T.Y.

BSc ELECTRONIC SCIENCE

2021 PATTERN CBCS

Discipline Specific Elective Course

EL 353: PAPER III: Analog Circuit Design and Applications

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UNIT 3: Waveform Generators

Wien Bridge Oscillator:

An oscillator is a circuit that produces periodic electric signals such as sine wave or
square wave. Oscillators are circuits that produce periodic waveforms without any input signal.
They generally use some form of active devices like transistors or OP-Amps as amplifiers with
feedback network consisting of passive devices such as resistors, capacitors, or inductors.
The Wien Bridge is one of the simplest and best known oscillators and is used
extensively in circuits for audio frequency sine wave oscillator of high stability and simplicity.
The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-selective
form of the Wheatstone bridge circuit (Wien-Bridge network). The Wien Bridge oscillator is a
two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has good stability at its resonant frequency, low
distortion and is very easy to tune making it a popular circuit as an audio frequency oscillator.
Here we are discussing wein bridge oscillator using 741 op amp IC. The op-amp used in
this oscillator circuit is working as non-inverting amplifier mode. Here the feedback network
need not provide any phase shift. The circuit can be viewed as a wein bridge with a series RC
network in one arm and parallel RC network in the adjoining arm. Resistors Rin and Rf are
connected in the remaining two arms. The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit
consisting of a series RC circuit connected with a parallel RC of the same component values
producing a phase delay or phase advance circuit depending upon the frequency.
Figure 1a shows feedback bridge circuit which is used for the basic Wien Bridge circuit
is connected between the amplifier input terminals and the output terminal. The bridge has a
series RC network in one arm and a parallel RC network in the adjoining arm.
At the resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is 0o. Consider the circuit below.
RC Phase Shift Network (Lead lag network):

Figure 1a Figure 1b

The RC network consists of a series RC circuit connected to a parallel RC forming

basically a High Pass Filter connected to a Low Pass Filter producing a very selective second-
order frequency dependent Band Pass Filter with a high Q factor at the selected frequency, ƒr.
At low frequencies (the circuit acts like a 'lead circuit') the reactance of the series capacitor (C1)
is very high so acts a bit like an open circuit, blocking any input signal at Vin resulting in
virtually no output signal, Vout. Likewise, at high frequencies (circuit acts as a 'lag circuit') the
reactance of the parallel capacitor, (C2) becomes very low, so this parallel connected capacitor
acts a bit like a short circuit across the output, so again there is no output signal. So there must
be a frequency point between these two extremes of C1 being open-circuited and C2 being short-
circuited where the output voltage, VOUT reaches its maximum value. The frequency value of
the input waveform at which this happens is called the oscillators Resonant Frequency, (ƒr). At
this resonant frequency, the circuit’s reactance equals its resistance, that is: Xc = R, and the
phase difference between the input and output equals zero degrees. The magnitude of the output
voltage is therefore at its maximum and is equal to one third (1/3) of the input voltage as shown
in fig 1b. Hence, this particular frequency is known as resonant frequency or oscillating
frequency.
Wien-Bridge oscillators can even be designed using Op-Amps as a part of their amplifier
section, as shown in Figure. The Op-Amp is required to act as a non-inverting amplifier
as the Wien-Bridge network offers zero phase-shift. Further, from the circuit, it is evident
that the output voltage is fed back to both inverting and non-inverting input terminals. At
resonant frequency, the voltages applied to the inverting and non-inverting terminals will
be equal and in-phase with each other. However, even here, the voltage gain of the
amplifier needs to be greater than 3 to start oscillations and equal to 3 to sustain them. In
general, these kinds of Op-Amp-based Wien Bridge Oscillators cannot operate above 1
MHz due to the limitations imposed on them by their open-loop gain. The circuit is
observed like a Wien bridge on RC series network of one arm and the parallel RC network
in for another arm. The resistor Ri and Rf are connected to the left two arms.

