Airstabcon

Aircraft Stability and Control
Alejandro Sebastián Ortiz Pérez
May 27, 2023
Aerospace Engineering Program.

Autonomous University of Baja California
Index
1 Fundamentals.
2 Aircraft Performance.
3 Stability.
4 Control.
Aircraft Performance.
Force over and airfoil

We have seen the imposed circulation via rotating cylinder produces a lift
force. The same is for an airfoil within a flow which is able to produce
more effectively a lift force. In an airfoil the lift force is established via its
geometry.
The higher speed in upper surface (Extrados) provides a more negative

pressure than the lower speed at the bottom surface (Intrados) creating a
pressure difference between both surfaces and as a consequence a perpen-
dicular for with respect to air free stream (flight direction), this is the lift
force.
Lift and drag forces

If an airfoil is placed at several attack’s angle: α1 , α2 ... and the lift
and drag forces are measured L1 , L2 , ... D1 , D2 ,... , without changes
in density and speed, the ratios between L and qS, where S is the
wing’s surface and q the dynamic pressure, a lift coefficient CL is
obtained.
Lift and drag forces

If an airfoil is placed at several attack’s angle: α1 , α2 ... and the lift
and drag forces are measured L1 , L2 , ... D1 , D2 ,... , without changes
in density and speed, the ratios between L and qS, where S is the
wing’s surface and q the dynamic pressure, a lift coefficient CL is
obtained.
Plotting CL as a function of attack’s angle with a constant qS, the
higher the angle the higher the lift coefficient CL is. The plot is like
fig.(1) and is observed an abruptly change at α = 180 and CL =1.75:
It is called the stall condition.
Figure 1: Lift coefficient vs attack’s angle

Influence of airfoils type on lift coefficient

Airfoils and Nomenclature
NACA 4412
First digit: Maximum vertical coordinate of camber line in % from
the chord: 4%
Second digit: Horizontal position of maximum vertical coordinate
given in tenths of chord: 0.4 (40%)
3rd and 4th: Maximum airfoil thickness in % of chord: 12 %.
Wing terminology
Wingspan: b, tip to tip total wing length , without consider its form.
Wing terminology
Wing area: S, Wing’s surface viewed from the top, includes surface
covered into fuselage or engines.
Wing terminology
wing average chord: c, is the chord value that multiplied by the
wingspan is equal to Wing area: cb = S
Wing terminology
Cl
Taper ratio λ, It is defined by the ratio: λ = Cr
Wing terminology
Cl
Aspect ratio: A, is the ratio between wingspan and mean chord:
2
A = bc = bS
Wing terminology
Cl
2
A = bc = bS
Wing sweep Λ, is the angle between the 25% line and a
perpendicular one to aircraft longitudinal axis. If the wing has taper
ratio equal to 1, this angle is the same between the leading edge and
the perpendicular to aircraft longitudinal axis.
Wing terminology
Cl
2
A = bc = bS
Wing sweep Λ, is the angle between the 25% line and a
perpendicular one to aircraft longitudinal axis. If the wing has taper
ratio equal to 1, this angle is the same between the leading edge and
the perpendicular to aircraft longitudinal axis.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord: MAC , average length of the chord.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord, MAC

Mean Aerodynamic Chord for a trapezoidal wing is given by:
1
Z b/2
2
MAC = (c(x)) dx (1)
S −b/2
0
2 b/2
2
cr − cl cr − cl

1 1
Z Z
MAC = cr + 2 x dx + cr − 2 x dx (2)
S −b/2 b S 0 b
0
2
cr − cl cr − cl

1 b
Z
MAC = cr + 2 x d 2 x
S 2 (cr − cl ) −b/2 b b
b/2
2
cr − cl cr − cl

1 b
Z
+ cr − 2 x d 2 x (3)
S 2 (cr − cl ) 0 b b
3 0 3 b/2
cr − cl cr − cl

1 b 1 b
MAC = cr + 2 x − cr − 2 x (4)
S 6 (cr − cl ) b −b/2 S 6 (cr − cl ) b 0
!
2 λ2 + λ + 1
MAC = cr (5)
3 λ+1
Origin of lift forces
The wings have hitherto been considered infinite, but when they are finite
a transverse flow is created on the wing’s tip which affects the flow through
the entire wing as indicated in fig. (2). Therefore along the wing there
exist a transversal flow additional to the longitudinal one.
Figure 2: vortex flow around the wing’s surfaces

Wing tip vortex

Vortices formation occurs due the the interaction between transversal (wing-
tip flow) and longitudinal flows as shown in fig. (3).
Figure 3: Wing-tip vortices

Lift and induced drag forces origin
Deflection in the air stream.
Attached free vortices:

The attached free vortex create an
upwards stream deflection in front of
leading edge and a downstream
deflection after the trailing edge.
downwash
Figure 4: Air deflection around the wing.
Behind the wing air stream is deflected downwards with a magnitude twice the deflection at the
wing aerodynamic center: 2w. This downwards current produces a lift force in the whole aircraft;
the wing induces a vertical air flow through the wings. The vertical air mas flow gives in turn as a
reaction a vertical force L:
∆v
F =L=m (6)
∆t
∆v
Where F is the upwards vertical force, m is the air mass deflected in the wings and ∆t is the vertical
velocity rate of change with time.
This downwards deflection causes that in the aerodynamic center the angle
between the chord and the air relative stream does not match with the one
with air free stream (fight direction) but instead is smaller; this variation
in the angle of attack is called induced angle of attack αi
Figure 5: Induced attack’s angle.
Ls1 , Lo1 , Ls2 , Lo2


The resulting force will be perpendicular to the relative air stream direction
in the airfoil proximities. Because we have denoted lift force as perpen-
dicular to free air stream direction (flight direction), an additional force
appears giving as a result a reduction of lift force turning round the resul-
tant force with an angle αi with respect to vertical axis. The new induced
force is a resistance force and is called induced drag (Di ). Induced drag
comes from the fact it depends on lift force.
Figure 6: Induced drag, here tan αi = Di /L return to Di

Induced attack’s angle
∆v
L=m (7)
∆t
m
If ∆t is the air mass deflected downwards per second and let this quantity
renamed as m’, and ∆v the vertical change in the velocity is 2w , the lift
force becomes:
L = m0 2w (8)
The induced attack’s angle can be obtained from fig. (7). Assuming small
this angle:
w
αi ≈ (9)
V
L
αi ≈ (10)
2m0 V
Figure 7: Induced angle of attack

Induced drag calculus

The mass flow is caused by a uniform flow of velocity V and the fluid
crosses an hypothetical surface which area is equivalent to that delimited
by a circle whose diameter is the wingspan:
1 2
L 2 ρV SCL
αi ≈ 2 = 2 (11)
2ρ πb4 V 2 2ρ πb4 V 2
Using the aspect ratio definition:

CL S CL
αi ≈ 2
= (12)
πb πA
Looking at the Fig ( 6 ) the induced drag is:
Di = qSCDi
CL2
Di = qS
πAe
e is a correction factor and its value comes from 0.6 to 0.95.
Importance of aspect ratio

For low aspect ratio, the effectiveness in angle of attack is lower than two
dimensional wing (A=∞) as seen in Fig (8). Here a = dCL /dα = CLα
CL = a0 α0 (13)

αi
CL = aα0 1 + (14)
α0
a0 a0 a0
a= αi = C
= a0 (15)
1 + α0 1 + πAeα L 1 + πAe
0
Figure 8: Lift coefficient vs angle of attack for several aspect ratios. Exercise
Propulsive characteristic of aircrafts

Balance force equations in aircraft.
Figure 9: Forces acting on the aircraft

Force balance into a vertical plane.
W dV
T cos − D − W sin γ = (16)
g dt
W V2
T sin + L − W cos γ = (17)
g R
If is very small and the speed is uniform.
T − D − W sin γ = 0 (18)
L − W cos γ = 0 (19)
Let us define the load factor N, as:
L
N = cos γ = (20)
W
then the relationship (19) becomes:
L = NW (21)
Aerodynamic Efficiency.
The aerodynamic efficiency is the ratio between the produced lift force with
respect to the generated drag one:
L
1
2
ρV 2 SCL CL
E = = 1
= (22)
D 2
ρV 2 SCD CD
To maximize the aerodynamic efficiency:

CL 1
Em = max = (23)
CD min CCDL
and obtain the optimal lift coefficient and the maximum aerodynamic coefficient:
r
∗ CD0
CL = (24)
K
1
Em = √ (25)
2 CD0 K
the optimal velocity is convenient as a reference velocity:
s s s r
2W 2W 2W 4 K
VR = = = (26)
ρSCL∗ ρSCL∗ ρS CD0
Dimensionless balance forces.

Is possible express the equation in dimensionless form:
1 2 1
ρV SCD = ρV 2 S CD0 + KCL2

D= (27)
2 2
where we have used the load factor and lift coefficient definitions:
L NW
CL = 1 2
= 1 2
(28)
2 ρV S 2 ρV S
Previous result is substituted in the expression (27) to give:
4KN 2 W 2

1
D = ρS CD0 V 2 + 2 2 2 (29)
2 ρ V S
Here we use the dimensionless form of the speed as V = VR u, then;
4KN 2 W 2

1 2 2
D = ρS CD0 VR u + 2 2 2 2 (30)
2 ρ VR u S

Making use of (26) then:
 r 
2 2
1 2W K 2 4KN W
D = ρS CD0 u + q  (31)
2 ρS CD0 ρ ρS CKD0 u 2 S 2
2 2W
Simplifying:
N2
p
D= KCD0 W u2 + (32)
u2
Ordering:
N2

1 2
D= W u + 2 (33)
√2 u
2 KCD0
in other form:
N2

W 1 2
D= u + 2 (34)
Em 2 u
Finally:
N2

Em D 1
d= = u2 + 2 (35)
W 2 u
Using previous result in equation (18) we have:
N2

W 1
T− u 2 + 2 − W sin γ = 0 (36)
Em 2 u
N2

Em 1 2
T− u + 2 − Em sin γ = 0 (37)
W 2 u
N2

1
z− u 2 + 2 − Em sin γ = 0 (38)
2 u
Horizontal flight with constant velocity.

