UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION

AND IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY

BASIC PHYSICS

Dr. B. Z. Gandaa & R. K. DOGBEY

1.0 Materials
1.1 Materials and their Uses
1.2 Materials in Tension and Compression
The different materials used for different jobs are based on the properties of the material.
The use of materials in structures such as bridges and buildings depend on mechanical
properties. The mechanical property of a material is concerned with its behavior under
the action of external forces. Mechanical properties include strength, stiffness, ductility,
toughness, etc. It is essential to know how materials behave under tension and compression.
Stretching a material puts it in tension while squeezing it puts it in compression.

1.3 Metals
a) Iron and Steel
Metals such as iron and in their pure state are rarely used. It is usually combined
(alloyed) with other substances to form steel.
i) Mild steel is iron-containing with very small proportions of carbon. This makes it
strong in both tension and compression. It is used in large quantities for mass
production of cars, power pylons, concrete reinforcement, etc. Mild steel is
however a heavy material and rusts easily. Rusting is countered by panting or
coating with another metal that resists rusting e.g. Tin
ii) Galvanized steel is iron covered by a thin layer of zinc. Corrugated sheets of
these are used as roofing for sheds.
iii) Chromium-plated steel is protected chiefly by a layer of nickel on top of which a
thin layer of chromium (a hard shining metal) is added by electroplating.
iv) Stainless steel contains large proportions of chromium and nickel. It is expensive
and difficult to work as compared with mild steel.
v) Titanium steel has a very high melting point and is used to make jet engines,
rockets, supersonic aircraft, etc.

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 b) Aluminum (Al) and Duralumin
i) Aluminum is the most widely used metal after iron. It is more expensive to
extract from its core (Bauxite). The density of Aluminum is 1/3 that of Iron. A
thin layer tough layer of oxide forms on its surfaces when exposed to air
making it resistant to atmospheric corrosion. Pure Al tends to be weak and
brittle.
ii) Duralumin is made by alloying Aluminum with small amounts of copper,
manganese, and magnesium. The tensile stress is then as great as that of mild
steel combined with its low density making it suitable for aircraft bodies.

1.4 Timber
Softwood and hardwood are the two main types of wood. Softwood, besides being soft, is
usually light in both weight and color. Because of these properties, they are used for
general carpentry to make doors, window frames, roof trusses, etc., in housing –
buildings. Hardwoods are stiff and strong, suitable for making good quality furniture.

Annual rings are the grain marks that are seen when a trunk is cut into long planks (Fig
1.0). In hardwoods, these marks are closer than in softwoods. This is the reason for
hardwoods being stiffer and stronger. In tension, the strength along the grain is greater
than across it because wood consists of long tube-like fibers running up and down the
tree trunk. Wood is less strong in compression.

Fig 1.0
Fresh wood contains a great deal of water which must be removed by ‘seasoning’ before
use. Seasoning is a drying process. It is achieved by stacking the freshly cut plants with
spaces between them to allow air to circulate and dry them out slowly. A process that
may take a few weeks to several years.

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1.4.1 Plywood
Plywood is made by gluing thin, seasoned sheets together with the grains of alternate
sheets at right angles to each other (Fig.1.2). An odd number of sheets is always used to
give the name of the plywood e.g. 3-plywood or 5-plywood. Plywood is called ‘laminate’
because they consist of sheets.

Fig 1.2
1.4.2 Blockboard

Blockboard is a sandwich made by filling the spaces between thin sheets of wood with
strips of solid wood. Grains on the outside sheets go the same way (Fig 1.3). Blockboard
should not warp.

Fig 1.3

1.4.3 Chipboard
Chipboard is made from wood particles and resin. Chipboard can be sawn like wood,
though heavier than solid wood it can be used for furniture, shelves, etc. It is usually sold
with a thin more attractive sheet (veneer) already on both surfaces. Veneers of plastic
with wood grain or color effects or wood itself are available.

1.5 Stone, Bricks, and Concrete

A variety of materials are used in constructing farm structures. Cost, climate, and
availability of materials are often the factors that have to be considered in the choice and
use of materials.
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1.5.1 Stones
Stones occur as;
Marble – which is hard, and attractive but does not last
Sandstone – soft, easy to work fairly long-lasting
Stones are strong in compression but weak in tension. Stone buildings need periodic
cleaning in areas where there is atmospheric pollution to maintain their appearance.

1.5.2 Bricks
Bricks are a cheap alternative to stone; they have convenient size. Bricks are made by
mixing clay with water and mold before baking in an oven at high temperatures. The
color and hardness of the brick depends on the clay used and the baking temperature.

1.6 Cement and Mortar

Cement is a cream-colored powder, made by heating a mixture of clay and lime to a high
temperature. If mixed with sand and water, it becomes a thick paste called mortar. Mortar
is used to hold bricks or stones together since it becomes a hard stone-like material when
it dries.

1.7 Concrete
This is the most commonly used material for building farm structures. It is made by
mixing cement, sand, and gravel (aggregates) with water. A typical mix is 1: 2: 4 parts of
cement, sand, and aggregate. But this ratio is varied for different purposes. If it is allowed
to dry in a mold and form, any shape can be obtained. Concrete weathers well and is
strong in compression but weak in tension owing to a large number of small cracks it
inevitably contains. As a result, it is brittle and unstable when large tensile strength is
required. Two types of concrete are used in farm structures;
a) reinforced concrete
b) prestressed concrete

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In reinforced concrete, the strength of concrete in tension is improved by inserting wires
or rods of steel through the wet concrete. As it dries it sticks to the steel, giving a
combination that is strong in both tension and compression.

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2.0 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Properties of materials concerned with their behavior under the action of
external forces are strength, stiffness, ductility, and toughness.
• Strength – deals with how great an applied force a material can withstand before
breaking.
• Stiffness – the opposition a material sets up to being distorted by having its shape
or size or both changed. A stiff material is not very flexible.
• Ductility – or workability relates to the ability of the material to be hammered,
pressed, bent, rolled, cut, or stretched into useful shapes.
• Tough – is one that is not brittle, it does not crack readily.
Steel has all these properties, the putty has none. Glass is stiff and strong but not tough or
ductile.

2.1 Stress, Strain, and Young’s Modulus

If a rubber ball is squeezed it becomes deformed. The quantity that characterizes the
force exerted by you while squeezing the ball is Stress and the quantity that characterizes
the amount the ball is deformed is called the Strain. When Stress is applied to an object
by an external agent, the object responds by undergoing a strain. Stress causes Strain.

A force applied to a stake over a small area at the sharp end causes more deformation
than the same force applied to a large area of the blunt end. Stress involves the ratio of
the force to the area of the surface over which the force is applied. Stress is a measure of
the strength of the agent that is causing a deformation. Stress may be defined as force per
unit area.

2.2 Tensile Stress

Tensile Stress is when two forces each of magnitude F n are applied to opposite faces of a
solid. Each force should be normal (perpendicular) to its face and each directed away
from the face on which it acts (Fig 2.0). If tensile force per unit area than tensile force
alone is considered, it takes into account the sample’s cross-sectional area. Also, if
extension per unit length rather than extension alone is considered, it takes into account
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the length of the sample. Tensile stress tends to stretch the object. It is represented
mathematically as;

Tensile Stress (σ T) = Tensile Force = Fn [2.1]

Cross-sectional Area A

In SI units, Tensile stress is expressed in Newton/metres2 = N/m2 which is the same as

those expressed for pressure. The tensile strength of a material is tensile stress at which
the material breaks.
1Pascal = 1 N/m2

Fig 2. 0
Example
If Fn = 50N and Area (A) = 1.0 x 10-4 m4
Then Tensile Stress (σ T) = 50/1.0 x 10-4 N/ m2 = 5.0 x 105 Pascal

2.3 Tensile Strain

Strain is the measure of the deformation of a solid when a stress is applied to it. It is the
fractional deformation resulting from a stress. A solid deforms in a way that depends on
the stress and the type of material. An isotropic material (same properties in all
directions) such as glass responds to stress in the same way in all directions. Wood on the
other hand responds differently if a tensile stress is applied along the grain rather than
across the grain. When a tensile stress is applied to a solid of length L it elongates or
stretches with the original length increasing by δL. The tensile strain (ξ t) is defined as the
fractional change in length.
ξt = Extension = δL [2.2]
Original length L
Tensile strain is dimensionless and has no units.
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The relation of strain in a solid to applied stress can only be understood by an
experiment. The magnitude of the strain as a function of the applied stress can be
demonstrated with copper wire (Fig 2.1).

It has been experimentally determined that for strains less than about 0.5% or more the
strain is proportional to the stress within experimental accuracy. This behavior is known
as Hook’s law which states that provided the elastic limit is exceeded the stress-strain
ratio is constant. (Note: Hook’s law does not have the same generality as in Newton’s laws;
it merely expresses a property of many but not in all materials)

Demonstration of Hook’s Law

Fig 2.1

At higher strains, experiments show that the strain is exactly proportional to the stress
(Fig 2.2).

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 Fig 2.2

The value (A) at which stress becomes noticeable is called the proportionality limit. If the
stress is large enough, the solid will be permanently deformed. The value (B) of the stress
at which this occurs is called the elastic limit or yield point (B). The region between the
yield point and fracture is called the plastic region.
OA - Strain is directly proportional to the stress
- materials suffer elastic deformation
- Original length is returned to after stress is removed
AB - Non-linear to yield point (B).
- Plastic deformation starts
- Some extension retained after stress is removed
- Materials recover along O 1 A
OO1 - Permanent plastic extension
O1 CD - new curve stress is reapplied
D - Specimen develops one or more ‘waist’ and ductile where fracture occurs

The elastic properties of an isotropic solid are described by two quantities, one for normal
stress and the other for shear stress. In the proportional region of the stress-strain curve,
the ratio of the stress to the strain is constant whose value depends on the material of the
solid.