Wien Bridge Oscillator Frequency:

fr= 1/2πRC

Where:

 ƒr is the Resonant Frequency in Hertz

 R is the Resistance in Ohms
 C is the Capacitance in Farads
The phase angle criterion for oscillation is that the total phase shift around
the circuit must be 0°. This condition occurs only when the bridge is balanced, that
is at resonance. The frequency of oscillation Fo is exactly the resonant frequency
of the balanced Wien Bridge One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which uses
a RC network circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is called a Wien
Bridge Oscillator.
For sinusoidal oscillations to begin, the voltage gain of the Wien Bridge
circuit must be equal to or greater than 3, ( Av ≥ 3 ). For a non-inverting op-amp
configuration, this value is set by the feedback resistor network of R3 and R4 and

is given as:

If we choose a value for resistor R3 of say, 100kΩ’s, then the value of

resistor R4 is calculated as:

While a gain of 3 is the minimum value required to ensure oscillations, in reality

a value a little higher than that is generally required. If we assume a gain value of
3.1 then resistor R4 is recalculated to give a value of 47kΩ’s. This gives the final
Wien Bridge Oscillator circuit.
Design for 1KHz Wein bridge Oscillator:

The required frequency of oscillation fo=1kHz we have,

Take C=0.1µF, then R=1.6kΩ (Use 1.5kΩ standard) Gain of the amplifier
section is given by,
Take Ri=1kΩ, then Rf=2.2kΩ (Use 4.7kΩ Potentiometer for fine corrections)
Twin –T oscillator:

 Twin-T is basically a frequency selective network. The amplitude and

response of a twin –T network shows that the phase shift introduced by this
network is zero at particular frequency.

 The Twin-T network acts as the phase lead-lag network. It introduces a

phase shift that varies between +90 to -90 degrees.

 The circuit diagram for Twin-T oscillator is as shown in the above figure.
It consists of an OP-AMP operating as non-inverting amplifier i.e
introducing 0 phase shift.

 The resistor R1 and R2 introduce a positive feedback. The Twin-T network

introduces 0 phase shift and its output voltage is minimum at f = ft.
Therefore, only at this frequency the positive feedback in the amplifier
becomes effective and oscillations are obtained the frequency of oscillation
is given by

F= 1/2πRC

 The oscillator frequency cannot be varied. It is a single frequency oscillator.

 The variable resistance R2 in the OP-AMP circuit adjust the positive

feedback and the variable resistance R/2 in the Twin –T network ensures
that the oscillations take place at f = fr

 This oscillator provides good stability of signal.

  This oscillator is very rarely used as it operates at signal frequency.

Square Wave Generator:

 A square wave generator is an electronic circuit which generates square
wave. This section discusses about op-amp based square wave generators.

 The circuit diagram of a op-amp based square wave generator is shown in

the following figure

Observe that in the circuit diagram shown above, the resistor R1R1 is
connected between the inverting input terminal of the op-amp and its output of op-
amp. So, the resistor R1R1 is used in the negative feedback. Similarly, the
resistor R2R2 is connected between the noninverting input terminal of the op-amp
and its output. So, the resistor R2R2 is used in the positive feedback path.

A capacitor C is connected between the inverting input terminal of the op-

amp and ground. So, the voltage across capacitor C will be the input voltage at this
inverting terminal of op-amp. Similarly, a resistor R3R3 is connected between the
non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp and ground. So, the voltage across
resistor R3R3 will be the input voltage at this non-inverting terminal of the op-
amp.

The operation of a square wave generator is explained below −

 Assume, there is no charge stored in the capacitor initially. Then, the

voltage present at the inverting terminal of the op-amp is zero volts.
But, there is some offset voltage at non-inverting terminal of op-amp.
Due to this, the value present at the output of above circuit will
be +Vsat+Vsat.
  Now, the capacitor C starts charging through a resistor R1R1. The
value present at the output of the above circuit will change
to −Vsat−Vsat, when the voltage across the capacitor C reaches just
greater than the voltage (positive value) across resistor R3R3.

 The capacitor C starts discharging through a resistor R1R1, when the

output of above circuit is −Vsat−Vsat. The value present at the output
of above circuit will change to +Vsat+Vsat, when the voltage across
capacitor C reaches just less than (more negative) the voltage
(negative value) across resistor R3R3.

Thus, the circuit shown in the above diagram will produce a square wave at
the output as shown in the following figure −

From the above figure we can observe that the output of square wave
generator will have one of the two values: +Vsat and −Vsat. So, the output remains
at one value for some duration and then transitions to another value and remains
there for some duration. In this way, it continues.