Horizontal flight of propeller aircraft.
L−W =0 (39)
T −D =0 (40)
Exercise: A propeller aircraft weighs 50 000 N and has a wing surface of

30 m2 . the reciprocating engine develops 840 KW at sea level and the com-
bination engine-propeller has an efficiency of 0.85. The polar drag is given
by CD =0.025+0.05CL2 and the maximum lift coefficient is CLmax =1.75.
Determine the minimum and maximum velocities attainable of aircraft at
sea level.
Horizontal flight with constant velocity.
Horizontal flight of turbojet aircraft.
L−W =0 (41)
T −D =0 (42)
Exercise: A turbojet aircraft weighs 45 000 N and has a wing load W/S=
1450 N/ m2 . The polar drag is given by CD =0.014+0.038CL2 . Its maxi-
mum lift coefficient is CLmax =1.5 and the thrust is T=20000 σ (σ is the
density ratio). Determine the minimum and maximum operating velocities
at sea level and at an altitude of 9000m.
Range and endurance
Cruise flight begins at the end of climb phase when the airplane has reached
the desired altitude, and cruise flight ends when the descent phase begins.
For a given amount of fuel load, the horizontal distance covered with
respect to the ground during the cruise flight is called cruise range and
does not include any distance during climb or descent. Range is very
important for commercial transport (Boeing 747, Airbus 320) as
much as military bombers (B52, B-1, Fighters).
The range will be maximum when the airplane cruises at that ve-
locity when the ratio of velocity to fuel consumed per unit of time
is maximum
The endurance is the total time that an airplane can remain in the
air for a given fuel load and is usually expressed in hours. The
endurance is an important performance measure for reconnaissance
or surveillance airplanes.
Range of a turbojet aircraft.

Kinematic equations are:
dx
=V (43)
dt
dh
=0 (44)
dt
The specific fuel consumption is the amount of fuel consumed per unit of
thrust per unit of time so that the variation in weight is given by:
dW
Ẇ = = −cT (45)
dt
where c is the specific fuel consumption, an is given in units of N/Nh. We
have assumed that for a given altitude the specific fuel consumption is a
constant, that is, its variation with the velocity is ignored, then:
dx V
=− (46)
dW cT
Range of a turbojet aircraft.

The instantaneous range dx/dW is analogous to gas mileage of a car.
Using the horizontal conditions of a flight, this can be expressed as:
dx CL V
=− (47)
dW CD cW
Let R = xf − xi denote the horizontal distance covered during the cruise,
then:
Z W1
CL 1 dW
R=− V (48)
W0 C D c W
where W0 and W1 are the initial and final weights, respectively. The weight
consumed during the cruise is:
Wf = W1 − W0 (49)
It is assumed the angle of attack is held constant throughout the cruise, so

that the aerodynamic coefficients are constants. To determine this angle
of attack and the corresponding velocity, we’ll study two special cases.
Range of a turbojet aircraft: constant altitude.
To hold the altitude at a constant value, the velocity must vary continu-
ously during the cruise to compensate the variation in weight according to
the relation:
s
2W
V = (50)
ρSCL
where W is the instantaneous weight of the airplane, then:

√ s
2 CL 2 p p
R= W0 − W1 (51)
c CD ρS
Thus for a given amount

√ of fuel load, the range is maximum when the
aerodynamic ratio CL /CD is maximum. This can be maximized.
Range of a turbojet aircraft: constant altitude.
From equation (51), we see that the range improves as altitude increases
because the density appears in the denominator. In general, the thrust
available drops with altitude so that there is an altitude where the overall
range is maximum. This altitude is called the most economical or cruise
altitude.
Range of a turbojet aircraft: constant velocity.
When the velocity is held constant, equation (48) becomes:
CL V W0 V W0
R= ln = E ln (52)
CD c W1 c W1
The equation (52) is known the Breguet range formula, here the range is
maximum when the airplane is flying at his maximum aerodynamic effi-
ciency.
VR W0
Rmax = Em ln (53)
c Wf
VR is based on initial weight that is:
s r
2W0 4 K
VR = (54)
ρS CD0
Range of a turbojet aircraft: exercise
A turbojet aircraft has the following data: W=50 000 N, CD =

0.02 + 0.04CL2 , CLmax = 1.2, S=30m2 , T=14 500 σ 0.65 N,
c=1.5σ 0.25 N/Nh, oil consumption of 1 N for every 25 N of
thrust and Wf =20 000 N.
Determine the maximum range at 9 km of altitude considering
the cases of: constant altitude and speed.
Range of propeller aircraft.

The specific fuel consumption is the amount of fuel consumed per unit
power developed by the engine by unit time, so that:
dW
= Ẇ = −cPe (55)
dt
dx dx dW
= =V (56)
dt dt dW
dx V
=− (57)
dW cPe
The power available must be equal to required power:
ηPe = VD (58)
then
dx η CL η
=− =− (59)
dW cD CD cW
Z W1
CL η dW
R = xf − xi = − (60)
W0 CD c W
If we assume the angle of attack constant throughout the cruise so that E

remains constant. Also we assume that for a given altitude η =constant,
then
η W0
R= E ln (61)
c W1
Its maximum value occurs when E = Em , that is:
η W0
Rmax = Em ln (62)
c W1
We have two cases for the speed for Rmax :

1 Constant-velocity cruise
s r
2W0 4 K
VR = (63)
ρS CD0
2 Constant=altitude cruise
s r
2W 4 K
VR = (64)
ρS CD0
Effect of wind on range.
The velocity with respect to the ground in presence of wind is given by:
dx
= V ± Vw (65)
dt
Where + refers a tailwind and - to a headwind.
E dW
dx = − (V ± Vw ) (66)
c W
Assuming both the angle of attack and the speed as constants we have:
EVw W0
Rw = R ± ln (67)
c W1
Endurance of a turbojet aircraft.
We have:
dW
= −cT (68)
dt
Assuming the angle of attack constant throughout the flight then:
E W0
t= ln
c W1
Em W0
tm = ln
c W1
The endurance improves when the aircraft flies to an altitude where the
specific fuel consumption is low.
Endurance of propeller aircraft.

For propeller aircraft we have:
dW
= −cPe (69)
dt
Z W1
η E dW
t=− (70)
c W0 V W
Assuming constant the angle of attack during the flight, E=constant:
1) The velocity is allowed to vary to compensate the decrease in weight
3/2
r
2η CL ρS 1 1
t= √ −√ (71)
c CD 2 W1 W0
3/2
The maximum endurance occurs at sea level and when CL /CD is
maximum
2) For flight at constant velocity:
ηE W0
t= ln (72)
c V W1
Estimation of cruise altitude
For tubojet aircraft is easy to find analytical solutions if we assume the

conditions:
a) The thrust varies with altitude as T = T0 σ β .
b) The specific fuel consumption (SFC) remains constant with altitude.
from the balance of forces: T=D, we have:
1/β
W0
σ= (73)
T0 E
Where we have assumed the fact: L=W0 . The corresponding altitude is

calculated from the ISA once the value of sigma is obtained.
Estimation of height gained during cruise climb.
The relations L=W and T=D are held during throughout the cruise flight.
Let σa and σb denote the densities al initial and final altitudes, then:
1
W0 = ρa V 2 SCL (74)
2
1
W1 = ρb V 2 SCL (75)
2
So that:
W1 ρb σb
= = (76)
W0 ρa σa
W1
σb = σa (77)
W0
with this values and using the ISA model is possible determine ∆h = hb −ha
Estimation of cruise altitude for propeller aircraft.

Accordingly Sadraey [2] A general relationship for the supplied or available
power and its variation with altitude:
Pa = P0 σ (78)
Pa = ηPe0 σ (79)
Where Pe0 is the power developed by the engine at sea level and η the
engine-propeller efficiency. The available thrust generated by the propeller
at some altitude is function of density ratio and the one at sea level and
must be equal to drag force:
ηPe0 σ W0
= D (80)
V L
W0 DV W0 DVe
σ= = (81)
L ηPe0 L ηPe0 σ 1/2
For cruise altitude (most economical altitude)
2/3
W0 VRe
σ= (82)
Em ηPe0
Range and endurance of a turbojet aircraft: exercise 1
A turbojet aircraft has the following data: W=50 000 N, CD =

0.02 + 0.04CL2 , CLmax = 1.2, S=30m2 , T=14 500 σ 0.65 N,
c=1.5σ 0.25 N/Nh, oil consumption of 1 N for every 25 N of
thrust and Wf =20 000 N. Determine:
a) Assuming constant the SFC, estimate the cruise altitude
b) the maximum range considering the cases of: constant
altitude and speed.
c) The endurance (maximum time) of cruise flight.
d) The reduction in range if the aircraft encounters a steady
wind of 20 m/s during the cruise.
e) The estimation of height gained during during cruise flight
at constant speed.
Range and endurance of a propeller aircraft: exercise 2
A propeller airplane weighs W=50 000 N at the beginning of

cruise flight and has a wing loading of 2000 N/m2 , CD = 0.02+
0.058CL2 . At sea level, the airplane’s engine produces a power of
750 kW at a propulsive efficiency of propeller-engine is 0.82 and
has an specific fuel consumption of 3 N/kW/hr. The available
power obeys the relation Pa = P0 σ, whereP0 is the required
power at sea level. Assume that the SFC does not change with
altitude.
a) Assuming constant the SFC, estimate the cruise altitude
b) What fuel load should the airplane carry in order to cover
a still-air range of 1500 km?
c) What fuel load should the airplane carry in order to:
remain in air during 8 h?
Cruise flight summary
Table 1: Summary of cruise flight
Aircraft Condition Maximum Range Maximum Endurance