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2.3.1 Energy and Hooke’s Law
The energy involved in stretching spring is calculated based on the assumption that it
obeys Hooke’s law. For a given extension x, the force exerted by a spring is –F. The energy
stored in a stretched spring is equal to the work done on it as it is stretched, this is
given by
Work done on spring = kx2 /2 [2.3]

2.3.2 Young Modulus (γ)

Young modulus (γ) or modulus of elasticity expresses the linear relation between normal
stress and strain for a solid. Young’s modulus has the same units as tensile stress.
γ = Tensile stress = F/A [2.4]
Tensile strain δl/L

2.3.3 Compressive Stress

If each of the normal force is directed toward the face over which it is applied, then the
stress is a compressive stress (Fig 2.1). A compressive stress tends to squeeze the object.
Mathematically compressive stress may be expressed as;
Compressive Stress (σ T) = Fn [2.5]
A

Fig 2.1

2.3.4 Shear Stress

In shear stress (σ s ), the forces applied are equal in magnitude but parallel to the faces (Fig
2.2). Note: At least four forces are required to keep the object in equilibrium (∑F = 0).
σ s = FP [2.6]
A

Fig. 2.2

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The force acts on each face of the solid and is directed perpendicular inward. Pressure is
a type of stress. Common pressure is the atmospheric pressure on any exposed surface. At
sea level the value of atmospheric pressure is 1.01 x 10 5 Pa = 101KPa
P = Fn [2.4]
A

2.3.5 Shear Modulus

Shear modulus describes the shape elasticity of a material (Fig 2.5)

Fig 2.5

F – equal and opposite tangential forces acting on the face A of a rectangular block. Note
that the forces have distorted the block but the volume is the same.

Shear stress (σ s ) = Tangential Force Acting = F [2.7]

Surface Area being Sheared A

Shear Strain (ξt) = Distance Sheared = δL [2.8]

Distance between surfaces L

S = FL [2.9]
AδL
Since δL is small, the ratio δL/L is approximated to the shear angle (φ) in radians.
Therefore, the Shear modulus is given by

S = FL [2.10]
Aφ
Shear modulus S expresses the relation between the shear stress and the shear strain.
Shear modulus is expressed in Pascal (Pa)
S = σs [2.11]
ξt

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2.4 Bulk Modulus
Bulk modulus measures how much pressure is required to compress a substance by a
given fraction. Bulk modulus describes the volume elasticity of a material. If a uniformly
distributed force (F) acts on the surface of an object and is directed perpendicular to the
surface of an area (S) at all the points (Fig 2.6). Let the original volume of the material is
V and A be the area of the surface S.

Fig 2.6

Pressure (P) on area S = F/A. Assume that Pressure is increased by δP. The Pressure
increase causes a volume change (negative volume change (-δV)).
Therefore
Volume Stress = δP
Volume Strain = - δV/V
Bulk density (K) = Bulk stress = - δP = - VδP [2.12]
Bulk strain δV/V δV

The negative sign is introduced to make K positive since δV is negative. Solids have
three modules while liquids and gases have only one.

2.5 Deformation
2.5.1 Elastic Strain
During elastic strain, interatomic bonds that hold atoms together are stretched. The atoms
are pulled slightly apart, each displaced a small (tiny) distance from its equilibrium
position and the material lengthens. Hook’s law is as result of the fact that the
‘interatomic force-separation’ is a straight line for separation close to equilibrium
distance ro (Fig 2.7)

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 Fig 2.7

Young’s modulus (E) is high for strong interatomic bonds (covalent and ionic solids and
lesser in metals). Diamond has the large number of very strong covalent bond s per unit
volume and very high value of E.

2.5.2 Plastic Strain

The ability to undergo plastic strain (ductile) is a property of crystalline materials.

Fig 2.8

The yielding that occurs could therefore be attributed to slipping of layers of atoms (ions)
over one another. With closed packed layers the atoms would have to be moved further
apart (Fig 2.8). This would be resisted by the inter-atomic bonds of which many would
have to be broken. Experiments based on known strength of bonds show that the stresses
needed to produce slip in the way describe are many times greater than those that cause
plastic strain.

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2.6 Dislocation
Dislocation is proposed by researchers to explain the problem of weakness in metals.
Consider a crystal lattice incomplete plane of atoms (ions) occasionally result due to
perhaps faults in growth during crystallization.

Planes of atoms AB are incomplete (Fig 2.9), if a stress is applied, B bonds have already
been weakened by distortion of the structure, moves a small distance and forms a bond
with atom C. Plane DE is now incomplete D also flicks over to F leaving GH as the
incomplete plane. The result is as if AB had slipped over the plane to the right. The
process would have involved breaking a great many bonds at the same time. Inst ead, the
dislocation, by moving a single line at a time has broken fewer bonds and requires much
smaller stress to do it. No atoms have moved more than a small fraction of the atomic
spacing. Plastic deformation by this mechanism is only possible in ordered structure of a
crystalline material.

Fig 2.9

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Scalar and Vector Quantities
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both a size (magnitude) and direction. Suppose that
you walk from point P to a point Q. Your displacement may be represented by a directed
line segment. The sense or direction of the line segment is indicated by the arrow head.
Q

Displacement is characterized by a distance and direction. A displacement that locates a point

relative to the origin of a coordinate system is called a positive vector. Like displacement,
other vector quantities are specified by direction and magnitude.
The magnitude of a vector is a non-negative number that indicates the size of the vector
without regards to its direction. The magnitude of a displacement is the distance between two
points. The magnitude of a vector is independent of its direction and is never negative.
A scalar is a quantity that can be represented by a single number, along with the proper unit.
A scalar has only a size. It has no directional properties e.g. mass, distance etc.

Types of Forces
Force according to Newton, in modern every day language is a ‘push’ or a ‘pull’. If you push
an object with your hand, you exert a force on the object. Such a force is the result of direct
contact between your hand and the object is a example of a Contact force.
Another familiar force is the weight of an object. The weight of an object is closely related
to the gravitational force. When you take your socks out of your clothes dryer on a dry day,
you can observe the effect of electric forces. A magnetic force is responsible when you use
a small magnet to hold pieces of iron. Nuclear forces are responsible for binding protons and
neutrons together and some nuclear reactions.

Since force is a push or a pull, it has both magnitude and direction and is thus a vector
quantity. Forces occur in pairs. For example, if an object A exerts a force on an object B then
B also exerts a force on A. A force can cause an object to accelerate and it can also deform
an object. Force is measured in Newton (N)
The net force (ΣF) exerted on an object is the vector sum of all the individual forces exerted
on it by other forces. E.g. If F1, F2 …………Fn represent the individual forces exerted on an
object, then ΣF = F1 + F2 + - - - - + Fn. Therefore if the net force on an object is zero (ΣF =
0), then the acceleration is zero.

Composition and resolution of forces

The property that forces add as vectors is sometimes called the principle of superposition.
Assume that you have two forces F1 and F2 acting on an object O. If the F1 makes an angle
θ with the horizontal and F2 makes an angle φ with the vertical.

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The resultant force F will be given by resolving the two
forces in the horizontal and vertical components:
Resolving F1
Vertically F1 Sin θ
Horizontally F1 Cos θ
Resolving F2
Vertically F2 Cos φ
Horizontally F2 Sin φ

The horizontal and vertical forces are algebraically added to give the horizontal and vertical
components of the resultant force (F)
Horizontal component (FH)
FH = F1 Cos θ + F2 Sin φ
Vertical component (FV)
FV = F1 Sin θ + F2 Cos φ
Example
Let us assume that;
F1 = 4N, F2 = 6N, θ = 30 o φ = 60o
Resolving
(i) horizontal component
FH = 4 Cos 30 + 6 Sin 60 = 8.7N

(ii) vertical component

FV = 4 Sin 30 + 6 Cos 60 = 5N

The resultant components of the force may represented graphically as:

The magnitude of the resultant force is calculated by using

Pythagoras theorem, that is
F = (52 + 8.72)½ = 10N
The direction is given by
Tan ω = 5/8.7 = 29.9o

Laws of Motion
Motion is best understood if the forces interacting to cause the motion are understood. The
reason why a ‘body’ has to be pushed to it moving steadily is because the motion on Earth is
opposed by frictional forces and in many cases these are quite considerable. If there were no
frictional forces then one push would cause an object to move indefinitely along a flat surface
at a steady speed. Building on Galileo’s work, Newton framed three simple rules governing
motion of objects which he set out as his three laws of motion.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

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It states that ‘every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless made to change by the total force acting on it.’
Newton’s First Law of expresses motion in term of total force acting on a body. The law is
often referred to as the law of inertia, which means the reluctance to change and the law
clearly implies that object naturally tends to maintain whatever velocity it happens to have
(including a velocity of zero).

From Newton’s first law;

if an object is in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line then its acceleration is zero
net force may be used for ‘forces impressed upon it’
It may be stated mathematically by considering a point mass which has a number of forces
F1 F2 F3 ………Fn acting on it a ‘body’ will remain in a state of constant motion if

That is if the sum of all the forces from F1 to Fn is equal to zero. This condition is both
necessary and sufficient for a point mass to remain in constant motion. However in the case
of solid objects, the condition is still necessary but is no longer sufficient since rotation has
to be taken into account. Because a force can cause acceleration, it is a vector quantity, with
both magnitude and direction.
Consider a free body diagram (e g a woman pushing a wheelbarrow). The forces on the
wheelbarrow may be represented as in the diagram below,

It will be obvious why the wheelbarrow will stop moving when the woman stops pushing.
Remove the forward force acting on the wheelbarrow and the other forces on it are longer
balanced. The resultant force acts backwards, that is it slows down and eventually stops. Drag
forces are made up of two types of force, both due to matter in contact. These are frictional
force and air resistance.

Frictional Force
When two solid bodies rub on each other, for example a wheel bearing or axle, friction always
occurs. Even though they may appear perfectly smooth, the surfaces in contact are slightly
rough. It is this roughness that is the cause of friction, as the two surfaces rub over one
another.

Air Resistance
The other drag force is air resistance which is not important in the case of a wheelbarrow
pushed by the woman. Air resistance or aerodynamic drag acts when a body moves through

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air. It is caused by the fact that an object has to push air out of the way in order to move to
through it, and this require force.
The first law of motion expresses the idea of inertia. The inertia of a body is its reluctance to
start moving and its reluctance to stop once it has begun moving. Thus an object at rest begins
to move only when it is pushed or pulled, that is when a force acts on it. Mass is a measure
of the inertia of a body. If a body changes its direction slightly or it velocity slightly when a
large force acts on it, its inertial mass is high.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The second law of motion states that ‘the change of moment momentum per unit time is
proportional to the impressed force, and it takes place in the direction of the straight line
along which the force acts’. Momentum is defined as the product of mass (m) and the velocity
(v).
From the second law stated above, the force acting on an object is equal to the change in
momentum per second. Assume an object of mass (m) is acted upon by a force (F). The force
(F) is proportional to the product of the mass (m) and change in velocity per second. The
change in velocity per second is the definition for acceleration (a).

