of the turbine in meters.
The optimal tip speed ratio depends on the number of blades and is lower when there are
more blades.
For three blades, a TSR of 6 to 7 is optimal. If it is less, not all the available energy is
captured; if it is more, the blades move into an area of turbulence from the last blade and are
not as efficient.
Because the speed of the blade is faster near the tip, the tip speed ratio is only valid at the
radius used in the calculation.
To optimize the angle of attack all along the blade, the blade is twisted from root to tip.

Centrifugal Force
The velocity of each particle inside the blade changes direction as the rotor rotates. This
change of direction is a form of acceleration of the particle toward the center, or axis, that the
blade revolves around
 Changing direction wind blade particle

Centripetal acceleration

This acceleration is caused by the centripetal force. However, for rotating systems, such as
wind turbine blades and their hub, it is common to explain the blade stress due to rotation in
terms of the fictional centrifugal inertial force, which is equal in magnitude to the centripetal
force, but in the opposite direction.

Centripetal and Centrifugal forces

The tensile stress builds up to reach its maximum at the joint between the blade and the hub.
The centrifugal forces are always in the radial direction, causing tensile stress throughout the
whole blade, from the root to the tip.
 Tensile Stress on the Blade from centrifugal forces

Maximum Tensile Stress

The centrifugal forces vary with the size, shape, and mass density of the blade, as well as the
angular speed of the rotor. Centrifugal forces increase rapidly as the rotor gains speed.

Mass density of blades affects centrifugal forces

 angular speeds affect centrifugal forces
Gravitational Forces
The gravitational forces acting on any part of the blade vary with the mass density, size, and
shape of the blade. The gravitational forces are always toward the center of the earth,
therefore, the gravitational forces have a variable effect on the blade as the rotor rotates.
Maximum tensile or compressive stresses occur along the radial direction when the blade is
vertical

Maximum Tensile stress along the radial direction

 Maximum compressive stress along the radial direction

While maximum bending stress happens when the blade is horizontal

Maximum Bending Stress

The maximum stress caused by the drag forces, the lift forces, the centrifugal forces, and the
gravitational forces, concentrates at the joint between the blade and the hub. Therefore, the
proper installation and maintenance of the joints between the root of the blades and the hub
are critical to the safe operation of wind turbines.
 Maximum Stress at the HUB

CONVERSION TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

A wind turbine transforms the mechanical energy of wind into electrical energy. A turbine
takes the kinetic energy of a moving fluid, air in this case, and converts it to a rotary motion.
As wind moves past the blades of a wind turbine, it moves or rotates the blades. These blades
turn a generator.

Details of the conversion system are as follows,

 Blades are attached to the hub.

 The Drive Train is the mechanism that transfers the energy from the rotor shaft to the
generator. There are two drive train design concepts:
 Integrated: Shaft, gearbox and generator in one unit. Compact, but makes replacing
difficult.
  Modular: Gearbox, shaft and generator separate.
 Gearbox: Required if generator is asynchronous. Otherwise, optional. Drawback:
gearbox makes noise and suffers from wear and tear, potentially leading to higher
O&M costs. Advantage: works well with asynchronous generators, which are
cheaper.
 Generator: Either synchronous or asynchronous. Enercon is one of the few companies
that successfully deploy asynchronous devices without gearbox.
 Inverters: Two inverters to transform the generator's output frequency to the grid-
required frequency. If the WEC has a fixed rotor speed (with no pitch), inverters are
not required. Most WECs have a variable rotor speed (as they operate at fixed tip
speed ratio). the inverters can control both frequency of current and speed of the
asynchronous generator.

The available power will rely upon the wind speed so it is important that the power at
different wind speeds is controlled and restricted in order to avoid grid disruption. In general
they are the three most common forms of conventional wind generator systems. One type is a
continuous wind turbine system with a regular squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG),
which is connected to the power supply network explicitly. The second type is a wind turbine
variable speed system with Double Fed Induction Generator (DFIG). The power rate of the
winding rotor electric converter is approximately 30%; the DFIG winding stator is connected
directly to the grid. The third type is a variable wind turbo with a fully-rated, synchronous
generator or SCIG electronic conversion system. Usually, two generators use amulti-stage
transmission. Synchronous generators can be driven directly by low ratio gear box systems,
such as permanent synchronous magnet generator (PMSG). An interesting alternative is one
or two-phase gear box.