41 √ √
W√0 − W1 Em W0
Turbojet Constant c1 C 27 3 K
2ρS c ln W1
D0
altitude
Turbojet Constant EmcVR ln W W1
0 Em W0
c ln W1
velocity
14 q
Propeller Constant ηEc m ln W W0
1
η
2c
27
CD0 K 3
ρS
2
√1 −
W1
√1
W0
altitude
Propeller Constant ηEc m ln W W0
1
ηEm W0
cVR ln W1
velocity
1/β 2/3
Turbojet: σm = TW 0
0 Em
Propeller: σ m = W0 V0
Em ηPe0
Advantages of choosing the optimized flight
A jet aircraft has the following data: W=80 000 N, CD = 0.02 + 0.098CL2 ,
CL = 0.02 + 0.08α (alpha in degs), S=33m2 , T=23 000σ 0.69 N and
c=1.9σ 0.43 N/Nh.
If the airplane cruises at an angle of attack of 5 deg, determine the per-
cent change in fuel consumption compared to the minimum possible fuel
consumption to cover a range of 2 000 km at the most economical altitude
(which needs to be calculated). Assume that the pilot constantly monitors
the speed to prevent the aircraft from gaining altitude.
Climbing and gliding flight.
T − D − W sin γ = 0 (83)
L − W cos γ = 0 (84)
N2

1
sin γ = 2z − u 2 + (85)
2Em u2
N2

1
uy = u sin γ = 2zu − u 3 + (86)
2Em u
Climbing and gliding flight.
γ << 1 (87)
N≈1 (88)
z −1
γmax = (89)
Em

1 3 1
máx(uy ) = máx(u sin γ) ≈ 2zum − um + (90)
2Em um
s √
z ± z2 + 3
um = (91)
3
Gliding flight.
Problem: A glider weighing 5000 N and having an elliptical wing

(e=1) with an area of 10 m2 is required mantain a gliding angle of
3 0 at a forward speed of 50 m/s. Assuming CD0 =0.015, find the
aspect ratio of the glider.
Gliding flight.
Problem: A glider weighing 5000 N and having an elliptical wing

(e=1) with an area of 10 m2 is required mantain a gliding angle of
3 0 at a forward speed of 50 m/s. Assuming CD0 =0.015, find the
aspect ratio of the glider.
Problem: A glider having a weigh of W=2000 N, a surface 8 m2 ,
an aspect ratio of A=16, a coefficient e=0.95 and a parasit drag
coefficient CD0 =0.015 is launched from a height of 300 m. Determine
the maximum range, corresponding glide angle, the forward velocity
and the lift coefficient at sea level.
Turn flight on inclined plane

Turn flight on inclined plane
For turn flight we’ll follow the reference of Pamadi ([3]): Along the flight
path:
T cos β − D − W sin γ = 0 (92)
Along the principal normal:
L cos µ − W cos γ = 0 (93)
Along the binormal
WV 2 cos2 γ
T sin β + L sin µ − =0 (94)
gR
where µ is the bank angle, β is the sideslip angle, γ is the flight path angle
and R is the radius of turn.
Turning flight in a horizontal plane.

Let us consider a steady turning flight in a horizontal plane, that is, γ =
0. For simplicity let us consider null the variation in weight due to fuel
consumption:
T cos β − D = 0 (95)
L cos µ − W = 0 (96)
2
WV
T sin β + L sin µ − =0 (97)
gR
Where the load factor is:
L 1
N= = (98)
W cos µ
then, the flight velocity is given by:
s
2W
V = (99)
ρSCL cos µ
For turning flight, the load factor depends on bank angle. The higher the
bank angle, the higher the load factor that will be developed in turn.
Turning flight in a horizontal plane.

From equations (96) and (97) we get:
V2 T sin β
tan µ = − (100)
gR W
the radius and the rate of turn:
V2 2NW
R = = (101)
T sin β T sin β
g tan µ + W ρgSCL tan µ + W

T sin β
V g tan µ + W

T sin β
r
ρCL S
ω= = =g tan µ + (102)
R V W 2NW
The time to complete a turn of 2π radians is given by:
s
2π 2NW
t2π = (103)
g tan µ + T sin β ρSCL
W
It is observed the aircrafts with smaller wing loading W/S will have higher turn rates and lower
radius of turn. We observe the sideslip helps the turning flight because of the availability of a thrust
component T sin β which provides a part of centripetal force. However this benefit may be slightly
offset because of the additional drag experienced by the aircraft.
Coordinated turning flight in horizontal plane.

By coordinated turn we mean the sideslip is zero and the aircraft is correctly
banked so that the lift vector is tilted away from the plane of symmetry to
provide all rhe centripetal force; for this assumption, β=0:
T −D =0 (104)
L cos µ − W = 0 (105)
2
WV
L sin µ − =0 (106)
gR
then:
1
N= (107)
cos µ
s
2NW
V = (108)
ρSCL
V2
tan µ = (109)
Rg
V2 V2
R= = √ (110)
g tan µ g N2 − 1
√
V g tan µ g N2 − 1
ω= = = (111)
R V V
2π 2πV
t2π = = (112)
ω g tan µ
For turning performance improves with increase in load factor N. the load
factor is a measure of the stress to which both the aircraft and the pilot
are subjected. A load factor of 2 means the aircraft structure and the pilot
are stressed twice as much as in steady horizontal flight with a load factor
of N=1. For transport airplanes, the value of limiting load factor is around
Nlim ≈2.5 whereas for fighter aircraft, it can be as high as Nlim ≈9.
However, for most of cases, the load factor in fight aircraft becomes more
of a limitation for pilot rather than the machine is flying. As load factor
increases, the pilot experiences what is called blackout or greyout caused
by the blood draining away from his brain, then he loses color perception.
With further increase in load factor, he will experience loss of peripheral
vision and tunnel. Because an attacking pilot must be in total control of
his physical and mental faculties, he may no actually able to stress the
machine to its limiting value if it is as high as 9. He could be unconscious
by the time he is pulling 6g or 7g.
A fighter aircraft should be designed to have a high structural limit fac-
tor. For air superiority, a fighter aircraft should have the highest
possible rate of turn and a lowest possible radius of turn. The per-
formance must be subjected to structural limit load factor Nlim and
to aerodynamic limitation CLmax
Maximun Sustained Turn Rate, MSTR
The turning performance is a one important metric of air superiority of the fighter
aircraft. The maximum rate of turn is called the Maximun Sustained Turn Rate,
MSTR. From equation (109) we have:
√
V g tan µ g N2 − 1
ω= = = (113)
R V V
for MTSR,
dω dN
VN dV − (N 2 − 1)
=g √ (114)
dV V 2 N2 − 1
V dN 2
− (N 2 − 1) = 0 (115)
2 dV
dN 2
Where the value of dV
can be obtained from (104) where we have uses as
reference velocity: s r
2W 4 K
VR = (116)
ρS CD0
Turning flight of propeller aircraft: Maximun Sustained

Turn Rate, MSTR
N2

1 2
zu = u + 2 u (117)
2 u
For propeller aircraft we have uz=p, the supplied power is independent of
flight speed, then:
N2
2p = u 3 + (118)
u
Where
N 2 = 2pu − u 4 (119)
and therefore:
dN 2
= 2p − 4u 3 (120)
du
So that, the condition (115) becomes:
4u 4 − 2pu + 2 N 2 − 1 = 0

(121)
Turning flight of propeller aircraft: Maximun Sustained

Turn Rate, MSTR.
From previous expression by substituting again the load factor N 2 = 2pu −
u4
u 4 + pu − 1 = 0 (122)
therefore the speed that maximizes the rate of turn is a solution of expres-
sion (122), which we call uM .
The maximum rate of turn is then:
p
g NM 2 −1
g tan µM
ωmax = = (123)
VR uM VR uM
And the radius of turn for the maximum rate of turn:
V 2 u2
RM = pR M (124)
g NM 2 −1
Turning flight of propeller aircraft: Sharpest Sustained

Turn, SST
V2
R= √ (125)
g N2 − 1
Taking the derivatives:
√ dN 2
dR 2 N 2 − 1V − V 2 2√NdV2 −1
= =0 (126)
dV g (N 2 − 1)
where
dN 2
= 2p − 4u 3 (127)
du
Then, the speed which gives the sharpest sustained turn is obtained from:
4u 4 − 2pu + 4 N 2 − 1 = 0

(128)
Replacing the corresponding value of N 2 , we found:
6pu − 4 = 0 (129)
Turning flight of propeller aircraft: Sharpest Sustained

Turn, SST.
2
where the speed that minimizes the radius of turn uSST = uRmin = 3p and
the load factor for the SST:
4
2 4 4 2
NSST = NRmin = 2puRmin − uRmin = − (130)
3 3p
then, the rate of turn for the sharpest sustained turn:
p s 4
2
g NRmin −1
g tan µRmin 3pg 1 2
ωSST = ωRmin = = = −
VR uRmin VR uRmin 2VR 3 3p
(131)
Turning flight of propeller aircraft: Maximum load factor,

Nmax
From load factor expression:
dN 2
= 2p − 4u 3 (132)
du
The speed for maximum load factor
r
3
p
uNmax = (133)
2
and therefore the maximum load factor developed by the propeller aircraft:
p
Nmax = p 2/3 22/3 − 2−4/3 (134)
Example of turning flight of propeller aircraft.