F α ma = k ma
where k is the constant of proportionality
For F = 1N, m = 1kg and a = 1m/s2
From the equation above
k = 1.
Therefore
F = ma
Newton defined the force acting on an object as the rate of change of momentum, the
momentum being the product of mass and the velocity.
Suppose the mass (m) of an object with initial and final velocities (u and v respectively) are
due to a force F acting on it in time (t)
Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum = mv
Force (F) acting in time (t) therefore will be given by the relation,
F = rate of momentum change

F=

Ft = mv – mu
The above equation is called the Impulse of the force on the body

Monentum
A bullet shot from a gun will be hard to stop because it is travelling very fast. A lorry will be
hard to because it has very large mass. It might be reasonable to expect that a bullet travelling
at 400m/s will be twice as hard to stop as one travelling at 200m/s. This holds the same for
30-tonne lorry and a 15-tonne truck. Thus from the above examples, the ‘Unstoppability’ of
the bullet and lorry could be related to mass and velocity. That is;

‘Unstoppability’ velocity (i)

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‘Unstoppability’ mass (ii)

Combining (i) and (ii)

‘Unstoppability’ velocity x mass

But force (F) is defined by the relation (iii)

Acceleration (a) is also defined by

(iv)

Substituting a from equation (iv) into equation (iii) implies F = ma

This is another form of Newton’s second law which may be stated as ‘the force which causes
a rate of change of momentum of one kilogram meter per second per second’

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

The third law states ‘action and reaction of a force are always equal and opposite’. This
implies that if an object A exerts a force (action) on B, then B will exert an equal and opposite
force (reaction) on A

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

The third law states ‘action and reaction of a force are always equal and opposite’. This
implies that if an object A exerts a force (action) on B, then B will exert an equal and opposite
force (reaction) on A

Principle of Conservation of Momentum

Combining Newton’s second and third laws provides the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
Consider a man on a tractor.
From Newton’s third law’
Force of man on tractor = - Force of tractor on man
From Newton’s Second Law
Force of man on tractor = rate of change of momentum of tractor
Force of tractor on man = rate of change of momentum of man
Since these forces are equal in size;
Rate of change of momentum of tractor = - rate of change of momentum of man

The forces act for the same time (they are a pair – when one force ceases to act so does the
other) thus; change of momentum of tractor is equal to change of momentum of man.
Therefore, using symbols
Mtractor x Vtractor = Mman x Vman

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 =

In general, the law of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a set of
bodies acting on each other remains constant.

Motion

Describing Motion
An objects speed is calculated by the distance moved by the time taken to move that distance.
In Physics, speed is defined as distance moved in unit time.

Speed =

It is clearly unlikely that anyone can move at a constant speed, even without hills and stops.
Therefore speed is normally calculated as the average speed as in the equation above. It does
not tell us about the speed at any given instant as would have been measured by a
speedometer.
Instantaneous speed is often more important than the average speed. It is useful to represent
motion using a graph.
Speed-time and Distance-time graphs are shown in the figures (a & b) below. Where the
speed-time graph is horizontal between two points (a - b), the distance time graph has a steady
slope between the same points because the distance traveled per unit time is constant.

Where the speed-time has a value of zero (e - f), the distance- time is horizontal indicating
the object is not moving. In other words the gradient is zero.

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Distance is also classified as scalar quantity; it has only size or magnitude.
Displacement is the straight line distance between two points covered.
To describe displacement, specification of the magnitude and direction has to be made.
Displacement is a vector quantity – as well as magnitude it has direction.

In the same way displacement is used to calculate a new quantity velocity:

Velocity (v) =

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. When a body increases its speed it is said to
accelerate.

Acceleration is therefore defined as the ‘rate of change of velocity with time’.

Acceleration is a vector quantity. A body moving from rest increases its speed and is said to
be accelerating, when it is approaching an obstacle it slows down which is also acceleration
but this is negative. Acceleration occurs when there is;
• a change in speed
• a change in direction
• a change in speed and direction

Average Acceleration =

Displacement – Time Graph

• non-uniform velocity – the gradient of a tangent drawn at a point gives the

instantaneous velocity
• uniform velocity – gradient is constant at all points
• when a ball is thrown upwards, a parabolic curve is obtained

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Equations of Motion

The velocity change by equal amounts in equal times, no matter how small the time intervals
may be, acceleration is said to be uniform. Consider the velocity of a moving object in a
straight line with uniform acceleration (a) having an initial velocity (u) and a final velocity
(v) in time (t), by the definition of acceleration

a=

Rearranging the above equation

v = u + at (i)

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 3.0 Phases of Matter

3.1 Density

The density (ρ) of a material is defined as mass (m) per unit volume (V) expressed
mathematically as ρ = m/V. Unit of density is kg/m3 or g/cm3 .

The densities of some materials are normally estimated because either the density can
vary within the material or there is uncertainty in making measurements. Some other
materials have very accurate densities. For example, copper’s density is 8900 kg/cm and
the value varies only a very small amount with temperature and pressure and does not
vary within the structure of different pieces of copper. The density of wood, however,
does vary from place to place within any particular tree. Different parts of the ring system
within each growing tree have different densities depending on the time of year and on
whether the growing season is wet or dry.

Substances like copper which has a uniform density throughout are said to be
homogenous whereas materials such as wood are said to be non-homogenous. Non-
homogenous materials densities are normally quoted as averages but are very often
unreliable.

3.2 Phase
Phase is a general term for the three properties of materials solid, liquid and gas. The
phase used in this context has no connection with the term used in waves and oscillation.
The differences between the three phases of matter are important not only in density but
also in heat and electrical conductivity, elasticity, heat capacity etc.

There are some materials, however, which do not fit well into any of the three phases.
These materials have wide variety of different molecules in their constitution. For
example, butter does not melt at one particular temperature. It gradually gets softer and
more liquid as the temperature rises. It is thus difficult to classify butter as a solid or
liquid. Butter has a complex molecular composition which gives rise to its unique melting
point. A fourth phase which needed to be included to solid, liquid and gas is plasma.
24
Matter such as butter consist of atomic nuclei and electrons all moving with very high
speed but not connected to one another as would have been the case at lower
temperatures.

3.2.1 Solids
A solid normally has a fixed shape; it remains in shape because there is a fixed pattern of
molecules within it. The molecules vibrate about their mean position but the amplitude of
the vibration is small compared with the separation. The arrangement of molecules in a
mass of a solid is controlled by several factors which include the shape of the molecule
and the strength of the attractive force between the molecules. The temperature however
has an effect on the pattern of the shape, thus many solids have different molecular
arrangements at different temperatures. Also, the stresses which are applied to solids also
affect their molecular pattern, so the way that the solid is treated in the past has an effect
on its pattern of molecules and hence its strength.

3.2.2 Liquids
In liquids, the pattern of the arrangement of a few molecules is, at any instant very similar
to the pattern in a solid. The density of liquids is therefore about the same as the density
of the corresponding solid. In most cases, the liquid has a lower density than its solid, but
water is an exception. The density of ice is 920kg/m3 as compared to that of water which
is 1000kg/m3 . At the molecular level, therefore, molecules in water are packed more
closely than they are in ice.

The essential difference between molecular behavior in a solid and in a liquid is that in a
liquid the pattern of molecules is not fixed, and where a pattern does exist it does not
extend far within the liquid. Individual molecules do not maintain contact with the same
adjacent molecules for any appreciable time and the liquid is, therefore, able to change
shape. Molecules in a liquid are able to flow past one another. This means that a liquid is
unable to retain its shape when stretching forces act on it. Neither can it retain its shape
when a shear force acts on it. A liquid can be put under compressive forces, however, in
this situation, its volume will change a little.
25
3.3 Change of Phase
In order to change phase, energy must be supplied. This energy is called Latent heat. The
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion (L) is the quantity of energy (Q) required to change a unit
mass (m) of a substance from the solid phase to the liquid phase. The Specific Latent
Heat of Vaporization (L) is the quantity of energy (Q) required to change the unit mass
(m) of a substance from the liquid phase to the gas phase.
L = Q/m [2.13]
If the change occurs at a fixed temperature, then the energy supplied does not increase the
kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance. The average kinetic energy of water
molecules at their boiling water of 100o C is the same as the water in liquid form or steam.
The energy supplied to the substance is used in two ways;
• It increases the potential energy of the system by increasing the distance between
molecules.
• It does work by pushing the molecules in the atmosphere away.

26
 4.0 Energy, Temperature, and Change of State

4.1 Introduction
The understanding of matter and energy in Physics is based on a model of matter made of
particles (the Kinetic theory) with matter having certain internal energy which is a sum of
the energies possessed by the individual particles of which matter is composed. The
internal energy of matter increases as temperature increases so that the changes of state
(melting and boiling) which occur as the temperature of a substance increases may be
understood in the process of how energy possessed by particles enable them overcome
attractive forces between them.

4.1 Heat and Energy

Heat may be defined as the energy that is transferred from a body at a higher temperature
to one at a lower temperature by conduction, convection or radiation. Its SI unit is the
Joule (J), other units used for heat are the Calorie (1 calorie = 4.184J) and the British
thermal unit (1Btu = 1054J). An object gains energy when its temperature rises. Also
energy passes from a warm to a cold object if they are placed in contact.

4.2 Conservation of Energy

Experiments by Joule showed that energy in any one form can be converted into another
form. There might however be loss of useful energy in the process. For example, some of
the heat from a furnace of a steam engine is lost up the chimney and some more down the
exhaust but no energy is destroyed. The work done by the engine added to the heat lost
and the heat developed as a result of friction is equal to the heat provided by the fuel
burnt. This is call the Principle of Conservation of Energy

The principle of conservation of energy states that in any isolated system the total amount
of energy remains constant no matter what interchanges are taking place. The principle
implies that if we start with a given amount of energy in any one f orm, we can convert it
in turn into other forms. We may not be able always to convert completely but if an
accurate balance sheet is kept, it would be realized that the total amount of energy

27
expressed in any one form is always the same and equal to the original amount. The
Principle of Conservation of Energy is often expressed mathematically by the equation;

ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW [4.1]

Where ΔQ = the quantity of heat/energy given to a system

ΔU = the internal energy of the system
ΔW = the external work done by the system

Note: the internal energy (ΔU) of the system is shown by a temperature rise. If the system
expands, it does work against the external forces.