Triangular Wave Generator:

A triangular wave generator is an electronic circuit, which generates a
triangular wave. The block diagram of a triangular wave generator is shown in the
following figure −

The block diagram of a triangular wave generator contains mainly two blocks:
a square wave generator and an integrator. These two blocks are cascaded. That
means, the output of square wave generator is applied as an input of integrator.
Note that the integration of a square wave is nothing but a triangular wave.

The circuit diagram of an op-amp based triangular wave generator is shown

in the following figure

We have already seen the circuit diagrams of a square wave generator and an
integrator. Observe that we got the above circuit diagram of an op-amp based
triangular wave generator by replacing the blocks with the respective circuit
diagrams in the block diagram of a triangular wave generator.

Working of Wein Bridge Oscillator:

The feedback signal in this oscillator circuit is connected to the non-inverting

input terminal so that the op-amp works as a non-inverting amplifier. The condition
of zero phase shift around the circuit is achieved by balancing the bridge, zero
phase shift is essential for sustained oscillations. The frequency of oscillation is the
resonant frequency of the balanced bridge and is given by the expression fo =
1/2πRC. At resonant frequency ( ƒo), the inverting and non-inverting input voltages
will be equal and “in-phase” so that the negative feedback signal will be cancelled
out by the positive feedback causing the circuit to oscillate. From the analysis of
the circuit, it can be seen that the feedback factor β= 1/3 at the frequency of
oscillation. Therefore, for sustained oscillation, the amplifier must have a gain of
3 so that the loop gain becomes unity.

For an inverting amplifier the gain is set by the feedback resistor network Rf
and Ri and is given as the ratio -Rf/Ri. for oscillations to occur in a Wien Bridge
Oscillator circuit the following conditions must apply.

 With no input signal a Wien Bridge Oscillator produces continuous

output oscillations.

 The Wien Bridge Oscillator can produce a large range of

frequencies.

 The Voltage gain of the amplifier must be greater than 3.

 The RC network can be used with a non-inverting amplifier.

 The input resistance of the amplifier must be high compared to R so

that the RC network is not overloaded and alter the required
conditions.

 The output resistance of the amplifier must be low so that the effect
of external loading is minimized.

Some method of stabilizing the amplitude of the oscillations must be

provided. If the voltage gain of the amplifier is too small the desired oscillation
will decay and stop. If it is too large the output will saturate to the value of the
supply rails and distort.
Ramp Generator:

As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that
performs the mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output to
respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator produces an
output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input voltage.

In other words, the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time
a voltage is present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or
discharges the capacitor as the required negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.

When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the
uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit allowing
maximum current to flow via the input resistor, Rin as potential difference exists between
the two plates. No current flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth
resulting in zero output. As the impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the
gain ratio of XC/RIN is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less than one,
(voltage follower circuit).

As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the input
voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of charge. The capacitor
charges up at a rate determined by the RC time constant, (τ) of the series RC network.
Negative feedback forces the op-amp to produce an output voltage that maintains a virtual
earth at the op-amp’s inverting input.

Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which is at
virtual ground potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is now negative), the potential
voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor slowly increases causing the charging current
to decrease as the impedance of the capacitor increases. This results in the ratio of Xc/Rin
increasing producing a linearly increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase
until the capacitor is fully charged. At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit,
blocking any more flow of DC current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor

( XC/RIN ) is now infinite resulting in infinite gain. The result of this high gain (similar to
the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the amplifier goes into saturation as
shown below. (Saturation occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier swings heavily
to one voltage supply rail or the other with little or no control in between).
The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is determined by the
value of the resistor and the capacitor, “RC time constant “. By changing this RC time
constant value, either by changing the value of the Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the
time in which it takes the output voltage to reach saturation can also be changed for
example.

If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to the input of an
Integrator Amplifier, then the capacitor will charge and discharge in response to changes
in the input signal. This results in the output signal being that of a Sawtooth waveform
whose output is affected by the RC time constant of the resistor/capacitor combination
because at higher frequencies, the capacitor has less time to fully charge. This type of

circuit is also known as a Ramp Generator and the transfer function is given below.