Fig.: Power curve for the wind turbine showing power generated in relation to speed of the
wind
The power level for the electrical converter supplying the winding rotor is around 30 percent;
the winding statistics for the DFIG are connected directly to the grid. The third category is a
variable speed wind turbine with a full-speed electronic transmission system and a
synchronous generator or SCIG. Usually, the two first generators use a multi-stage gearbox.
Synchro generators, like a PMSG, can be powered directly by the low-ratio gearbox system;
an interesting feature is one or two gearboxes. With the decline in the cost of electronic
power converters, the wind turbine is becoming a great option. Direct PMSG-based
configurations are an attractive alternative for WECS compared to other wind turbine
generators with a variable rpm. In contrast to the DFIG wind turbine system, the WT-PMSG
does not necessitate a gearbox and slip-ring to allow high-performance WECS construction,
stable operation and low maintenance. In the wind turbines industry, the efficient generation
of more power by onshore and offshore wind turbines using PMSGs is continuously being
investigated.
The power curve illustrates the power curve into four areas. Region I: Standby, Region II: full
power regulation, Region III: regulation of power rating and Region 4: shutdown of turbines.
Region I: Standby type. Considering that Region II has low wind speeds and its blades below
turbine capacity, maximum power can be extracted at the highest output. Area 3 is a control
region that mainly conserves low noise and rotor torque. The pitch angle in Region III is
isolated from its maximum power conversion angle by power measurement
In its most common configuration, the rotor has 3 blades rotating around a horizontal axis.
The sweep diameter of these blades ranges from 80 to more than 200 meters. The longer the
blades, the greater the electricity production capacity.
As they rotate, the rotor drives a generator that produces electric energy. With conventional
wind turbines, the electric generator requires a rotation speed of 1,000 to 2,000 rpm, whereas
the blades turn more slowly (5 to 25 rpm). With these wind turbines, a multiplier (or gear
box) is installed between the rotor and the generator to increase the rotation speed. More
recently, direct-drive machines have been designed: with these, the generators operate with a
variable rotation speed (5 to 2,000 rpm) and do not use a multiplier. The assembly composed
of the multiplier and the generator forms the nacelle.
The nacelle is installed at the top of a tower that is between 50 and over 200 m high. A
rotation system turns the rotor and blades so that they are always facing into the wind. Wind
turbines generally operate at wind speeds of between 10 and 90 km/h. Beyond this maximum
speed, they stop automatically to avoid any accidents.
The electric energy produced by the generator is transported down the tower via cables to a
transformer, before being injected into the electricity grid by underground cables.
 Fig.: An offshore wind farm
Offshore, winds are more powerful and regular than on land, which has driven the
development of offshore wind farms in recent years. Larger and more powerful (6 to 10 MW,
or even 18 MW for some recent models), wind turbines installed in the sea supply more
energy per machine than wind turbines on land. They have a limited impact on the landscape,
making it possible to have larger wind parks, with more turbines. Manufacturing, installation
and production costs are higher than the onshore equivalent but they are likely to fall over
time.
When it comes to anchoring wind turbines to the seabed, there are two options, depending on
water depth:

 fixed wind turbines: at depths of up to 60 meters, the wind turbines are fixed to the
seabed. Fixed offshore wind power technologies are already well developed, but
bigger and more powerful turbines will be needed to reduce operating costs. In
Europe, the UK leads the way in terms of installed capacity, followed by Germany,
the Netherlands and Denmark;
 floating wind turbines: at depths of over 60 meters, fixing to the seabed becomes too
expensive and difficult. The wind turbines are therefore connected to a floating
support on the surface of the water, or just below it. They can be located further from
the shore and therefore benefit from stronger and more regular winds. The floating
support is anchored to the seabed using cables. Several types of floaters can be used,
including a barge, a steel column or several steel columns, etc. These structures have
to be able to tolerate extreme sea conditions and their manufacturing costs have to be
kept under control.