4.3 Internal Energy of a Gas

The internal energy of an ideal gas is the kinetic energy (K E) of the thermal motion of its
molecules. The thermal motion of the molecules is random called ‘thermal agitation’. The
internal energy of a gas is quite independent of any motion of the gas in bulk.

For example when a cylinder of oxygen is carried by a car, its kinetic energy as whole is
greater than when it is standing on a platform, but the random motion of the molecules
relative to the cylinder is unchanged so is the temperature of the gas.

For liquids, the same is true. For example, in a water churning experiment to convert
mechanical energy into heat, baffles must be used to prevent the water from acquiring
any mass motion. All the work done must be converted in a random motion if it is to
appear as heat.

In solids, the internal energy (ΔU) is the kinetic energy of the vibration of its atoms about
their mean positions. For example, throwing a lump of metal through the air does not rise
its temperature but hitting it with a hammer does it.

28
The first law of thermodynamics which is also known as the principle of conservation of
energy states that in an enclosed system, the total energy is constant. That is, the energy
is converted in any transfer of energy from one form to another. When a gas is heated so
that it expands, the heat (ΔQ) given to it appears partly as an increase in internal energy
(ΔU) and hence its temperature rises and partly as the energy required for work done
(ΔW) by the gas. Thus the first law of thermodynamics may be stated as equation 4.1

4.4 Heat Capacity

The heat capacity (C) of a body is the quantity of heat required to raise its temperature by
one degree. Units are in Joules per Kelvin (J/K). The specific heat capacity (c) of a
substance is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of it through 1K. It is the
heat capacity per kilogram of the substance. Units is in JKg -1 K-1

From the definitions above,

C = mass (m) x c [4.2]

Generally, the heat (Q) gained or lost by a body is given by the relation
Q = mcθ [4.3]
Where m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity (Jkg-1 K -1 )
θ = Temperature change in Kelvin (K)

4.5 Methods of Measuring Specific Heat Capacities.

4.5.1 Electrical Method
This method is appropriate for solid conducting bodies. The electrical energy supplied is
given by
ΔQ = IVt [4.4]
Where Q = heat gained by the body (joules)
I = current (amperes)
V = voltage (Ω)
t = time (s)
29
This is equal to the internal energy (U), the heat lost (h) by cooling, and work done (ΔW)
against external atmospheric pressure by the solid when it expands on warming. But since
metals expand very slightly in volume on warming, ΔW may be neglected in the
experiment thus equation 4.4 may be written as;
ΔQ = IVt + h [4.5]

4.5.2 Method of Mixtures

A common way of measuring specific heat capacities of solids (metal) is the method of
mixtures. The weight (w o ) and temperature (θ 3 ) of the object whose specific heat capacity
(c) is required is dropped into a known weight (w w), specific heat capacity (cw) and
temperature (θ 1 ) of water in a calorimeter of known weight (w c) and specific heat
capacity (cc). The final temperature (θ 2 ) of the system reached is noted. Assuming heat
losses are negligible,

Heat Capacity of Calorimeter = cc x wc

Heat Capacity of water = w w x cw
Heat gain by water and calorimeter = (ccwc + ww cw) (θ 2 - θ1 )
Heat lost by hot metal = wo c (θ 3 - θ2 )

By conservation of energy
wo c (θ3 - θ2 ) = (ccwc + ww cw) (θ 2 - θ 1 ) [4.6]
c = (ccwc + ww cw) (θ 2 - θ1 ) [4.7]
wo (θ3 - θ2 )

4.5.3 Continuous Flow Method

Callendar and Barnes’s apparatus is used in determining the specific heat capacity of
liquids.

Water from a constant head tank flows through a glass tube and is collected as it flows
out. It is heated by the spiral resistance wire which carries a steady electric current. The

30
temperature of the water as it enters and leaves is measured by thermometers.
Surrounding the apparatus is an evacuated glass jacket.

When the apparatus is running, it settles down eventually to a steady state in which the
heat supply by the current is all carried away by the water. None is taken in warming the
apparatus because every part of it is at a constant temperature.

The mass of water m, which flows out of the tube in t seconds, is measured. If the water
enters at temperature θ 1 and leaves at a temperature θ 2 and if c w is the specific heat
capacity of water, then the heat gained by the water is given by;

Q = mcw (θ 2 - θ 1 ) Joules [4.8]

The energy which liberates this heat is electrical which is given by IVt. Where V is the
voltage applied;

IVt = mcw (θ2 - θ1 ) + h [4.9]

Where h = heat losses

To eliminate heat losses, the rate of flow of water is changed to about half or twice its
previous value. The values of the voltage and current are adjusted to bring the
temperature back to its original value (θ 2 ). The inflow temperature (θ 1 ) is fixed by the
temperature of the water in the tank. If I I and VI are now the new values of the current
and voltage respectively and mI is the new mass of water flowing per second then;

I IV I = mIcw (θ2 - θ1 ) + h [4.10]

From equations 4.9 and 4.10

cw = (IV -I IV I) [4.11]
(m - mI)(θ2 - θ1 )
31
The leakage of heat cannot be prevented by insulation because the best insulator of heat
still has appreciable conductivity. When convection is prevented, gases are the best
thermal insulators. Heat conduction is reduced by using poor heat conductors (good
insulators). Heat loss by radiation is small at a small excess temperature over the
surroundings. With good conductors, the time for leakage is small at a small excess
temperature over the surroundings. However, with bad conductors (insulators), such as
rubber which give up heat slowly, cooling correction must be added to the final
temperature.

4.6 Newton’s Law of Cooling

Newton’s law of cooling states that ‘the rate of heat loss from a body is proportional to
the excess temperature over the surrounding’. This law is true in still air only for a
temperature excess of about 20K or 30K. It is, however, true for all excess temperature
conditions of forced convection of air i.e. draught.

Dulong and Petit found that with natural convection, the rate of loss of heat is
proportional to θ 5/4 where θ is the excess temperature (50 - 300K) At various
temperatures, tangents are drawn and the slope of the tangents gives the rate of fall of the
temperature. The rate of fall is then plotted against the excess temperature and a line of
best-fit drawn passes through the origin.

The rate of heat loss also depends on the exposed area of the calorimeter and the nature
of its surface. A dull surface, losses heat a little faster than a shiny one because it is a
better radiator. Assuming Newton’s law is true, for an object with a uniform surface and
at a uniform temperature θ, the rate of heat loss/second is given by;

ΔQ/δt = kS (θ 1 - θR) [4.12]

where S = area of the object

δQ = rate of heat loss (J/s)
32
 k = constant depending on the surface
θR = temperature of the surrounding

When the body of mass (m) and specific heat capacity (c) lose heat its temperature falls,
therefore the rate of fall of temperature δQ/δt is given by;

δQ/δt = - mc δθ/δt [4.13]

The mass of an object is proportional to its volume. The rate of heat loss is however
proportional to the surface (from equation 4.10). The rate of fall of temperature is
therefore proportional to the ratio of the surface to the volume of the object. That is,

δθ/δt S/V m2 /m3

δθ/δt = δQ/δt x 1/mc [4.14}

For bodies of similar shapes, the ratio of surface to volume is inversely proportional to
any linear dimension. A small body cools, faster than a larger one. Thus, in the method of
mixtures determination of specific heat capacity, the larger the specimen, the less serious
less heat loss in transferring it from the heating place to the calorimeter. Cooling
correction is required in electrical heating and methods of mixtures experiments.

4.7 Heat Transfer

Heat is transferred through three main processes, these are conduction, convection, and
radiation. Conduction is the transfer of heat energy through a material as a result of a
collision between the molecules of the material. Convection of heat energy occurs when a
warm material is transported so as to displace a cooler material. Radiation is the mode of
transport of heat energy through vacuum and empty space between molecules.

a) Conduction

33
Conduction is the mechanism by which heat energy is transferred through solid materials.
Hot substances possess high kinetic energy molecules. The conduction of heat in
substances is largely influenced by the specific heat capacity for single substance which
gives the heat capacity per unit mass of the substance and the heat capacity which relates
to the whole substance. It may therefore be inferred that the specific heat capacity relates
to a substance, while the heat capacity relates to an object.

When a temperature difference exists between materials in contact, the higher energy
molecules in the warmer substance transfer heat to the lower energy molecules in the
cooler substance. When a molecular collision occurs between the two, heat energy flow
from hot to cold.

Assume a slab of material of thickness l and cross-sectional area A. Assume the

temperatures of its two faces are T1 and T2 (T1 > T2 )

Temperature gradient is defined as the rate of change of temperature with the distance
(length of material). The temperature difference is given by ΔT = T1 - T2. Therefore the
temperature gradient is give by
ΔT = T1 - T2 [4.15]
L L

The quantity of heat transferred from face 1 to face 2 in time Δt is given by

ΔQ = kAΔT = T1 - T2 [4.16]
Δt Δt Δt

34
Where k is a constant, depends on the material of the slab. k is called the thermal
conductivity of the material which does not depend on the size or shape.
Units; k is expressed in W/m.K, ΔQ/ Δt is expressed in J/s = W (watts)

The thermal resistance (or R-value) of a slab is defined by the heat-flow equation in the
form
ΔQ = AΔT (m2 K/W) [4.17]
Δt R where R = L/K

In farm building constructions, the insulating value of materials under conditions of

steady-state heat conduction is expressed as the R-value. For several slabs of the same
surface area in series, the combined R-value is R = R 1 + R2 + …..Rn

b) Convection
In convection, energy is transferred by macroscopic movement of matter in the form of
convection currents. Such currents can occur spontaneously in fluids whose density
varies with temperature. In air, for example because of the earth’s gravitational field,
convection currents are established at higher air temperatures (lower density) and lower
air temperature (higher-density), sinks.

c) Radiation
All objects emit energy from their surfaces. A portion of this radiant energy may easily
be seen if the surface emitting is at a high-enough temperature. Even at much lower
temperature a surface still emits energy although an insignificant amount is visible. For
example, you can feel the radiation energy from a warm stove.