Op-amp Integrator Ramp Generator:

Sawtooth waveform:

The Sawtooth wave is a kind of linear, non-sinusoidal waveform. It is so named

based on its resemblance to the teeth of a saw. The shape of this waveform is
triangular in which the fall time and rise time are different. It can also be considered
the extreme case of an asymmetric triangular wave. The graphical representation of
a Sawtooth waveform is given below:
 Fig.1- Sawtooth waveform

A Sawtooth wave ramps upward and then sharply drops whereas in an inverse (or
reverse) Sawtooth waveform the wave suddenly ramps downwards and then rises
sharply.
Working:
The circuit in fig.3a consists of a non-inverting Schmitt trigger circuit and an
integrator. This combination constitutes a triangular waveform generator. A duty
cycle less than 50% causes the output of A2 to be Sawtooth. The integrator output
is applied to the Schmitt circuit input, and the Schmitt output is the integrator input.
As illustrated by the circuit waveforms (fig.3b), the integrator produces a triangular
output waveform when it has a square wave input. The Schmitt output changes from
one saturation level to the other each time the integrator output arrives at the Schmitt
UTP (Upper Trigger Point) or LTP (Lower Trigger Point).

Fig.3a - Triangular wave generator.

 Fig.3b - Circuit waveforms.

During the time from instant t1 to the instant t2, the Schmitt output is positive (at +Vo(sat))
and current I2 flows into R1' charging C1, as illustrated. Thus, the integrator output is
changing at a constant rate in a negative going direction. The output change is ∆V; from
+Vo to –Vo. When the integrator output arrives at the LTP, the Schmitt output switches
from +Vo(sat) to – Vo(sat). The integrator input is now a constant negative voltage, so that
the input current direction is reversed and the output ramp voltage direction is reversed.
From t2 to t3, the integrator output increases linearly from –Vo to +Vo, that is from the
Schmitt LTP to its UTP. At the UTP, the Schmitt output reverses again, causing the
integrator output to reverse direction once more. The cycle repeats again and again
producing a triangular waveform at the integrator output and a square wave at the Schmitt
output.
Sinewave Generator:

A popular way to make a sine wave oscillator is to use an RC network to produce a 180-
degree phase shift to use in the feedback path of an inverting amplifier. Setting the gain of
the amplifier to offset the RC network attenuation will produce oscillation. There are multiple
variations of phase shifters, including a Twin-T RC network and cascaded RC high pass
sections that produce either 45 or 60 degree shifts in each stage. The amplifier can be a single
transistor, single op-amp, or multiple op-amps. Figure 2 shows one popular variation.
FIGURE. A fixed frequency is a disadvantage, but for a single frequency is good. The pure
output needs to be buffered with an op-amp follower if you are going to drive a load.

These oscillators produce a very pure low distortion sine wave. However, the frequency is
fixed at the point where each RC section produces a 60-degree phase shift. That
approximate frequency is:
f = 1/2.6RC
In the circuit of Figure 2, the frequency should be about 3.85 kHz

What is Function Generator?

Definition: The function generator is defined as a type of device which produces various
types of waveforms as its output signals. The common waveforms generated by this
generator are sine wave, square wave, triangular wave, and Sawtooth waves. The
waveforms of these frequencies may be adjusted from hertz to a hundred kHz. This
generator is considered as the most versatile instrument in the electrical and electronics
laboratory because the waveforms generated by this generator have applications in different
areas.The analog function generator and digital function generators are types of function
generators. The advantages of an analog generator are cost-effective, simple to use,
flexibility, amplitude and frequencies are adjustable. The advantages of digital generators
are of high accuracy and stability. The main disadvantages of this digital generator are
complicated and costly.
Function Generator Block Diagram:

The block diagram of function generator contains various components they are frequency
control network, constant current supply source 1, constant current supply source 2,
integrator, voltage comparator Multivibrator, capacitor, a resistance diode shaping circuit,
and two output amplifiers. The block diagram of this generator is shown in the below
figure.
 Function Generator Block Diagram
The frequencies can be controlled by varying the current magnitude. The two constant-
current supplies will change the frequency of the output signal. The output waveforms
generated by this generator are sinusoidal, triangular, and square. The frequency ranges of
these waveforms ranges from 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz. The frequency control network controls
the frequency on the front panel of this generator, and there is a knob called frequency
control. The frequency of the o/p waveforms can be changed by using this knob & varying
the frequency. The frequency control network provides the voltage, and this voltage goes
to regulate the two constant current supply sources like upper and lower. The first output
voltage of constant current supply can be increased linearly with the time, whereas the lower
current source provides a voltage to change the output voltage of the integrator which will
decrease linearly with time. The output voltage of the integrator due to the upper current
source is expressed.
When the slope of the o/p voltage increases or decreases then the constant current
supply source 1 will be increases or decreases. The lower constant current source two
supplies reverse control to the integrator, and due to this reverse current, the output voltage
of the integrator decreases linearly with the time. The output of the comparator provides a
square wave which has the same frequency as the output voltage. The resistance diode
network changes the triangle waveform slope as its amplitude produces and changes a sine
waveform with a <1% distortion. The output waveforms of this generator are shown below.
 Output Waveforms of Function Generator
In this way, the three types of waveforms are produced by this generator which are having
different frequencies. The clock source, timing margin test, dc power supply test, testing
audio DAC are some of the applications of a function generator.
Phase Locked Loop (PLL):
Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is one of the vital blocks in linear systems. It is useful in
communication systems such as radars, satellites, FMs, etc.
Block Diagram of PLL
A Phase Locked Loop (PLL) mainly consists of the following three blocks −
 Phase Detector
 Active Low Pass Filter
 Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
The block diagram of PLL is shown in the following figure −

The output of a phase detector is applied as an input of active low pass filter. Similarly, the
output of active low pass filter is applied as an input of VCO.
The working of a PLL is as follows −
 Phase detector produces a DC voltage, which is proportional to the phase
difference between the input signal having frequency of fin and feedback (output) signal
having frequency of fout.
 A Phase detector is a multiplier and it produces two frequency components at its
output sum of the frequencies fin and fout and difference of frequencies fin & fout.
 An active low pass filter produces a DC voltage at its output, after eliminating
high frequency component present in the output of the phase detector. It also amplifies
the signal.
 A VCO produces a signal having a certain frequency, when there is no input
applied to it. This frequency can be shifted to either side by applying a DC voltage to it.
Therefore, the frequency deviation is directly proportional to the DC voltage present at
the output of a low pass filter.
The above operations take place until the VCO frequency equals to the input signal
frequency. Based on the type of application, we can use either the output of active low pass
filter or output of a VCO. PLLs are used in many applications such as FM demodulator, clock
generator etc.
PLL operates in one of the following three modes −
 Free running mode
 Capture mode
 Lock mode
Initially, PLL operates in free running mode when no input is applied to it. When an input
signal having some frequency is applied to PLL, then the output signal frequency of VCO
will start change. At this stage, the PLL is said to be operating in the capture mode. The
output signal frequency of VCO will change continuously until it is equal to the input signal
frequency. Now, it is said to be PLL is operating in the lock mode.

Frequency Multiplier:

A frequency multiplier is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal and that
output frequency is a harmonic (multiple) of its input frequency. Frequency multipliers
consist of a nonlinear circuit that distorts the input signal and consequently generates
harmonics of the input signal. A subsequent bandpass filter selects the desired harmonic
frequency and removes the unwanted fundamental and other harmonics from the output.
Frequency multipliers are often used in frequency synthesizers and communications
circuits. It can be more economical to develop a lower frequency signal with lower power
and less expensive devices, and then use a frequency multiplier chain to generate an output
frequency in the microwave or millimeter wave range. Some modulation schemes, such
as frequency modulation, survive the nonlinear distortion without ill effect (but schemes
such as amplitude modulation do not).
Frequency multiplication is also used in nonlinear optics. The nonlinear distortion in
crystals can be used to generate harmonics of laser light.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of
the carrier signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency
modulation. The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High
input and is low in frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark
and Space frequencies.

The following image is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform along
with its input.

To find the process of obtaining this FSK modulated wave, let us know about the working
of a FSK modulator.

FSK Modulator:

The FSK modulator block diagram comprises of two oscillators with a clock and the input
binary sequence. Following is its block diagram.
The two oscillators, producing a higher and a lower frequency signals, are connected to a
switch along with an internal clock. To avoid the abrupt phase discontinuities of the output
waveform during the transmission of the message, a clock is applied to both the oscillators,
internally. The binary input sequence is applied to the transmitter so as to choose the
frequencies according to the binary input.