A propeller airplane weights 50000 N and has a wing area of S= 30
m2 , structural limit factor Nlim =2.5 and the maximum lift coefficient of
CLmax =1.75. The polar polar drag of aircraft is given by CD = 0.025 +
0.050CL2 . The reciprocating engine produces 840 KW at sea level and the
propulsive efficiency of the propeller-engine combination is 0.85. Deter-
mine velocity, radius of turn, turn rate, load factor, aerodynamic efficiency
and lift coefficient for the:
Maximum Sustained Turn Rate (MSTR).
Sharpest Sustained Turn (SST).
Maximum load factor.
A propeller airplane weights 40000 N and has a wing area of S= 25

m2 , structural limit factor Nlim =3.0 and the maximum lift coefficient of
CLmax =1.45. The polar polar drag of aircraft is given by CD = 0.021 +
0.045CL2 . The reciprocating engine produces 900 KW at sea level and the
propulsive efficiency of the propeller-engine combination is 0.82. At sea
level, determine velocity, radius of turn, turn rate, load factor, aerodynamic
efficiency and lift coefficient for the:
Maximum Sustained Turn Rate (MSTR).
Sharpest Sustained Turn (SST).
Maximum load factor.
Figure 10: Lift coefficient versus velocity and the limit lift coefficient for revised
example
Figure 11: Turn of rate versus velocity for revised example

Figure 12: Radius of turn versus velocity for revised example

Figure 13: Load factor versus velocity for revised problem.

Turning flight of turbojet aircraft: Maximum Sustained

Turn Rate, MSTR
For turbojet aircraft the thrust is independent from flight speed, so that,
analytical solutions are available:
N2

W 2
T− u + 2 =0 (135)
2Em u
or
u 4 − 2zu 2 + N 2 = 0 (136)
And the load factor is:
p
N= 2zu 2 − u 4 (137)
Turning flight for turbojet aircraft: Maximum Sustained

Turn Rate, MSTR
√ √
V g tan µ g N2 − 1 g 2zu 2 − u 4 − 1
ω= = = = (138)
R V V VR u
Written in the following form:
2
VR 1
ω = 2z − u 2 − 2 (139)
g u
which gives for the MSTR:
2
VR dω 2
2 ω = −2u + 3 = 0 (140)
g du u
Then the MSTR occurs when u = 1. As a consequence:
√
NMSTR = 2z − 1 (141)
and the MSTR is:
g p
MSTR = ωmax = 2(z − 1) (142)
VR
Turning flight for turbojet aircraft: Maximum Sustained

Turn Rate, MSTR.
The lift coefficient can be obtained by using the dimensionless form of drag
force including the ratio for parasit and induced drag:
KCL2 N2
= 4 = N 2 = 2z − 1 (143)
CD0 u
r r
(2z − 1)CD0 √ CD0
CL = = 2z − 1 (144)
K K
√
We have assumed that N = 2z − 1 ≤ Nlim and CL ≤ CLmax . If these
two conditions are not satisfied, the aircraft won’t be capable of producing
the MSTR ωmax . With u=1, the flight speed and the radius of turn are:
s r
2W 4 K
VMSTR = (145)
ρS CD0
s
V2 V2 2W K
RMSTR = = √ = (146)
g tan µ g N −12 g ρS 2(z − 1)CD0
Turning flight for turbojet aircraft: Sharpest Sustained

Turn, SST.
Remembering the expression for radius of turn and load factor, we have:
V2
2
VR u2
R= √ = √ (147)
g N2 − 1 g 2zu 2 − u 4 − 1
By differentiation with respect to u:
2 2u √2zu 2 − u 4 − 1 − u√2 (4zu−4u3 )
dR VR 2 2zu 2 −u 4 −1
= (148)
du g 2zu 2 − u 4 − 1
the solution is uSST = √1 , and the minimum radius of turn is:
z
1
VR2 2
VR2

uSST z
Rmin = p = q (149)
g 2 4
2zuSST − uSST −1 g 2z z1 − 1
−1
z2
VR2

1
Rmin = √ (150)
g z2−1
Turning flight for turbojet aircraft: Sharpest Sustained

Turn, SST.
The rate of turn and the load factor for the SST:
VR √1z
r
VSST VR2 g z2 − 1
ωSST = = = √ = (151)
Rmin Rmin g z2 − 1 VR z
r
1 1p 2
q
2 4
NSST = 2zuSST − uSST = 2 − 2 = 2z − 1 (152)
z z
For lift coefficient:
1 2
KCL2 N2 N2 z 2 (2z − 1)
= 4 = 1 = 1 = 2z 2 − 1 (153)
CD0 uSST z2 z2
r r
(2z 2 − 1)CD0 p CD0
CL = = 2z 2 − 1 (154)
K K
√
Here again it is presumed that N = 2z 2 − 1 ≤ Nlim and CL ≤ CLmax . If
not, the aircraft cannot achieve the predicted Rmin .
Turning flight for turbojet aircraft: Maximum load factor,

Nmax .
N 2 = 2zu 2 − u 4 (155)
dN
2N = 4zu − 4u 3 = 0 (156)
du
√
The solution is u = z, and the maximum load factor is:
Nmax = z (157)
Once more Nmax ≤ Nlim , and this implies:
Nlim W
T ≤ (158)
Em
In other words, the thrust is limited by the structural limit load. The speed
for this performance is then:
s r
√

TEm 2W 4 K
VNmax = VR z = (159)
W ρS CD0

Nmax .
Including Em = √1 , the expression is simplified:
2 KCD0
s
T
VNmax = (160)
ρSCD0
The lift coefficient:

KCL2 N2 z2
= 4 = 2 =1 (161)
CD0 uNmax z
that is: r
K
CL = (162)
CD0
Also the following restriction has to be taken into account: CL ≤ CLmax
L Nmax W
CL = 1 2
= 1 2
(163)
2 ρSV 2 ρSV

Nmax .
In other words, for a coordinated turn in a horizontal plane with maximum

load factor, the aircraft is operating at maximum aerodynamic efficiency
or minimum drag. In addition, the expressions for the radius of turn and
the rate of turn are given for this condition:
V2 V 2z
RNmax = = √R (164)
g tan µ g z2 − 1
√ r
VNmax VR z g z2 − 1
ωNmax = = V 2z = (165)
RNmax √R VR z
g z 2 −1
Turning flight for turbojet aircraft.

A turbojet aircraft flies to sea level weighs 50 000 N and has a wing
area of 34 m2 , structural limit load factor of Nlim=2.50 and a maximum
lift coefficient of 2.20. the drag polar of the aircraft is given by CD =
0.020 + 0.040CL2 . The engine produces a thrust of 6000 N. Determine the
following parameters of performance:
a) The dimensionless velocity for the Maximum Sustained Turn Rate
(MSTR).
b) The Maximum Sustained Turn Rate (MSTR).
c) The radius of turn for the Maximum Sustained Turn Rate (MSTR).
d) The load factor for the Maximum Sustained Turn Rate (MSTR).
e) The lift coefficient for the Maximum Sustained Turn Rate (MSTR)
f) The aerodynamic efficiency for the Maximum Sustained Turn Rate
(MSTR)
g) The dimensionless velocity for the Sharpest Sustained Turn (SST).
h) The Sharpest Sustained Turn (SST).
i) The rate of turn for the Sharpest Sustained Turn (SST).
Turning flight for turbojet aircraft.
j) The load factor for the Sharpest Sustained Turn (SST).

k) The lift coefficient for the Sharpest Sustained Turn (SST).
l) The aerodynamic efficiency for the Sharpest Sustained Turn (SST).
m) The dimensionless velocity for the maximum load factor.
n) The rate of turn for the maximum load factor.
o) The radius of turn for the maximum load factor.
p) The maximum load factor.
q) The lift coefficient for the maximum load factor.
r) The aerodynamic efficiency for the maximum load factor.
A turbojet aircraft flying at 9 km weighs 60 000 N and has a wing area

of 44 m2 , structural limit load factor of Nlim=2.50 and a maximum lift
coefficient of 2.20. the drag polar of the aircraft is given by CD = 0.020 +
0.060CL2 . The engine produces a thrust of T=19 000 σ 0.65 N. Determine
the following parameters of performance:
Table 2: Aircraft performance
Variable Nmax SST MSTR

V (m/s)
ω (deg/s)
R (ft)
N
CL
E
µ (rad)
Takeoff
Consist of the following steeps:

1) With engines producing maximum power/thrust, the aircraft is accel-
erated from rest to the takeoff speed.
2) On reaching the takeoff speed, the aircraft is rotated noseup so that
the angle of attack increases to generate sufficient lift or liftoff.
3) the aircraft starts climbing to clear the specified obstacle height (hobs
The takeoff phase is said to be complete once the aircraft clears his pre-
scribed obstacle height.
Takeoff
Fa = T − D − µ(W − L) (166)
Accelerating force during ground run.
W dV W dV
Fa = ma = = V (167)
g dt g ds
Wd(V 2 )
ds = (168)
2gFa
Assuming that the net accelerating force, Fa varies as the square of the
velocity, we have