Stefan-Boltzmann laws states that “a surface at a temperature T (on the Kelvin scale) will
emit radiant energy at a rate proportional to the surface area (A) and the fourth power of
its temperature.
P = eσAT4 [4.18]

35
 Where e = emissivity (which characterizes the emitting properties of a particular
surface (0 ≤ e ≤ 0))
σ = Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x10-8 Wm-2 K-4 is the same for
all objects.

Surfaces absorb as well as emit radiation. Consider an object at temperature T2

surrounded by walls at temperature T1 (Fig 4.3), experiments have shown that the
temperatures will become equal at equilibrium. This means that the surface of the
enclosed object and the surrounding wall surface must each emit and absorb energy at the
same rate at that temperature to maintain thermal equilibrium. That is, at temperature, T,
the surface of the enclosed object must emit and absorb energy at the same rate. A good
absorbing surface is also a good emitting surface (e = 1) and a poor absorbing (but good
reflecting) surface is a poor emitting surface (e = 0)

Figure 4.3

Suppose the object in the enclosure (Fig 4.3) is maintained at high temperature than the
surrounding walls (T1 < T2 ). Then the rate of energy emission from the object is greater
than its absorption rate and the net heat transfer, the heat current (H) is given by

H = e σ A (T2 4 – T1 4 ) [4.19]

36
 5.0 Forces in Liquids and their effects

5.1 Pressure in Liquids

In dam design and construction, the engineer has to know among things about the size
and point of action of the resultant force exerted on the dam by the water behind it. This
involves making calculations based on the expressions for liquid pressure.

The pressure exerted by a liquid is experienced by the surface in contact with it. The
pressure increases with depth because the liquid has weight. The pressure (P) at a point in
a liquid is defined as the force per unit area on a very small area around the point. It is
given by the relation;
P = hρg (Pa) [1.0]
Where h = height of the liquid,
ρ = density of the liquid and
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Unit = Pascal (Pa).

5.1.1 Pressure in a Liquid Column

The pressure in a column of liquid is directly proportional to the height of the column.
For example, in a U-tube manometer, the pressure p to be measured acts on the surface of
the liquid at A and balances the pressure of the liquid column BC of the height h, plus the
atmospheric pressure P acting on B (Fig 1.0) Therefore the pressure p is given by;
p = P + hρg [2]

37
5.1.2 Balancing Liquid Columns
If a U-tube contains immiscible liquids (water and paraffin) of different densities (ρ and
ρ1 respectively), the surfaces of the liquids are not leveled. For example, in Fig 1 below
the column of water AB is balanced by the column of paraffin CD. Since the liquids on
the B and D are at the same pressure;

Pressure at B = Pressure at D
hρg = h1 ρ1 g
If Pressure at B; P = hρg………………………….. (1)
Pressure at D; P = h1 ρ1 g………………………….(2)
Therefore, from equations 1 & 2
hρg = h1 ρ1 g
This implies that
h = ρ [2]
h1 ρ1
Measurement of h and h1 , thus gives a simple way of finding the relative density of
paraffin. The limbs of the U-tube need not have the same diameter.

5.2 Archimedes’ Principle and Floating Bodies

The upward force that a liquid exert on a body immersed in it is called upthrust of the
liquid. It is due to the pressure exerted by the liquid on the lower surface of the body
being greater than on the top surface, since pressure increases with depth.

38
Archimedes’ principle states that ‘when a body is completely or partially immersed in a
fluid it experiences an upthrust or apparent loss in weight which is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced’. Upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

If a body floats partly immersed or completely immersed (e.g. submarine) in a fluid or

gas (e.g. balloon) it appears to have zero weight. This is because the upthrust on the body
is equal to the weight of the floating body. By Archimedes’ principle, the upthrust on a
body is equal to weight of liquid displaced. That is the weight of the floating body is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. This is sometimes called the
principle of floatation and is a special case of Archimedes’ principle and may be stated as
‘a floating body displaces its own weight of fluid’.

5.3 Surface Tension Forces

Various effects suggest that the surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched elastic skin.
That is in a state of tension. For example a steel needle will float if it is placed gently on
the surface of a bowl of water, despite its greater density. Some insects (pond skater) are
able to walk across a water surface, a drop of water remain suspended for sometime from
a tap before falling.

The forces S in the liquid support the weight (W) of the floating needle (Fig. 3)

5.3.1 Surface Area

The potential energy of any system in stable equilibrium is a minimum. Thus under
surface tension forces, the area of the liquid surface will have the least number of
molecules in it. That is the surface area of a given volume of liquid is minimum.

39
Mathematically, it can be shown that the shape of a given volume of a body with a
minimum surface area is a sphere, e.g. rain drops and small droplets of mercury.

A soap bubble is spherical because the gravitational force on its weight is extremely
small and the liquid shape is then mainly due to surface tension forces. Although the
density of mercury is high, small drops of mercury are spherical.

If the radius of a spherical mercury drop is r, then the ratio of surface area (4πr2 ) to the
weight or volume (4πr3 /3) of the sphere is inversely proportional to the radius. Thus the
smaller the radius, the greater the influence of surface tension forces compared with the
weight. Large drops of mercury, however, are flattened on top. This is because the
gravitational force is relatively greater.

Surface tension force, sometimes called the coefficient of surface tension is defined as the
force per unit length acting in the surface at right angles to one side of a line drawn in the
surface of the liquid. The magnitude of surface tension depends on the temperature of the
liquid and the medium of the other side of the surface. Surface tension is expressed in
Newton (N) per meter (m) that is N/m.

5.3.2 Capillarity
Water rises in a capillary tube immersed in it, placed vertically with one end in the liquid.
The rise of water in the tube is due to surface tension. The narrower the tube, the greater
is the height to which the water rises (Fig 4).

40
This phenomenon is capillarity. When the capillary tube is place in mercury, however,
the liquid is depressed below the surface level (Fig 5). The depression increases as the
diameter of the tube decreases. Note R 1 > R 2

5.3.3 Angle of Contact

The angle of contact between two given surfaces varies largely with their freshness and
cleanliness. The angle (θ) is known as the angle of contact between the liquid and glass,
and is always measured through the liquid (Fig. 6).

Angle of Contact Fig 6

The angle of contact is the angle between the solid surface and the tangent plane to the
liquid surface measured through the liquid. If a liquid has a density (ρ) and surface
tension (γ) and angle of contact (θ) and if the rise of the liquid in the tube is (radius r) is
h, (Fig 6), then neglecting the small amount of liquid in the meniscus;

Fig 7

Generally, in a clean glass tube, θ = 0, the equation for surface tension is given by
γ = rhρg [3]
2

41
5.3.4 Pressure Difference in a Bubble or Curve Liquid Surface

Assume that a bubble (Fig 8) is formed inside a liquid. Consider half of the bubble (B),
the surface tension force on B plus the force on B due to external pressure P 1 is equal to
the force on B due to the internal pressure P 2 inside the bubble. Fig 9 gives diagrammatic
locations of the other parameters.

P2 - P1 which is the excess pressure, P, in the bubble over the outside pressure is given as
P = 2γ/r [4]

Excess pressure for any curved surface or meniscus of which the radius of the curvature
is r and γ its surface tension, provided the angle of contact, θ, is zero is given as in
equation 5.8. If the angle of contact, θ, is however not zero, then
P = 2γCosθ [5]
r
5.4. Soap Bubble
A soap bubble has two liquid surfaces in contact with air, one inside the bubble and the
other outside the bubble. The excess pressure (P) in a soap bubble is thus given by the
relation
P = 4γ [6]
r

42
 5.5. Surface Tension and Surface Energy
Consider a film of liquid stretched across a horizontal frame ABCD (Fig 10). Since γ is
the force per unit length, the force on the rod BC of length L = 2γL

Suppose the rod is moved a distance, b, from BC to B 1 C1 against the surface tension
forces, so that the surface area of the film increases. The temperature of the film usually
decreases, in which case the surface tension alters. If the surface area increases under
isothermal conditions, the surface tension (γ) is constant. If γ is the surface tension at that
temperature;

Work done in enlarging the surface area = Force (F) x distance (d)
F = 2γL
From Fig 10
d = b, therefore work done by enlarging the surface area = 2γbL

But 2bL is the increase in the surface area of the film. Therefore, the work done (Wd e)
per unit area in enlarging the area is equal to γ. That is

Wd e = 2ybL = γ
2bL

Thus, surface tension may also be defined as ‘the work done per unit area in increasing the
surface area of a liquid under isothermal conditions’. This is also called ‘free surface energy’

43
 Capacitor
s
A capacitor is designed to store electric charge and basically consists of two conductors, such as a
pair of parallel metal plates, separated by an insulator. Capacitors have many uses. The flash
attachment for a camera uses a capacitor to store the energy needed to provide the sudden fla sh of
light.
The capacitance of a capacitor is the charge required to cause unit charge in the potential of a
conductor. If the potential of insulated conductor changes by one volt when given a charge, the
capacitance of the conduction is
C =Q
V
Where Q = Charge in coulombs (C)
V = Potential in volts (v)
C = Capacitance in farad (F) or C/v
The farad is a large unit, Microfarad (μF) = 10 -6 , Nanofarad (nF) = 10-9 and Picofarad = 10-
12

Practical Zero of Potential

The theoretical zero of potential is taken as that of the potential of points at infinity. In actual
measurements, this is an impracticable zero and the earth potential is adopted as the practical zero.
For example, when a charged conductor X of small capacitance and an uncharged conductor Y, of
large capacitance are connected. They end up with the same potential which is less than X’s was
originally, with X losing most of its charge to Y. There is flow of charge until the potential of X
and Y is the same.
If a (= 6 x 106 m) is the radius of the earth. Its capacitance.
C = 4πεo a
= 1/9 x 10-9 x 6x106(m)
= 7 x 10-4F
= 700 μF

where 4πεo = 1/9 x 10-9

This is a large capacitance compared with that of other conductors used in electrostatics.
Consequently, when a charged conductor is ‘earthed’ it loses most of its charge to the earth. That is,
it is discharged and acquires earth potential (zero potential). The earth has such a large

44
capacitance that any change in its potential due to loss or gain of charge because of connection to
another conductor is negligible. Thus, it provides a satisfactory practical zero potential.
Type of Capacitors
There are many types of capacitors among which include
* Paper, plastic, ceramic, mica capacitor
* Electrolytic capacitors
* Air capacitors.
Capacity in Parallel
Assume three capacitors are arranged in parallel as below. The applied potential difference (V) is
the same across each but the charges are different and are given by

Q1 = C1 V, Q2 = C2 V, Q3 = C 3 V
The total charge
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
= C1V + C 2V + C 3V
= V (C 1 + C2 +
C3 ) Q/V = C1 + C2
+ C3
C = C1 + C2 + C3
Capacitors in Series

Three capacitors are connected in series as below. Suppose a potential difference (V) applied
across the combination cause the motion of charge from plate Y to plate A so that a positive
charge (+Q) appears on A and an equal but opposite charge (–Q) appears on Y. This negative
charge will induce a positive charge on plate X if the plates are large and close together.