WIND MAPS
Before we can purchase or install our wind turbine we need to measure and understand the
wind speed and strength for our given location and use this data collected by an anemometer
or other device to produce a wind speed distribution graph as shown:

The first graph on the left shows the actual wind speed for our location varying over a period
of time. Each time period used can be anywhere from a few days to many years and will give
us the raw data to plot our site distribution and site characteristics curves. Wind speed data
can be collected every minute, every hour or every day depending upon our location.

However, this data must be collected on a regular basis and not just one day of data every
hour then nothing for two weeks, etc. Also the more data that is collected the more accurate
will be the resulting graphs allowing the correct wind turbine to be purchased. By collecting
wind speed data in this way, we may find that our original and possibly convenient location
next to a building has less wind energy potential or available wind power than another
location away from the building, so think about data collection around different points.

Once we have our raw site data we can then use it to generate a ―wind speed distribution‖
graph, (second graph). This shows the probability of the various wind speeds for our
proposed site(s). Using this graph we can define the maximum and average wind speed (the
centre of the graph) and the width of the wind speed window from the minimum cut-in speed
to the maximum cut-out speed.

The final graph on the right shows the number of hours a particular wind speed or wind
velocity is available to us throughout the data period giving the characteristics of the site or
location for our renewable wind energy system. On this graph we can also draw or super-
impose the proposed wind turbines operating window (cut-in to cut-out speed) given by the
manufactures data sheet to see the average time and how much power will be generated by
the turbine.

Most domestic roof mounted wind turbines are designed to operate with a wind speed from
about 10mph (15kph) up to a maximum of about 60mph (100kph) giving a wind speed
window of about 50mph or 85kph. The rotational speed of the wind turbine also plays an
important role in the production of wind energy.

Generally, on a calm still day, the turbine sits idle and the blades are not spinning. As the
wind picks up it eventually reaches the cut-in speed of the turbine (usually around 10 mph).
At this wind speed, the turbine blades will spin up to their cut-in operating speed and start
generating electricity and as the wind speed increases, the rotor blade velocity increases so
the generator output increases.

Wind turbines deliver maximum power at a wind speed of around 30 – 35mph (varies by
turbine model) so a generator that has a name-plate rated capacity of 100kW, will be
outputting 100kW at the rated wind speed, but will deliver less than a quarter (1/4) of their
rated power at the lower cut-in wind speeds of only 15mph.

Wind speeds above 30 mph, the generator maintains its rated capacity (i.e. 100kW) until wind
speeds reach 55 to 60 mph, and then the turbine reaches its cut-out speed and its built in
safety circuit stops generating electricity.

So we can see that the wind speed or wind velocity, is a very important factor to consider for
the correct and safe operation of a wind turbine generator. Wind speed data is used to
calculate the winds power when deciding where to erect a suitable wind turbine, whether on
the ground or on a roof.
Showing wind direction in India; https://zoom.earth/maps/wind-speed/
 Fig.: India wind resource map at 100 m height, modelled at 3 km spatial resolution.

ESTIMATES OF WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL

The Power in the Wind
Then we can see that Wind Power, which is measured in Watts, is the power we can expect to
extract from the wind to drive our turbine. Wind power is determined by the size of the rotor
blades, the wind velocity and the air density. Then the theoretical power in moving air is the
flow rate of kinetic energy per second by a wind turbine and is given by the equation:
Wind Power Equation

Where: P is the Wind Power, ρ (rho) is the air density in Kg/m3, A is the circular area in m2
swept by the rotors, V is the air velocity in m/s or mph and Cp is the power coefficient
(efficiency) which is the percentage of power in the wind that is converted into mechanical
energy, typically 0.35 to 0.45, (35 – 45%).
You will notice from the equation that if the rotor area in m2 is fixed, and the air density is
fixed for a given location, the energy contained in the wind is only dependant upon the wind
speed. Then we can simplify the above equation to give K.V3 where K is a fixed constant
representing the combined fixed rotor blade area, air mass and efficiency of the turbine. This
means then that the ―available wind energy is proportional to the cube of the wind speed‖ or
wind velocity, and this statement is very important as a small change in wind speed makes a
big change in the power contained within it.
Wind Energy Example No1

Lets assume that we live in an area slightly above sea level that has an air density of
1.225Kg/m3 and we have installed a 40% efficient wind turbine which has a rotor blade
radius of six ( 6 ) metres. Calculate the output power from the turbine at a wind speed of 8
metres/second, ( 8m/s ) and again at double the velocity of 16 metres/second ( 16m/s ).