F1 − F 0
Fa = F0 + V2 (169)
V12
Where V1 is the velocity at liftoff and
F0 = T − µW (170)
F1 = T − D (171)
µ is the friction coefficient between the wheels and the runway. For con-
crete runways, µ typically ranges from 0.02 to 0.05.
Takeoff
Then from equation (168):
s1 V1
dV 2
Z Z
W
ds = (172)
0 2g 0 F0 + F1V−F
2
0
V2
1
V12

W F0
s1 = ln (173)
2g F0 − F1 F1
The liftoff or the takeoff velocity is usually equal to 1.2Vstall . To minimize

the ground run s1 we have to maximize the the value of the net accelerating
force. One of the parameters that can be adjusted to be optimized the
take ground run is the angle of attack, then from equation (166):
dFa dD dL
=− +µ =0 (174)
dCL dCL dCL
µ
CL = CL∗ = (175)
2k
Takeoff
where CL∗ denotes the value of lift coefficient when Fa is maximum, then:
V12

W F0
s1,min = ln ∗ (176)
2g F0 − F1 F1
Where
F1∗ = T − qS(CD0 + kCL∗2 ) (177)
an alternative of minimizing the ground run is to deploy high level devices

for takeoff. The use of high-lift devices increases the value of CLmax , and
reduces the value of takeoff speed V1 but the benefit is partially offset
because an increase in drag.
Time for Takeoff

Previously we had seen:
W dV
Fa = (178)
g dt
then:
WdV
dt = (179)
gFa
Let
F1 − F 0
a = F0 , b= (180)
V12
so that
Fa = a + bV 2 (181)
and
WdV
dt = (182)
g (a + bV 2 )
Takeoff
Z V1
WdV
t1 = (183)
0 g (a + bV 2 )
Then
r
W b
t1 = √ arctan V1 , a > 0, b > 0 (184)
g ab a
√ √
W a + b 0 V1
t1 = √ ln √ √ , a > 0, b < 0 b 0 = −b (185)
2g ab 0 a − b 0 V1
Here, we have assumed there is no wind during the ground run. If the
aircraft operates in the presence of wind, headwind improves takeoff per-
formance, whereas tailwind degrades it.
Takeoff: Estimation of airborne distance and time.

During the airbone phase, the aircraft is in accelerated climb:
W dV
T − D − W sin γ = (186)
g dt
W dγ WV 2
L − W cos γ = V = (187)
g dt Rg
For accurate estimation of the airborne distance s2 , we have to solve the
above differential equations. However a simple and approximate estimation
of the airborne distance s2 and the corresponding time t2 can be done by
assuming the flight path angle γ is constant during the airborne phase.
hobst
s2 = (188)
tan γ
s2
t2 = (189)
V1 cos γ

T −D
sin γ = (190)
W V =V1
Landing
Consist of the following steeps:

1) a steady shallow glide approach to the runway holding a constant
glide angle γ.
2) a flare during which the aircraft is rotated noseup so as to
momentarily achieve a level flight condition and to further minimize
the rate of sink.
3) a touchdown prior to which the pilot may momentarily stall de
airplane
4) the ground run during which the full reverse thrust, spoilers or drag
parachutes and brakes are applied to produce minimum retardation
and bring the aircraft to complete halt.
Landing
Landing: Estimation of airborne distance and time.

Assuming constant the angle and velocity during the final approach:
hobst
s1 = (191)
tan γ
s1
t1 = (192)
VA cos γ
(193)
The approach speed VA is usually equal to 1.3Vstall . Furthermore, we

assume the segment BC of the flare can be approximated by an circular
arc. Let R be the radius of this arc. note ∠BOC = γ
WV 2
L − W cos γ = (194)
Rg
T − D − W sin γ = 0 (195)
T −D
sin γ = (196)
W
Landing: Estimation of airborne distance and time.

Assuming γ to be small, we obtain:
WV 2
R= (197)
g (L − W )
Assuming that the velocity remains constant on the arc BC and is equal
to VA and CL = CLmax
1 1 2
L = ρVA2 SCLmax = ρ (1.3Vstall ) SCLmax (198)
2 2
1 2
L = 1.69 ρV SCLmax = 1.69W (199)
2 stall
then (197) becomes:
VA2
R= (200)
0, 69g
therefore:
1
s2 ≈ Rγ (201)
2
Landing: Estimation of landing ground run.
The forces acting on the aircraft during the landing ground run are:
Fa = TR + D + µ(W − L) (202)
TR is the reverse thrust.
Landing: Estimation of landing ground run.
W dV
Fa = − V (203)
g ds
Wd(V 2 )
ds = − (204)
2gFa
As before, the net retarding force varies as the square of the velocity:

F1 − F 0
Fa = F0 + V2 (205)
V12
where V1 is the touchdown velocity, approximately equal to VA .

Estimation of landing ground run.
s3 0
dV 2
Z Z
W
ds = − (206)
0 2g F0 + F1V−F
V1 2
0
V2
1
V12

W F1
s3 = ln (207)
2g F1 − F0 F0
where F1 = TR + D and F0 = TR + µW .
Estimation of landing ground run time:: case I.
W dV
= −Fa
g dt
WdV WdV WdV
dt = − =− h i =−
gFa g F0 + F1V−F2
0
V2 g (a + bV 2 )
1
Z t3 Z 0 Z V1
WdV WdV
dt = − 2)
=
0 V1 g (a + bV 0 g (a + bV 2 )
r
W b
t3 = √ arctan V1 a > 0, b > 0.
g ab a
Estimation of landing ground run time: Case II.
W dV
= −Fa a > 0, b < 0 b 0 = −b
g dt
Z V1 Z V1
WdV WdV
t3 = √ √
= √ √
0 g (a − b 0 V 2 )
0 g ( a + b V )( a − b 0 V )
0
Z V1 Z V1
WdV WdV
t3 = √ √ √ + √ √ √
2g a( a + b V ) 0 2g a( a − b 0 V )
0 0
√ V =V1 √ V =V1
W √ W √
t3 = √ ln( a + b 0 V ) − √ ln( a − b 0 V )
2g ab 0 0 2g ab 0
√ √0
W a + b 0 V1
t3 = √ ln √ √
2g ab 0 a − b 0 V1
Takeoff exercise
A certain jet aircraft has the following data: W= 50 000 N, T= 14 500
N, CD = 0.02 + 0.04CL2 , CLmax =1.2 and S=30 m2 . Assuming an obstacle
height of 15 m and µ=0.05, calculate the total takeoff distance and time
to sea level.
Solution
Lift coefficient that minimizes the ground run:
µ 0.05
CL = = = 0.625
2K 2(0.04)
s s
2W 2(50000)
Vstall = = = 47.619m/s
ρSCLmax (1.225)(30)(1.2)
V1 = 1.2Vstall = 57.143m/s
Drag coefficient
CD = CD0 + KCL2 = 0.02 + (0.04)(0.625)2 = 0.0356
Drag force:
1 2
D= ρV SCD = 0.5(1.225)(57.143)2 (30)(0.0356) = 2136N
2 1
Solution
F0 = T − µW = 14500 − 0.05(50000) = 12000N

F1 = T − D = 14500 − 2136 = 12364N
Time for ground run:
a = F0 = 12000 > 0
F1 − F0 12364 − 12000
b= = = 0.111 > 0
V12 57.1432
r
W b
t1 = √ arctan V1 = 23.9s
g ab a
Ground run distance:
W V12 F1
s1 = ln = 684.1m
2g F1 − F0 F0
Takeoff exercise
A certain jet aircraft has the following data: W= 70 000 N, T= 29 000
N, CD = 0.05 + 0.08CL2 , CLmax =2.4 and S=40 m2 . Assuming an obstacle
height of 15 m and µ=0.019, calculate the total takeoff distance and time
at an altitude of 5000 m.
Landing exercise 1
A light combat aircraft weighs 78 480 N and has a wing area of 25 m2 ,
lift-curve slope of 0.06 per deg, CLmax =0.95, and CD =0.0254+0.178CL2 .
This aircraft is required lo land at an airstrip at an altitude of 1 000 m.
Assuming that the friction coefficient between the tires and the runway is
equal to 0.02 and approach glide angle is 3.5 deg, estimate:
1. airborne distance (including flare).
2. airborne distance including ground run.
Assume an obstacle of 15 m, that the flaps are lowered at touchdown and
give an increase in CLmax of 0.45 and an increase on CD of 0.05. Further
assume that the brakes are applied simultaneously giving an increment in
frictional coefficient of 0.4
Landing exercise. Airborne
s s
2W 2(78480)
Vstall = = = 77.11m/s (208)
ρSCLmax (0.9074)(1.225)(25)(0.95)
Approach velocity:
V1 = 1.3Vstall = 100.24m/s (209)
Curvature radius:
V12
R= = 1484.43m (210)
0.69g
Lift force:
L = 1.69W = 132631N (211)
Landing exercise. Airborne
Airborne distance s1 :
hobs 15m
s1 = = = 245.25m (212)
tan γ tan 3.50
Airborne distance s2 :
1
S2 = Rγ = 45.34m (213)
2
Total airborne
s1 + s2 = 290.59 (214)
Landing exercise. Ground Run

Lift coefficient
µ 0.02
CL = = = 0.056 (215)
2K (2)(0.178)
Drag coefficient:
CD = CD0 + KCL2 = 0.0254 + 0.178(0.056)2 = 0.02596 (216)
Increased drag coefficients due deflected flaps
CD∗ = CD + ∆CD = 0.02596 + 0.05 = 0.07596 (217)
Increased lift coefficient due to deflected flaps

∗
CLmax = CLmax + ∆CL = 0.95 + 0.45 = 1.4 (218)
Increased drag force due to deflected flaps:

1 2 ∗
D∗ = ρV SC = (0.5)(0.9074)(1.225)(100.24)2 (0.07596)(25) = 10605N
2 1 D
(219)