V1 V2 V3

45
 The plate X and M and the connection between them form an isolated conductor whose net
charge must be zero and so the positive charge on X induces a negative on M. In turn this negative
charge induces positive charge on L and so on.
Capacitors in series this all have the same charge and the potential difference across each are
shown below and given by
V1 = Q V2 = V3 = Q
C1 Q C2 C3

The total potential difference

V = V1 + V2 + V3

= Q + Q + Q C1 C2 C3

= Q (1 + 1 + 1) C 1 C2 C3

But 1/C = V/Q Therefore 1 =1 + 1 + 1

C C1 C2 C3

Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

Consider a capacitor with parallel plates of common area A, separated by a medium of thickness d
and permittivity ε. If one plate has a positive charge (+Q) and the other a negative charge ( -Q). The
charge density (δ) given by the quantity of charge (Q) per unit area (A) is δ = Q/A

That is

Assume the field between the plates is uniform, the field strength (E) is the same at all points and is
given by
E = δ/ε = (Q/A)/ε = Q/Aε
(i) If V is the potential difference between the plates, then
E = V/d
(ii) From equations i and ii
V/d = Q/Aε (iii)

46
 Since Capacitance C =
Q/V Rearranging the
relation iii C = Aε
d
In practice, the expression is not strictly true owing to non-uniformity of the field at the edges of
the plates.
Energy of a Charged Capacitor
The charge Q on a capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it that is Q α
V. Assume that a capacitor has capacitance C and that when a potential difference V is appl ied
across it the charge is Q. If the capacitor starts to discharge and initially a very small charge δQ
passes from the negative to positive plate then,
Energy lost = VδQ
Assume that δQ is small such that the decrease in V is negligible.
If the capacitor discharges completely so Q and V fall to zero, then
Total energy loss = V∫δQ
= Q∫δ QC

where V = Q/C
Therefore
Total energy loss = Q2
2C
This is the energy stored in the capacitor. Other expressions for the total energy stored in a
capacitor are;
½QV
That is substituting C = Q/V into the equation above and substituting Q = CV into the equation
above.
We have ½CV2

47
Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest. Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. The two charges
cancel one another out and are therefore equal and opposite. One charge type is taken as positive and
the other negative. The charge sign convention adopted led to the electron having a negative charge and
the proton a positive one. A single atom normally contains equal numbers of electrons and protons,
making it electrically neutral. Electrification by rubbing may be explained by supposing that electrons
are transferred from one material to the other. For example, when celluloses acetate is rubbed with
wool, electrons go from the surface of acetate to the wool. Thus, leaving the acetate deficient of electron
and hence positively charged, and leaving the wool negatively charged.
All the electrons in the atoms of electrical insulators (Perspex, glass, cellulose acetate etc.) are firmly
bound to their nuclei and their removal or addition of electrons at one place does not cause the flow of
electrons elsewhere. This means that, the charge is confined to the region where it is produced.
Electrical conductors (For example, metals) have electrons that are quite free from individual atoms
(although fairly strongly bound within the material as a whole) and if such material gains electrons, these
can move about in them. Loss of electrons in a conductor causes redistribution of those left. A charge
on a conductor therefore spreads over the entire surface. The humanbody and earth are comparatively
good conductors, so if a metal rod is to be charged, care must be taken to insulate the metal well and not
held in the hand.
Electrostatic Induction
A negatively charged polythene strip held close to an insulated, uncharged conductor, such as a small
aluminized expanded–polystyrene ball attracts it. Electrons are repelled to the far side of the ball leaving
the near side positively charged. The attraction between the negative charge on the polythene strip and
the induced positive charge is greater than the repulsion between the strip and the more distant negative
charge. The effect is called electrostatic inductions.
Electrostatic inductions can also be demonstrated by two insulated metal spheres A and B (Figure 1).
The spheres are made to touch one another and a negatively charged polythene rod C brought near to A.
The spheres are then separated and the rod taken away. Test with a pith-ball show that A has a positive
charge and B a negative charge. If the spheres are placed together so that thy touch, it will be found
that they now have no effect on pith-ball held nearby. The charges on the spheres musthave neutralized
each other completely. This indicates that the induced positive and negative charges are equal.

A B
Figure 1.0

48
Charging by Induction
A conductor may be gives permanent charge by induction without dividing it into two. A charge
polythene rod C is first brought to the conductor XY (Figure 2). Next, the conductor is earthed
by touching it momentarily. Finally, the polythene is removed. The conductor is left with a positive
charge. If a charged acetate rod is used, the conductor is left with a negative charge. The charge left
is called the induced charge. It always has the opposite sign to the inducing charge.

X Y

Figure 2.0
The phenomenon of induction is explained by the movement of electrons. The inducing charge repels
electrons to Y, leaving an equal positive charge at X. When touched electrons are repelled from it to earth
and a positive charge is left on the conductor. If the induced charge is positive, then the electrons are
attracted up from earth to the conductor, which then becomes positively charge.
The Electrophorus
The electrophorus is a device that provides almost unlimited supply of charge by induction. It consists
of a polythene or Perspex base E and metal discs D on an insulating handle (Figure 3). The polythene
is
charged negatively by rubbing it very vigorously with a
duster.

D
E

Fig.
3Electrophorus
The disc is then laid upon it, and acquires induced charges, positive underneath and negative on top. Very
little negative charge escapes from the polythene to the disc, because the natural unevenness of their
surfaces preventsthemtouching at more than few points.Charge escapesfrom these points only, because
the polythene is a non-conductor. After it has been placed on the polythene the disc is earthed with the
finger, and the negative charge on its upper surface flows away. The disc can then be remove d, and
it carries a positive charge which was on its underside.
An electrophorus produces sufficient charge to given an audible -and sometimes visible- spark. The
action of an electrophorus shows the advantages of charging by induction. Supply of charge is
inexhaustible

49
 because the original charge is not carried away. A great charge, nearly equal to the charge on the whole
of the polythene, can be concentrated on the conducting disc.
Ice Pail Experiment
Name originates from its use. It is about 27cm high resembling a bucket but not (Fig 4). The pail is
stood on an insulator and connected to a Gold-leaf Electroscope. A metal ball on the end of a long silk
thread is positively charge by a spark from an Electrophorus. The ball is lowered into a pail without
letting it touch the sides or bottom. Positive charges are induced on the outside of the pail and the leaves
and make the leaves diverge.
Once the ball was well inside, the divergence of the leaves did not change when the ball moved about.
Whether nearer to or farther from the walls or the bottom of the pail. The amount of the induced positive
charge did not depend on the position of the ball, once it was well inside the pail.
When the ball touches the bottom, the leaves of the electroscope does not still move meaning no charge
was given to, or taken away from, the outside of the pail. When the ball is lifted out of the pail and tested
for charge with another electroscope, the ball has no charge. The induced negative charge on the inside
of the pail must therefore be equal in magnitude to the original positive charge on the ball.

Figure 3: Ice Pail

Coulomb’s Law
The force (F) between two-point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges divided
by the square of their distance apart. Coulomb showed that if bodies were small compared with the
distance between them, the force (F)of attraction or repulsion betweencharged bodieswas inversely
proportional to the square of the distance (r).
Fα1 [1]
r2
This result is also known as the inverse square law. By measuring the force between two charge bodies
when their respective magnitudes Q and QI are varied, Coulomb found that force (F) is proportional to
the product QQ1 . Thus
F α QQ1 [2]
Combing equations 1 & 2

F α QQ1
r2

50
 ∴ F = K QQ1 [3]
r2

K = Constant = 1/4π εor2

F = QQ1 N [4]
4πεo r2

Where force (F) is in Newtown (N), charge (Q) in coulomb (C) defined as that quantity of charge
which passes a section of a conductor in one second when the current flowing is one ampere, and distance
(r) in metes. From equation 4
εo = QQ1 c2 m-2 N-1
4πr2 F

Another unit of εo is the farad/meter (F m-1 )

εo = 8.854 x 10-12
∴ 1 = 9 x 109 N m2 C-2
4πεo

Permittiviy
Equation 4 is only true when the conductors are in vacuum. The value of the force charges when
an insulating material replaces the vacuum. To account for the change, a medium is said to have
permittivity denoted by ε, which is included in the dynamotor of the expression for Coulombs law. In
general
F = QQ1 [5]
4πεr2

Where ε = permittivity of the medium.

The permittivity of air at normal pressure is only about 1.005 times that of vacuum. The permittivity of
air at standard, temperature and pressure is therefore usually taken as that of vacuum.
Electric Intensity or Field Strength
An electric field may be defined as the region where an electric charge experiences a force. Electric
field can be mapped out by electrostatic lines of force. Electrostatic line of force may be defined as a
line such that the tangent to it is in the direction of the force on a small positive charge at that point.
Electrostatic lines of force are also called electric flux.
The electric intensity (E) of an electrostatic field at any point is defined as the force per unit charge
which it exerts at that point. Its direction is that of the force exerted on a positive charge. Assume a
very small positive charge (Q) in an electric field (E) experiencing a force (F), then the electric
field strength or intensity (E) at the point is defined by the equation.