1. at 8 metres/second:

2. at 16 metres/second:
Then we can see that at a wind velocity of 8m/s the theoretical output power is calculated at
14.2kW and at 16m/s is calculated at 113.5kW. Since the wind power, P and therefore the
wind energy vary with the cube of the wind velocity, (V3) doubling of wind velocity from
8m/s to 16m/s results in eight times (x8) the amount of available power being produced. By
plotting different values of wind speed against theoretical power output calculated from the
above equation we can produce a simple power curve of any wind turbine given the
manufacturers operational characteristics of the turbine.

Wind Energy Curve

Finding a good windy site to install a wind turbine and maximising the wind speed becomes
an important part of making renewable wind energy economical. Wind speed histograms can
be purchased, used or drawn for any particular site to show the number of hours, days or
weeks, or whatever time period is used, that the wind blew for each sampled period of time.

Since the movement of the wind mass varies from seconds to years, wind power and wind
energy will also vary over the same time scale. Therefore, by taking the data first of ―how
windy‖ is the proposed site for a wind turbine, helps decide what size and type of turbine best
suits the location. Increasing the rotor blade length, or increasing the height of the wind
turbine above the ground will also increase the power output.
The power in the wind is proportional to the cube of the wind speed or velocity. It is therefore
essential to have detailed knowledge of the wind and its characteristics, if the performance of
wind turbines is to be estimated accurately. Various parameters need to be known of the wind
energy are mean wind speed, directional data and velocity variations periodically
daily/yearly/monthly and height of the anemometer. These parameters are used to assess the
performance and economics of the wind plant.
Harnessing of wind energy could play a significant role in the energy mix of a region.
Windmills have been used for centuries to grind grain and pump water in rural areas. Wind
energy is renewable and environmentally benign. It has the advantage of being harnessed
locally for applications in rural and remote areas. Wind driven electric generators could be
utilized as an independent power source, and for purposes of augmenting the electricity
supply from grids. In densely populated taluks, decentralized production of electricity would
help local industries, especially seasonal agro-processing industries, etc.
The extent to which wind can be exploited as a source of energy depends on the probability
density of occurrence different speeds. To optimize the design of a wind energy device, data
on speed range over which the device must operate to maximize energy extractions are
required, which requires the knowledge of frequency distribution of the wind speed. Data on
mean monthly and annual wind speeds for a long time (30 - 50 years) are available at
meteorological observatories and the data on frequency distribution is available from various
locations. Various parameters need to be known of the wind energy are mean wind speed,
directional data and velocity variations periodically - daily / yearly / monthly and height of
the anemometer. These parameters are used to assess the performance and economics of the
wind plant.
What is the Wind Power Potential in India?
 India ranks 4th globally after China, the United States and Germany, in terms
of installed wind energy capacity, with 42.8 GW (onshore wind) as of April 2023.
 Wind resource assessment by the National Institute of Wind Energy reveals an
estimated wind power potential of approximately 695.5 GW at 120 meters and 1,164
GW at 150 meters above ground level across the nation.
 Best Performing States:
o Wind Power Potential (in GW) at 120 m Above Ground Level:
 Gujrat (142.56), Rajasthan (127.75), Karnataka (124.15), Maharashtra
(98.21), and Andhra Pradesh (74.90).
o Wind Power Potential (in GW) at 150 m Above Ground Level:
 Rajasthan (284.25), Gujarat (180.79), Maharashtra (173.86), Karnataka
(169.25), and Andhra Pradesh (123.33).