New stall speed:
s s
2W 2(78480)
Vstall = ∗ = = 63.52m/s (220)
ρSCLmax (0.9074)(1.225)(25)(1.4)
New lift force with minimum ground run (lift coefficient)
1 2
L∗ = ρV SCL = (0.5)(0.9074)(1.225)(63.52)2 (25)(0.056) = 3149N
2 stall
(221)
Normal force
FN = W − L∗ = 78480 − 3149 = 75331N (222)
Reversed thrust provided by the breaks
Tr = µr FN = (0.4)(75331) = 30132N (223)
Parameters
F0 = Tr + µW = 31702N F1 = Tr + D ∗ = 40737N (224)
V12 100.242

W F1 78480 40737
s3 = ln = ln = 1115m
2g F1 − F 0 F0 2(9.81) 40737 − 31702 31702
(225)
Figure 16: Landing scheme.
sT = s1 + s2 + s3 = 1406m (226)
Landing exercise 2
A light combat aircraft weighs 78 480 N and has a wing area of 25 m2 ,

lift-curve slope of 0.06 per deg, CLmax =2.1, and CD =0.025+0.05CL2 . This
aircraft is required lo land at an airstrip at an altitude of 0 m. Assuming
that the friction coefficient between the tires and the runway is equal to
0.11 and approach glide angle is 5 deg, estimate:
1. Total distance.
2. Total time.
Assume an obstacle of 55 m, that the flaps are lowered at touchdown and
give an increase in CLmax of 0.45 and an increase on CD of 0.05. Further
assume that the brakes are applied simultaneously giving an increment in
frictional coefficient of 0.4
Stability.
Static stability
Stability.
Static and Dynamic stability

Stability.
Static Stability
Static stability is the initial tendency of the vehicle to return to its equilib-
rium state after a disturbance. If we are to have a stable equilibrium point,
the vehicle must develop a restoring force or moment to bring it back to
the equilibrium condition.
Figure 17: Stability configurations

Stability.
Static Stability.
Figure 18: Aircraft stability in terms of its moment plot.

Stability.
Static stability.
It is evident the stability condition is that the slope moment plot with
respect to attack angle has to be negative.
dCM
<0 (227)
dα
To which is included the condition of a positive intercept with vertical axis,
that is:
CM0 > 0 (228)

Stability.
Static Stability: wing contribution.

We have hitherto only considered the pitch moment curve of complete
aircraft. However is of interest for aircraft designers to know the contribu-
tion of wing, tail, fuselage, propulsion systems and other elements to pitch
moment of aircraft. First, the wing’s contribution is analysed:
Figure 19: Wing Contribution.

Stability.
Xac Distance from leading edge to aerodynamic center.

Stability.

Xcg Distance from leading edge to gravity center.
Stability.

Zcg Vertical displacement of gravity center with respect to
aerodynamic center.
Stability.

aerodynamic center.
iw Angle between the mean aerodynamic chord and fuselage
reference line (FRL). This is the angle at which the wing is mounted
onto the fuselage.
Stability.

aerodynamic center.
iw Angle between the mean aerodynamic chord and fuselage
reference line (FRL). This is the angle at which the wing is mounted
onto the fuselage.
αFRL Angle between the wind with the FRL.
From graph (19) we can see:
αFRL = αw − iw (229)
Stability.
Taking the moments with respect to center of gravity:
Mcgw = Lw [Xcg − Xca ] cos αFRL + Dw [Xcg − Xca ] sin αFRL
+Lw Zcg sin αFRL − Dw Zcg cos αFRL + Mcaw (230)

Stability.
Taking the moments with respect to center of gravity:
Mcgw = Lw [Xcg − Xca ] cos αFRL + Dw [Xcg − Xca ] sin αFRL
+Lw Zcg sin αFRL − Dw Zcg cos αFRL + Mcaw (230)
Dividing by qw Sw c̄ due the force and moment are: F = qSCF and

M = qS c̄CM

Xcg Xca Xcg Xca
CMcgw = CLw − cos αFRL + CDw − sin αFRL
c̄ c̄ c̄ c̄
Zcg Zcg
+CLw sin αFRL − CDw cos αFRL + CMcaw (231)
c̄ c̄
Stability.

If we assume small the angle αFRL and the distance Zcg , in addition
CDw << CLw , then:
CMcgw = CMcaw + CLw (xcg − xac ) (232)

Stability.

CDw << CLw , then:
Also including the general form of CL vs α:
CLw = CL0w + CLαw αw (233)
CMcgw = CMcaw + CL0w (xcg − xac ) + CLαw (xcg − xac ) αw (234)

Stability.

CDw << CLw , then:
Also including the general form of CL vs α:
CLw = CL0w + CLαw αw (233)
CMcgw = CMcaw + CL0w (xcg − xac ) + CLαw (xcg − xac ) αw (234)

That may be expressed as:
CM = CM0 + CMαw αw (235)
where:
CM0w = CMcaw + CL0w (xcg − xac ) (236)

CMαw = CLαw (xcg − xac ) (237)
Stability.
For a wing-alone design to be statically stable, the equation (237)

tell us that the aerodynamic center must lie aft the center of gravity
in order to make CMαw < 0. Since we also want to be able to trim
the aircraft to a positive angle of attack, the pitching moment at
zero angle of attack CM0 , must be CM0 > 0.
A positive pitching moment about the aerodynamic center can be achieved
using a negative-cambered airfoil section or an airfoil section that has
reflexed trailing egde.
For many airplanes, the center of gravity position is located slightly aft
the aerodynamic center. Also the wing is normally constructed of airfoil
profiles having a positive camber. Therefore, the wing contribution to
static longitudinal static stability is destabilizing for most conventional
airplanes.
Stability.
Static Stability: Tail contribution.

The horizontal tail can be located either forward or aft the wing. When it
is located forward to the wing, the surface is called canard. The canard is
affected by the upwash flow from the wing, whereas the aft tail is subjected
to the downwash flow. The flow for aft tail is described by the Figure (20)
Figure 20: Flow regions from aft tail aircraft.

Stability.

Tail provides some lift, however his major contribution is stabilize the com-
plete aircraft due to its moment contribution. ht
Figure 21: Contribution of aft tail pitch moment.
αt = αFRL − ( − it ) (238)
Stability.

By assuming the angles small and neglecting the contributions of drag
force in the tail, the total lift is given by:
L = Lw + Lt (239)
qSCL = qSCLw + qt St CLt (240)
Where Lw > Lt
St
CL = CLw + η CL (241)
S t
and
1 2
qt 2 ρVt
η= = 1 2
(242)
q 2 ρVw
η is the tail efficiency y it has values 0.8< η <1.2. If the aft tail is located in the wake region of
the wing or fuselage, η is less than unity due to momentum loss in the wake. On the other hand, if
the tail is located in either the slip stream of propeller or in the exhaust wake of a jet engine.
Stability.

Tail’s contribution is obtained by summing moments about center of grav-
ity:
X
Mcgt = −lt [Lt cos (αFRL − ) + Dt sin (αFRL − )]
−Zcgt [Dt cos (αFRL − ) − Lt sin (αFRL − )] + Mcat (243)

X
Mcgt = qS c̄CMcgt (244)
Lt = qt St CLt (245)
Dt = qt St CDt (246)

qt St qt St
CMcgt = −lt CLt cos (αFRL − ) + CDt sin (αFRL − )
qS c̄ qS c̄

qt St qt St
−Zcgt CDt cos (αFRL − ) − CLt sin (αFRL − ) + CMcat
qS c̄ qS c̄
(247)
Stability.
If we assume αFRL − and Zcgt are small, CDt << CLt and the tail is a
symmetric airfoil
lt St
ηCLt = −VH ηCLt
CMcgt = − (248)
S c̄
where VH is the horizontal tail volume ratio
The lift coefficient at the tail can be written:
CLt = CLαt (αw − iw − + it ) (249)

where CLαt is the slope of the tail lift curve. The downwash angle can be
expressed as:
∂
= 0w + αw + ...+ (250)
∂αw
Come back to neutral point
Stability.
Where the effects of the wing are included. 0 is the downwash to zero
angle of attack. The downwash behind a wing with elliptic lift distribution
can be derived from the finite-wing theory and shown to be related to the
wing lift coefficient and aspect ratio through induced angle of attack, αi :
w
tan αi = (251)
V
w
αi ≈ (252)
V
CLw
αi ≈ (253)
πAw e
Stability.

Where Aw is the wing aspect ratio, w is the vertical velocity due to the wing
interference and e is the Oswald coefficient. As seen previously, deflection
in air stream behind the leading edge of the wing is 2w (See deflection ),
then the downwash in the tail can be determined with:
2CLw
2αi ≈ (254)
πAw e
2CLw
= 2αi = (255)
πAw e
2CL0w
0w = (256)
πAw e
∂ 2 ∂CLw 2
= = CL (257)
∂αw πAw e ∂αw πAw e αw
Therefore, the moment contribution of the tail (248) becomes:

∂
CMcgt = −VH ηCLt = −VH ηCLαt αw − iw − 0 − αw + it (258)
∂αw
Stability.

∂
CMcgt = VH ηCLαt (0 + iw − it ) − VH ηCLαt 1− αw (259)
∂αw
which includes the intercept and slope terms:
CM0t = VH ηCLαt (0 + iw − it ) (260)

∂
CMαt = −VH ηCLαt 1 − (261)
∂αw
The tail contribution of CM0t can be used to ensure the CM0 of the com-
plete aircraft is positive. This can be accomplished by adjusting the tail
incidence angle it . Note that we would want mount the tail plane at a
negative angle of incidence to the FRL line to increase CM0t due to the
tail. The tail contribution to the aircraft static stability can be controlled
by proper selection of VH and CLαt . The contribution of CMαt will become
more negative by increasing the tail moment arm lt or tail surface area St
and by increasing CLαt .
Stability.
Static Stability: fuselage contribution.