E = F/Q [6]

51
Electric Field Strength due to a Point Charge
Consider an isolated positive charge (Q) at a point P distance r away in a medium of perm ittivity
ε. Consider a very small positive charge Qo placed at P. From Coulombs law, the force F on Q o that is
{from Equation 4}
F = QQo
4πεr2
From equation 6
E= F = Q
[7] Qo 4πεr2

The electric intensity (E) is directed away from the charge if it is positive. If the point charge is negative,
the intensity (E) would be directed towards negative charge since unlike charge attract. The electric
intensity (E) decreases with distance from the point charge according to an inverse square law. The
field due to an isolated point is non-uniform but it has the same value at equal distances from the charge.
Electric Potential
A charge in an electric field experiencesa force and if it moves, work is done. If a positive change is
moved from point A to B in the opposite direction to that of the electric field, an external agent has to
do work against the force of the field and energy has to be supplied (Fig 4).
B

E Fig 4
As a result, the system (of the charge in the field) gains an amount of electrical potential energy equal
to the work done. The potential energy associated with a charge at a point in an electric field depends
on the location of the point and the magnitude of the charge. A unit positive charge in chosen and the
change of potential energy, which occurs when such a charge is moved from one point to another, is
called the change of potential of the field itself. From Figure 4 above, the potential at point B is higher
than that at A by the energy needed to take a unit positive charge from A to B.
The potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the energy required to move a unit positive charge
from infinity to the point. It is assumed that the charge does what affect the field. Potential is a property
of a point in a field and is a scalar since it deals with a quantity of work of potential energy per unit charge.
Symbol for potential is Volt (V) and its unit is Joule/coulomb (J/C).

52
Equipotential
Any surface or volume over which the potential is constant is called an equipotential. An equipotential
surface has the property that along any direction lying in the surface, there is no electric field.
Equipotential surfaces are therefore always at right angles to the lines of force. All points in a field
that have the same potential can be said to be lying on the same surface. When a charge moves on
such a surface no energy transfer occurs and no work is done. Because the force due to the field must
be acting at right angles to the equipotential surface at away point.
Potential at a Point
The potential at a point A in an electric field at distance r from an isolated positive point charge
(Q) situated at O in a permittivity ε can be calculated. Consider that a very small point charge (Qo) is
moved by an external agent from C, distance x from A through a very small distance δx to B without
affecting the field due to charge Q (Figure 5).
E
O r B CQ
dx Qo

Fig 5
Assuming the force F on Qo due to the field remains constant over δx. The work done δW by the
external
agent over against the force of the field is;
δW = F (-δx).
The negative sign shows that the displacement δx is in the opposite direction to that in which force
acts.
By Coulombs law (Equation 4)
F = QQ1
4πεo r2

δW = QQo(-δ x )
4πεo x 2

Total work done in bringing Qo from infinity (∞) to A (r) is

∫δW = ∫ QQo(-δ x
)
4πεo x 2

∫δW = ∫ QQo(-δ x
)
4πεo x 2

W = QQo [8]
4πεor

53
 The potential (V) at A is the energy needed to move unit positive charge from infinity to A. That is
V = W/Qo

V= Q [9]
4πεor
Potential Due to a Conducting
Sphere
A charge (positive or negative) on an isolated conducting sphere is uniformly distributed over its surface
due to repulsion of like charges and has a radial electric field pattern. The field at any point outside the
sphere is exactly the same as if the whole charge were concentrated as a point at the centre of the sphere.
From the expression of the potential at a point charge (Equation 9). Assume the radius of the sphere is
a
then equation 9 becomes
V= Q [10]
4πεo a
Inside the sphere, all points have zero field strength. Otherwise, field lines attract like charge of opposite
sign in the sphere and such a state of affairs is impossible under static conduction in a conductor. The
potential is the same at all point throughout the sphere and equal to that at the surface.
Relation between Electric Field (E) and Potential
(V)
Consider a positive charge (Q) at a point A in an electric field where the field strength is E (Fig 6).
The force (F) on Q is given by
F = EQ [11]

E
O r B CQ
dx Qo

Fig 6

If Q moves a very short distance (δx) from A to B in the direction of E, then (assuming electric field
strength
E is constant over AB) the work done (δW) by the electric force on
Q is δW = force x distance
= F δx
= EQδx

If the potential difference between B and A is δV, by the definition of potential difference δV = Energy transferred per
unit charge
= - δW = -EQdx
Q Q

54
 δV = -Eδx

E= - δV [12]
δx
The negative sign shows that if displacements in the direction of field are taken to be positive, then δx
is positive, δV is negative. That is potential decreases. On the other hand, if the charge is moved in
direction opposite to that of the field, δx is negative and δV is positive, indicating an increase of
potential has occurred. In the limit, as δx approaches 0, equation 12 becomes.
E = - dV
dx.
dV/dx is called the potential gradient in the x-direction. Potential gradient is a vector and is measured
in
Volts/metre. In a uniform field, E is constant, that is the potential changes steadily with distance.
Potential Difference
In electrostatics, when a charge moves in the direction of the field, the potential energy lost by the field
charge system can be required in the opposite direction. In current electricity, energy lost by the electric
field inside a conductor is irrecoverable since the heat produced cannot be transferred back into other
form of energy by reversing the current.
The potential difference between two points is the energy transferred when a unit positive charge passes
from one point to the other. Symbol for potential difference is the volt and unit is V or Joule/coulomb
(J/C).

b
a
Q A F B
x P
dx

Fig 2.7
An equation may be derived for potential difference. Consider two points A and B lying on a line of
force at distances a and b respectively form a positive charge Q. Consider a unit positive charge at a
distance x from the charge Q at P in free space (Fig 2.7). The force (F) on it will be given by
F=Qx1
4πεo r2

The work done in taking the charge from B to A against the force F is equal to the work which the force
F would do if the charge were allowed to go from A to B. Over a short distance δx, the work done by
the force F is
δW = F δx

55
Over the whole distance AB, therefore, the work done by the force on the unit charge is
∫δW = ∫F δx = ∫Q δx/4πεo r2
Integrating and taking limits from a to b
W=Q - Q
4πεoa 4πεo b
This is the value of the work which an external agent must do to carry a unit positive charge from A
to B. The work per coulomb is the potential difference V AB between A and B. Therefore
W =Q [ 1 - 1 ] [13]
4πεoa 4πεo b

If the potential difference is V in volts between two points in an electric field, the energy transferred W
in joules occurring when a charge Q in Coulombs moves through the potential difference is given by
W = QV [14]

56
 Magnetic
Fields
The properties of a magnet appear to originate at certain regions in the magnet, which are called
poles. Magnetic poles are of two kinds. Like poles repel each other and unlike pole attract. The
poles always seem to occur in equal and opposite pairs.
When there is no other magnet near, a freely suspended magnet sets so that the line joining its
poles is approximately parallel to the earths North - South axis. That is, to the magnetic meridians.

BAR U - SHAPED
EARTH'S LOCAL FIELD

N N S
N

S
S

The space surrounding a magnetic when a magnetic force is experienced is called a magnetic
field. A magnetic field can be represented by magnetic field lines drawn so that: The line (or
tangent to if it is curved) gives the direction of the field at that point. The number of lines per
unit cross-section area is an indication the strength of the field.
Some Magnetic Field Patterns
Experiments with various charges (q) moving with various velocities (v) in a magnetic field (B)
gave the following results for magnetic force;
• The force is proportional to the charge.
• The force on a negative charge is in the direction opposite that on a positive
charge with the same velocity.
• The force is proportional to the speed
• The force is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the velocity.
The force is proportional to sin θ, where θ is the angle between the velocity and the magnetic
field. If the velocity is parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field, the force is zero. The
experimental results may be summarized as;
• When a charge q moves with velocity v in a magnetic field B, the magnetic force F on the
charge is; F = qv * B

57
 • The equation defines the magnetic field in terms of the force exerted on a moving
charge.
Rearranging
B = F/qv
The SI unit for magnetic field is the Tesla (T). A charge of one coulomb moving with a velocity
of one meter per second perpendicular to a magnetic field of one tesla experiences a force of one
Newton.
1T = N/C =
1N/A.
m m/s
Magnetic Field Due to Current
A conductor carrying an electric current is surrounded by a magnetic field. The right-hand screw
rule is a useful aid for predicting the direction of the field, knowing the direction of the current.
Straight Current Carrying Wire

It states that, if a right-handed screw moves forward in the direction of the current (conventional),
then the direction of rotation of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic field lines.

Magnetic Flux Density

Magnetic flux density or magnetic induction, B (also called B field) is defined as the force acting
per unit current length. That is the force acting per unit length on a conductor which carries unit
current and is at right angles to the direction of the magnetic field.
B =F/IL
The units of Magnetic flux density (B) is N/Am which is equal to the Tesla (T). B is a vector whose
direction at any point is that of field line at that point.
F=BIL

58
 If the conductor and field are not at right angle but make an angle θ with one another then
F = BIL sin θ
Biot-SavartLaw

Biot-Savart stated that for a very short length δL of a conductor, carrying a steady current I, the
magnitude of the flux density δB at a point P distance r from δL is δB α IδLsin θ/r2
P
• δB
r
θ
δL

Where θ is the angle between δL and the line joining it to P. The product IδL is called the ‘current
element’.
δB = μ0 I δ L s in θ
4πr2
Where μ0 is the permeability of vacuum. The constant of proportionality is a property of the medium.
The
permeability of a medium is represented by μ. For medium of permeability (μ) the equation is written
as;
δB = μI δ L s in θ
4πr2
Unit of μ is Henry per meter (Hm -1 )
Other Formula
i. Circular Coil
For a coil conductor of N turns each of radius r carrying current I. The magnetic field at the center of
the coil is
B = μI
2r

ii. Long Straight Wire

A long straight conducting wire carrying current I with distance a perpendicular to the flux is given by
B = μn
I
2πa
iii. Long
solenoid
B = μnI

Where n (= N/L) is the number turns of the solenoids per unit length Helmhohz coil - having the
same radius (r) and (Two flat coaxial coils) number of turns N B = 0.72 uo Nn