Under the direction of MNRE, NIWE has assessed India's wind power potential at 100m hub
height with scientific rigor and based on authentic latest available data-sets of wind as well as
land geologically spread across India. This information is essential for the Policy makers,
Private players, Government Agencies and other stakeholders of the industry to move
towards achieving the ambitious goal of 60,000 MW of wind power by 2022 as envisaged by
the government. NIWE (formerly C-WET) had already performed the potential estimation
study corroborating meso-scale derived wind maps and micro-scale measurements and
released Indian Wind Atlas at 50mand indicative values at 80m hub heights with 5km
resolution in April 2010 in collaboration with RISO-DTU, Denmark.
In order to estimate the installable potential of the country, the KAMM generated meso scale
wind power density map of 50 m level was integrated with the wind power density map
generated with actual measurements (wherever data is available) and re-plotted the final wind
power density maps by using GIS tool. Weightage is given only for the topographical features
of the area. Later the total area of each wind power density range is calculated. Due to
various reasons (habitat, forest, water bodies etc.), the entire land area covered by the
isopleths cannot be expected to be available for installing wind farms. As land availability
assessment was not a part of the project, the real land availability for wind farm development
is not assessed for estimating the installable potential. On a conservative consideration, a
fraction of uniform 2% land availability for all states except for Himalayan states,
Northeastern states and Andaman Nicobar Islands has been assumed for energy estimation. In
Himalayan states, Northeastern states and Andaman & Nicobar Islands, it is assumed as
0.5%. However the potential would change as per the real land availability in the windy area
of each state. The installable wind power potential (name plate power) is calculated for each
wind power density range by assuming 9 MW could be installed per square kilometer area .
Finally the potential in the country at 50 m level with clearly stated assumptions is estimated
as 49 GW (Refer Indian Wind Atlas published by NIWE for more information).
Similar exercise without any validation has been carried out for 80 m level with the KAMM
generated meso scale map and the results are calculated and given in an attached table. The
estimated installable potential at 80 m level is found to be 102788 MW (See the Table.1.).
Wind power density map at 80 m level is given in figure 1.

Estimated potential (MW)M

Sl.No States / UTs
@ 50 m ($) @ 80 m (* #$)
1 Andaman & Nicobar 2 365
2 Andhra Pradesh 5394 14497
3 Arunachal Pradesh* 201 236
4 Assam* 53 112
5 Bihar - 144
6 Chhattisgarh* 23 314
7 Dieu Damn - 4
8 Gujarat 10609 35071
9 Haryana - 93
10 Himachal Pradesh * 20 64
11 Jharkhand - 91
12 Jammu & Kashmir * 5311 5685
13 Karnataka 8591 13593
14 Kerala 790 837
15 Lakshadweep 16 16
16 Madhya Pradesh 920 2931
17 Maharashtra 5439 5961
18 Manipur* 7 56
19 Meghalaya * 44 82
20 Nagaland * 3 16
21 Orissa 910 1384
22 Pondicherry - 120
23 Rajasthan 5005 5050
24 Sikkim * 98 98
25 Tamil Nadu 5374 14152
26 Uttarakhand * 161 534
27 Uttar Pradesh * 137 1260
28 West Bengal* 22 22
Total 49130 102788
Table 1. Estimation of installable wind power potential at 80 m level
* Wind potential has yet to be validated with actual measurements. # Estimation is based on meso
scale modelling (Indian Wind Atlas). $ As actual land assessment is not done on a conservative
consideration 2 % land availability for all states except Himalayan & North eastern states, Andaman
Nicobar Islands and Poor windy states has been assumed. In other area 0.5% land availability has
been assumed.
 Figure. Wind power density map at 80 m level

Wind energy resources in Ethiopia without excluding protected areas are shown [Ethiopian
Resource Group (ERG) 2009]. This geographical distribution of wind diagram also helps us
to promote the locations with poor-to-excellent wind resources in the country. The
classification of wind resources and extent of associated land areas as given by SWERA. As
recommended, further ground measurements are necessary to verify the estimation when
planning and deployment of wind turbines are concerned to a particular site. The wind
regions of the country are classified into seven broad categories and land areas; under each
category, it is calculated and presented at regional level indicating suitable areas for various
purposes of wind energy development. However, it can be clearly observed from Figure that,
the annual mean power densities are falling under class 1 (poor); an attempt has been made to
investigate the wind energy resource assessment in eight selected locations of Tigray region
in Ethiopia.
Fig.: Annual mean wind power density of Ethiopia at 50 m height without excluding
protected areas
Fig. Wind potential map for Andhra Pradesh and other States.
https://globalwindatlas.info/en/area/India/Andhra%20Pradesh