Generally, the fuselage contribution is quite significant and is of destabi-
lizing nature. The destabilizing pitching moment varies linearly with the
angle of attack:

∂M
= 2(k2 − k1 )qVf (262)
∂α f
Where Vf is the volume of the fuselage, k2 − k1 is the apparent mass
constant which depends on body fineness ratio (lf /bfmax ) as shown in
figure (23)
Figure 22: Ideal flow around a fuselage

Stability.
Figure 23: Aparent mass constant vs Fineness ratio
Regresar come-back
Stability.
It is possible to write the equation (262) in terms of coefficients and the

volume as the volume generated by a revolution surface:
lf
πbf2
Z
∂CM
qS c̄ = 2(k2 − k1 )q dx
∂α f 0 4
lf
π(k2 − k1 )
Z
∂CM
= bf2 dx (263)
∂α f 2S c̄ 0
Where bf is the local diameter, lf is the fuselage length, S is the wing area
and c̄ is the MAC.
Stability.

For isolated fuselage (no wing), the local angle of attack αf would be
constant along the entire length and equal to α. However, in the presence
of wing the local angle of attack varies as shown in Fig (24), showing an
upwash in front of the wing leading edge and an downwash behind the the
wing tailing edge unlike in the wing location where the flow is parallel to
the wing chord so that αf =0. to include this induced effects a modification
mus be included in the expression (262):
π(k2 − k1 ) lf 2
Z
∂CM ∂u
= bf 1 + dx (264)
∂α f 2S c̄ 0 ∂α
Stability.

Due to a complex form in the fuselage, it is calculated numerically as:
lf
∂CM π(k2 − k1 ) X 2 ∂u
= bf 1 + ∆x (265)
∂α f 2S c̄ x=0
∂α
where u is the upwash or downwash induced in the axial location. The

zero-lift pitching moment CM0f can be assumed zero for uncambered (sym-
metric) fuselages. However for cambered fuselages such as those for lead-
ing edge droop or aft upsweep,CM0f is not zero and can be estimated as
follows:
lf
π(k2 − k1 )
Z
CM0f = bf2 (α0w + iCL,B ) dx (266)
2S c̄ 0
Where α0w is the wing zero-lift angle relative to FRL and iCL,B is the
incidence angle of the fuselage cambered line relative to FRL. iCL,B is
assumed be negative for nose droop or aft upsweep as shown in Fig (25)
Stability.
Numerically this can be written as:

f l
π(k2 − k1 ) X
CM0f = bf2 (α0w + iCL,B ) ∆x (267)
2S c̄ x=0
In term of degrees:
fl
(k2 − k1 ) X
CM0f = b 2 (α0w + iCL,B ) ∆x (268)
36.5S c̄ x=0 f
Stability.

The contribution can be summarized as:

∂CM
CMf = CM0f + α (269)
∂α f
Figure 25: Fuselage with nose droop and aft upsweep. Regresar
Stability.

The variation of ∂u /∂α for sections ahead the wing leading edge is shown
in Figs (26); the first is used for sections closed to leading edge where the
upwash gradients are high. Te second is used for sections are further away
the wing leading edge where the upwash gradients are low or moderate.
The sections along the wing root chord, both αf and ∂u /∂α are zero,
giving as a result no contribution to the pitch moment.
Figure 26: Variation of fuselage upwash ahead of the wing

Stability.

For segments such as segments as 7-14, which are influenced by the wing down-
wash the linear relation is used:

∂u x1 ∂
1+ = 1− (270)
∂α lh ∂αw
Figure 27: Fuselage divided in sections ahead and aft the wing.
Stability.
Aircraft Static Stability

From aircraft shown below determine:
Elevator surface
Stability.
Aircraft Static Stability
Answer as correspond to:

The equation that describes the wing contribution to the total
aircraft moment.
The equation that describes the tail contribution to the total aircraft
moment.
The equation that describes the fuselage contribution to the total
aircraft moment.
The total aircraft moment equation.
The fixed neutral point.
Stability.

Calculus of aspect ratio:
2
bw2 (33.40ft)
Aw = = = 6.06 (271)
Sw 184ft 2
2
bt2 (13.36ft)
At = = = 4.15 (272)
St 43ft 2
Conversion of lift curve slopes from 2-D to 3D sections. 2D to 3D
0.097 180deg
a0w deg πrad 4.3
CLαw = a0w = 0.097 180deg
= (273)
1 + πA deg πrad rad
we 1+ π(6.06)(1)
0.088 180deg
a0t deg πrad 3.63
CLαt = a0t = 0.088 180deg
= (274)
1 + πA deg πrad rad
te 1+ π(4.15)(1)
πrad 4.3
CL0w = | − 5deg | = 0.375 (275)
180deg rad
elevator exercise
Stability.
CM0w = CMcaw + CL0w (xcg − xca ) (276)

CM0w = −0.116 + 0.375 (0.295 − 0.25) = −0.099 (277)
CMαw = CLαw (xcg − xca ) (278)
4.3 0.1935
CMαw = (0, 295 − 0.25) = (279)
rad rad
The wing contribution becomes:
CMw = −0.099 + 0.1935αw (280)

Stability.
Static Stability: tail contribution.
horizontal volume tail ratio:

lt St 16ft × 43ft 2
VH = = = 0.656 (281)
S c̄ 184ft 2 × 5.7ft
elevator exercise
The lift coefficient at zero angle of attack:
2CL0w 2 × 0.375
0 = = = 0.04rad
πAw e π × 6.06 × 1
The variation of upwash with respect to aircraft angle of attack:
4.3
∂ 2CLαw 2 × rad 0.45
= = =
∂αw πAw e π × 6.06 × 1 rad
Stability.
Static Stability: tail contribution.

Calculus of intercept of tail contribution
CM0t = ηVH CLαt (0 + iw − it )

3.63 πrad πrad
CM0t = 1(0.656) 0.04rad + 1 − (−1) = 0.18
rad 180deg 180deg
Calculus of slope of tail contribution:

∂
CMαt = −ηVH CLαt 1−
∂αw
3.63
CMαt = 1 × 0.656 × (1 − 0.45)
rad
CMαt = −1.31
The tail contribution is then:
CMt = 0.18 − 1.31αw (282)
Stability.

maximum diameter:
4.6 + 4.2
bfmax = = 4.4
2
Fineness:
lf 27ft
= = 6.14
bfmax 4.4ft
So that the apparent mass constant (23) fineness is, k2 − k1 =0.86
Figure 28: Lateral view of fuselage See table

Stability.
Table 3: Sections of fuselage for calculus of CM0f
Station ∆x bf (ft) x α0w + (iCL )B bf2 (α0w + (iCL )B ) ∆x

(ft) (ft)
1 3.0 3.6 — (-5+0)π/180 -3.38
2 3.0 4.2 — (-5+0)π/180 -4.62
3 3.0 4.6 — (-5+0)π/180 -5.52
4 3.0 4.6 — (-5+0)π/180 -5.52
5 3.0 4.1 — (-5+0)π/180 -4.39
6 3.0 3.1 — (-5+0)π/180 -2.51
7 3.0 2.3 — (-5+0)π/180 -1.38
8 3.0 1.5 — (-5+0)π/180 -0.59
9 3.0 0.8 — (-5+0)π/180 -0.17
Sum -28.149
Table for aircraft shown in Fig. (28) see
Stability.
lf
π(k2 − k1 ) X π(0.86)(28.149)
CM0f = bf2 (α0w + iCL,B ) ∆x = − = −0.037
2S c̄ x=0
2(184ft 2 )(5.7ft)
(283)
Stability.
Figure 29: Top view of fuselage

Stability.
Table 4: Segmented fuselage for calculus of CMαf ,
bf2 1 + ∂u

Station ∆x (ft) bf (ft) x (ft) 1+ ∂α
∆x
∂u ∂u
,
∂α ∂α
1 1.5 3.0 5.25 1.25 16.87

2 1.5 3.4 3.75 1.35 23.41
3 1.5 3.8 2.25 1.45 31.41
4 1.5 4.2 1.5 3.30 87.32
5 2.9 3.8 1.45 0.06-1 -39.32
6 2.9 3.1 4.35 0.18-1 -22.76
7 2.9 2.3 7.25 0.31-1 -10.65
8 2.9 1.5 10.15 0.43-1 -03.73
9 2.9 0.8 13.05 0.55-1 -00.83
Sum 81.72
C=6.5 ft, lh =13 ft, ∂/∂αw = 0.45. See fig (29) as reference.

∂CM π(0.86) 0.108
= 81.72ft 3 = (284)
∂α 2(184ft 2 )(5.7ft) rad
Stability.
Static stability: fuselage contribution.
Adding all the contributions:
CMw = −0.099 + 0.1935αw (285)

CMt = 0.18 − 1.31αw (286)
CMf = −0.037 + 0.108αw (287)
Then the moment equation for complete aircraft is given by:
CMT = 0.041 − 1.006αw
Then the aircraft is statically stable

Stability.
Neutral point
To ensure the aircraft has longitudinal static stability, is required to know

the point where CMα =0, by making null this term and solving for the
center of gravity.