59
Force on a Charge in a Magnetic field
Long solenoid
B = μnI
Where n (= N/L) is the number turns of the solenoids per unit length Helmhohz coil - having the
same radius (r) and (Two flat coaxial coils) number of turns N
B = 0.72 uonN
Force on a Charge in a Magnetic field
Consider a length (L) of a conductor containing n charged particles, each of charge Q and average
drift velocity V. Therefore, the average time (t) taken to travel length L

t=
L/V
Total charge passing through any cross-section of the conductor in time t = nQ. But current i =
Q/t i = nQ = nQV
L/V L
If the conductor makes an angle θ with a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B F = BIL sin θ

F = BLn QV s
in θ
L
= BnQVsin
θ
Hence, the force on one charge particle = BQVsin θ
Total charge passing through any cross-section of the conductor in time t = nQ. But current i =
Q/t i = nQ = nQV
L/V L
If the conductor makes an angle θ with a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B F = BIL sin θ

F = BLn QV s
in θ
L
= BnQVsin
θ
Hence, the force on one charge particle = BQVsin θ
60
If the conductor makes an angle (θ) = 90o
F=

BQV B

=F
QV
Torque on a Coil in a Magnetic Field
When current I flows in a coil each side experiences a force, (since all make some angle with B)
acting perpendicularly to the place containing the side and the direction of the field.
Consider a rectangular coil PQRS of n turn pivoted so that it can rotate about a vertical axis YY
which is at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of flux density B.
The forces on the vertical sides, each of length L are equal and opposite and have value
F=NBIL.
Whatever the position of the coil, its vertical sides are at right angle to the flux density (B) and
so the force (F) remains constant. The forces constitute a couple whose torque C is given by;
C = one force x distance between lines of action of the force
= F x PT
= Fb sin θ
= BIN (Lb) sin θ
= BIAN sin θ
Where area (A) of the coil = Lb. The torque causes angular acceleration of the coil which rotates
until its plane is perpendicular to the field.
Electromagnetic Moment of a Coil
From the equation of the couple of a coil, that is
C = BIANsin θ

C depends on current (I), area (A) of the coil and the no of turns (N) among other parameters.
Therefore
m = IAN
where m is a property of the coil and the current it carries called electromagnetic moment.
C = mB sin θ
or m= C
Bsinθ
If the flux density (B) = 1T and θ = 90 o, then the above becomes

61
 m=C
The electromagnetic moment (m) of a coil is therefore defined as the torque of the couple acting on
it when it lies with its plane parallel to the magnetic field of unit flux density. It is a vector and its
direction is taken to be that of the flux density created along the axis of the current in it.
Moving Coil Galvanometer
A galvanometer detects or measures (if its scale is calibrated small) current passing through it
or small potential differences across it.
The magnetic field is radial and so the plane of the coil is parallel to it, whatever the deflection.
The forces acting on the vertical sides are therefore always perpendicular to the side and the
deflecting couple consequently has a maximum value for all positions of the coil. If the air gap
of constant width,
the flux density B of the field is also nearly constant and the torque (C) of the deflecting couple
due to current I in the coil is given by
C = BIAN
where N is the no of turns and A the mean area of the coil. The coil rotates until the resisting
couple C 1 due to the suspension is equal and opposite to C. If the deflection then is α, and K is
the torque of the couple needed to produce a unit angular deflection (Nm/rad.) of the
suspension that is
C 1 = Kα
Assuming Hook’s law holds for the suspension, then
C1 = C
Implying BIAN = Kα =
α I.
The use of a radial field and uniform air gap results in the deflection of the coil very directly
proportional to the current I in it. The current sensitivity of the Galvanometer is defined as the
deflection per unit current
αk = BIAN
α/I = BAN/k
Relay
It is a switch worked by an electromagnet. It is a device most commonly used in lamp, electric
bell or motor, where small current is used which should have large current.
Electromagnetic Induction

62
Electromagnetic induction is the use magnet to produce electricity. Induced electromotive
force (emf) can be generated in two ways:
Generator effect: - If a bar of magnet is moved in and out of a stationary coil of wire connected
to a centre zero galvanometer, a small current is recorded during the motion but not at other tries.
Movement of the coil towards or away from a stationary magnet has the same effect. The
direction of the induced current depends on the direction of the relative motion.
The magnitude of the current depends on the speed of motion, number of turns on the coil and
the strength of the magnet.
Transformer effect: - A transformer is a device for changing voltage and current without an
appreciable loss in power. Its operation is based on the fact that an alternating current in one
circuit will induce an alternating e.m.f in a nearby circuit because of the mutual inductance of
the two circuits.
The coil carrying the input power is called the primary and the other is the secondary. The
function of the iron core is to increase the magnetic field for a given current and to guide it so
that nearly all the magnetic flux through one coil goes through the other coil. The ir on core is
laminated to reduce eddy-currents losses.
Two coils are arranged with fluid one inside called the primary in series to a 6 V d.c. supply, a
tapping key and a rheostat. The other coil, called secondary is connected to a galvanometer.
Switching the current on or off in the primary cause a pulse of emf and current to be induced in
the secondary, varying the primary current quickly by altering the value of the rheostat has the
same effect. Electromagnetic induction therefore occurs when there is change in the primary
current and so also in the magnetic field it produces.
Mutual induction is the case of electromagnetic induction in which current changes in one
circuit causes induced emf in a neighbouring current, not connected to it.
Seismometer, an earthquake – detecting instrument is a good example.

Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux through a small plane surface is the product of the flux density normal to the
surface and the area of the surface. Ф = BA
• Where Ф = Magnetic flux.
The unit of magnetic flux is that of magnetic field times area, tesla-meter squared which is
called the Weber, (Wb))

63
 B = Flux density (Tesla)
A = cross-section area of coil (m 2 )
In general, if the normal to the area A makes an angle θ with B then the flux: Ф = B*A* Cos θ
The total flux called flux-linkage of a coil of N turns
of cross-section area A is given by

Ф = BAN Cos θ

A θ
A
B

Faraday’s Law
The induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change flux-linkage or rate of flux cutting.
ζ α d(NФ)
dt
Where ζ = induced e.m.f.
d(NФ)/dt = rate of change of flux-linkage or rate of flux cutting.
The Weber may now be re-defined as the magnetic flux that induces in a one-turn coil an e. m. f.
of one volt where the flux is reduced to zero in one second. With this definition the constant of
proportionality is 1. Therefore equation
ζ = d(NФ)
dt
Faraday’s law gives only the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. Its direction is predicted by Lenz a
Russian scientist. It states that:- The direction of the induced emf is such that it tends to oppose the
flux change causing it, and does oppose it if induced current flows. Thus, Faraday’s law becomes
ζ=-
d(NФ)
dt

64
The negative sign is included to show that current due to the induced e.m.f. produced an
opposing that change. For straight conductors moving at right angles to a magnetic field,
Fleming’s right-hand rule applies.
The rule says that, if the thumb, the first and second fingers of the right-hand are held so that
each is at right angles to the other with the first figure pointing in the direction of the field and the
thumb in the direction of motion of the conductor then the second figure indicates the direction
(conventional) of the induced current.

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 Waves
Progressive and Stationary Waves

All waves consist of some sort of disturbance travelling through space. Some waves require
a material medium through which they travel. Waves which require medium are called
mechanical waves (e.g. water and sound waves), electromagnetic waves which do not require
any medium.
A progressive wave consist of a disturbance moving from a source to surrounding places as
a result of which energy is transferred from one point to another. There are two types of
progressive waves;
Transverse type :- the direction is associated with the disturbance which is at right angles to
the direction of travel
Longitudinal type: - The disturbance is in the same direction as that of the wave.
It is also possible to produce waves on a slinky which do not travel along it these are called
stationary or standing waves.
Waves may be classified as mechanical or electromagnetic.
Mechanical waves are produced by a disturbance (e.g. a vibrating body) in a material medium
and are transmitted by particles of the medium oscillating to and fro (e.g. waves on a stretched
spring, sound waves in air and water waves).
Electromagnetic waves consist of a disturbance in the form of varying magnetic and electric
fields. No medium is necessary and they travel more easily in vacuum than in matter (e.g.
radio signals, light and x’rays)
Waves may be described by a displacement - distance graph. For a transverse mechanical
wave, the displacement (y) of the vibrating particles of the transmitting medium at a distance
(x) from the source at a certain instant shown in figure 6.0.

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The amplitude of a transverse wave is the maximum displacement from the center
(equilibrium) position, the distance between a peak and trough. A longitudinal graph can also
be represented by a graph of transverse displacement - distance.

The amplitude of a transverse wave is the maximum displacement from the center
(equilibrium) position, the distance between a peak and trough. A longitudinal graph can also
be represented by a graph of transverse displacement - distance.

The displacement in this case, however, being those of the vibrating particles in the travel of
the wave. Thus displacement (y) and distance (x) from the source are in the same direction
in the wave but at right angles to each other. That is, the graph represents a longitudinal
displacement as if it were a transverse.

Regions of high particle density are called compressions and regions of low particle density
are rarefactions. Both move more in the direction of travel of the wave while the particles of
the medium vibrate to and fro about their undisturbed position.

The maximum displacement of each from its disturbed position is called the Amplitude of the
wave. The wavelength (λ) of the wave is the distance between two consecutive points on it
which are in step (phase).
For transverse wave, it is two successive crests or troughs. The amplitude of a longitudinal
wave is the maximum displacement of any point on the wave from the equilibrium position,
just as in the transverse wave.

The maximum displacement of each from its disturbed position is called the Amplitude of the
wave. The wavelength (λ) of the wave is the distance between two consecutive points on it
which are in step (phase).
For transverse wave, it is two successive crests or troughs. The amplitude of a longitudinal
wave is the maximum displacement of any point on the wave from the equilibrium position,
just as in the transverse wave.

The maximum displacement of each from its disturbed position is called the Amplitude of the
wave. The wavelength (λ) of the wave is the distance between two consecutive points on it
which are in step (phase).
For transverse wave, it is two successive crests or troughs. The amplitude of a longitudinal
wave is the maximum displacement of any point on the wave from the equilibrium position,
just as in the transverse wave.
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Electromagnetic waves behave as transverse waves and may be represented by a
displacement - distance graph with y as the electric field strength (E) r magnetic flux density
(B) at different disturbances from the source.

A displace –time graph may also be drawn for a wave motion. The speed (v) of a wave from
a continuous vibrating source with constant frequency (f) per second and wavelength λ would
advance a distance f λ in one second. That is;
v=fλ

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