Xnp Xca CMαf CLαt ∂
= − + ηVH 1− (288)
c̄ c̄ CLαw CLαw ∂αw
this location is called ”fixed neutral point”. If the center of gravity moves
until this point, the aircraft will be neutrally stable. The movement of
the center of gravity farther the neutral point will cause the aircraft be
statically unstable. The influence of the center of gravity with respect to
neutral point is shown in Fig. (30)
Stability.
Figure 30: Fixed Neutral Point
From previous exercise, it is located at:

0.108 3.6
Xnp rad
= 0.25 − 4.3 + 1 × 0.656 rad
4.3 (1 − 0.45) = 0.53
c̄ rad rad
Stability.
Neutral point
Considering all contributions:
CM = CM0 + CMα α (289)
CM0 = CMcaw + CLαw (xcg − xca ) + ηVH CLαt (0 + iw − it ) + CM0f (290)
CMα = CLαw (xcg − xca ) − ηVH CLαt (1 − αw ) + CMαf (291)
To set CM = 0 for some value of α is required that CM0 > 0. For

CMα < 0, We will consider CMα = 0. In addition let us define for the
tail, the distance between the center of gravity and the aerodynamic one
in terms of the distance from aerodynamic center to leading edge (
Tail-c ) of the wing l = c̄(h − x
t t cg ), which is also taken into account in the
horizontal tail’s volume ratio:
lt St St
VH = = (ht − xcg ) (292)
S c̄ S
Stability.
Neutral point.
then:
St
CMα = CLαw (xcg − xca ) − η (ht − xcg ) CLαt (1 − αw ) + CMαf
S
Collecting terms:

St St
CMα = xcg CLαw + η CLαt (1 − α ) −xca CLαw −η ht CLαt (1−αw )+CMαf
S S
(293)
return to equation 299
Stability.
Neutral point.
Remembering the lift coefficient in the airplane is given by:
LT = Lw + Lt (294)
St
CLT = CLw + η CLt (295)
S
Then the total lift coefficient in the airplane is Remember tail angle of attack :
St
CLT = CLαw (αw + α0w )+η CL (−iw − 0 + it + αw (1 − αw )) (296)
S αt
Which can be simplified as:
CLT = CL0T + CLαT αw (297)

with:
St
CLαT = CLαw + η CL (1 − αw ) (298)
S αt
Stability.
Neutral point.
By substitution the value for CLαw in expression (293):

St
ht CLαt (1 − αw ) + CMαf
CMα = xcg CLαT − xca CLαw − η (299)
S
And making to zero this expression the results is the point called: neutral
point:
CLαw St CLαt CMαf

xNP = xcg = xca + η ht (1 − αw ) −
CLαT S CLαT CLαT
The expression (299) can be formulated in terms of neutral point:
( )
CL St CLαt CMαf
CMα = CLαT xcg − xca αw − η ht (1 − α ) + (300)
CLαT S CLαT CLαT
Stability.
Neutral point
Where the last terms involve the neutral point:
CMα = CLαT (xcg − xNP ) (301)

This expression gives the slope of pitching moment curve on center of grav-
ity with respect to its location referenced to neutral point. In conclusion,
for longitudinal static stability the center of gravity must be lied forward
to the neutral point: that is xcg < xNP .
Stability.
Directional stability
Consider the aircraft is subjected to a positive sideslip disturbance as shown

in Fig (31). The combination of sideslip velocity v and axial velocity com-
ponent U results in a positive sideslip angle β. Note that a positive sideslip
angle equates to a negative angle yaw angle since the nose of aircraft has
swung to the left of the resultant total velocity vector V . Now as shown
on Fig 31 , in the disturbance the fin is at non-zero angle of attack equiv-
alent to the sidelsip angle of attack β. The fin therefore generates lift LF
which acts in the sense shown thereby creating a positive yawing moment
N. The yawing moment is stabilising since it causes the aircraft to yaw the
right look until the sideslip angle is reduced to zero. Thus the condition
for an aircraft to be directionally stable is readily stablished and is:
dCN
>0
dβ
Stability.
Directional Stability
Directional or Weathercock stability is concerned with static stability of
the airplane about its vertical axis, that is z-axis. It is desirable the air-
plane returns to its equilibrium condition when subjected to some yawing
disturbance. come back
Figure 31: Weathercock stability.

Stability.
Come back
Stability.
Lateral stability.
Lateral static stability is concerned with the ability of the aircraft to main-
tain wings level equilibrium in the roll sense. Wing dihedral is the most vis-
ible parameter which confers lateral static stability on an aircraft although
there are many contributions, some of which are destabilising. Since all
aircraft requires to fly with wing level in the steady trim state lateral static
stability is designed in from the outset. Dihedral is the easiest parameter
to adjust in the design process in order to ”tune” the degree of stability to
an acceptable level. To much lateral stability will result in an aircraft
that is reluctant to manoeuvre laterally, so is important to obtain
the correct degree of stability
Stability.
Lateral stability.
The effect of dihedral as a means for providing lateral static stability is
easily appreciated in Fig 33 . Following a small lateral disturbance in
roll φ the aircraft will commence to slide ”downhill” Look sideways with
a sideslip velocity v . Consider the change in aerodynamic conditions on
the leading wing which has a dihedral angle Γ. Since the wing has dihedral
the sideslip velocity has a small component v 0 resolved perpendicular to
the plane of the wing panel where:
v 0 = v sin Γ
the velocity component v 0 combines with the axial velocity component Ue

to increase the angle of attack of the leading wing by α0 . Since v 0 << Ue
the change in the angle of attack α0 is small and the total disturbed axial
velocity component U ≈ Ue . The increase in angle of attack on the leading
wing rise to an increase in lift which in turns gives to rise a restoring roll
moment −L 163 . The corresponding aerodynamic change on the wing
trailing edge results in a small decrease in lift which also produce a restoring
roll moment.
Stability.
Lateral stability.
The net effect therefore is to create a negative rolling moment which causes
the aircraft recovers its zero sideslip wings level equilibrium. Thus, the
condition for an aircraft to be laterally stable is that the rolling moment
resulting from a positive disturbance in roll attitude must be negative
34 :
dCl
<0
dφ
Where Cl is the rolling moment coefficient. The sequence of events fol-
lowing a sideslip disturbance are shown in fig 32
Stability.
Lateral stability
Figure 32: Lateral stability. Come back

Stability.
Lateral stability
Figure 33: Lateral stability. Come back

Stability.
Lateral stability
Figure 34: Configuration for lateral static stability. Come back

Stability.
Lateral stability
Come Back
Stability.
The wing contribution to directional stability mainly depends on its dihedral

and leading-edge swept. Generally, the magnitude of wing contribution to
static directional stability is small. If the wing has no dihedral and not
much swept, its contribution to directional static stability can be ignored.
For swept wing with dihedral, we can assume the total wing contribution
to be given by:
(Cnβ )W = (Cnβ )Γ,W + (Cnβ )Λ,W (302)

Stability.
Directional stability: Effect o wing dihedral
Consider an unswept, high-aspect ratio rectangular wing with a constant

dihedral angle Γ operating at an angle of attack α and sideslip β at forward
velocity V0 as shown in fig (36).
The total component of velocity normal to the plane of wing is given by:
VN = V0 (sin α ± β sin Γ) (303)

Or assuming small α, β and Γ:
VN = V0 (α ± βΓ) (304)
note that the + and - signs apply respectively to the right (starboard) and
left (port side) wings when sideslip is positive. The chordwise component
of velocity is given by:
Vc = V0 cos α = V0 (305)
Stability.
Directional stability: Effect of wing dihedral
Figure 35: Strip theory analysis of wing dihedral effect

Stability.
Lateral stability: Effect of wing dihedral
Figure 36: Strip theory analysis of wing dihedral effect

Stability.
Lateral stability: Effect o wing dihedral
The local angle of attack and local dynamic pressure are given by:
VN
αN = = α ± βΓ (306)
Vc
Ignoring the terms containing α2 , αβ we obtain:
1 1
ql = ρ VN2 + Vc2 u ρV02 (307)
2 2
Thus, for a positive sideslip, the local dynamic pressure of both wings
is approximately equal to the freestream dynamic pressure. The leading
(starboard) wing experiences an increase in angle of attack and therefore,
an increase in lift and drag. The port wing experiences the opposite effects.
Stability.
For low subsonic speeds we can approximately estimate the yawing moment
using the simple strip theory, where the wing is divided into a number of
spanwise elements of strips. In this theory the aerodynamic forces are
calculated assuming that it is a part of two-dimensional wing, that is,
ignores the downwash variation along the span. This approach is useful.
Let c(y ) the local chord, a0 (y ) the local sectional lift-curve slope and Vl
the local resultant velocity of the strip RT on the right wing. We assume
small the angles α, β, Γ and their products.
Stability.

We resolve the sectional lift (dL) and drag (dD) forces along the stability
axis system. The component of force along Ox for the right wing strip RT
of width dy is given by:
dF = dL sin(αl − α) − dD cos(αl − α) = dL(αl − α) − dD (308)

With βΓ = αl − α, we have:
1 2
ρV c(y )dy (Cl,R βΓ − CD,R )
dF = dLβΓ − dD = (309)
2 0
In strip theory, the sectional lift and drag coefficients are assumed to be
given by:
Cl = a0 αl (310)
CD = CD0,l + CDα,l αl (311)
Then
1 2
dF = ρV c(y )dy [Cl,R βΓ − CD0,l − CDα,l (α + βΓ)] (312)
2 0
Stability.
Lateral stability: Effect of wing dihedral

The yawing moment due to the strip RT on the right wing is given by:
1 2
dN = −yDF =ρV [−Cl,R βΓ + CD0,l + CDα,l (α + βΓ)] c(y )ydy
2 0
(313)
The yawing moment caused by the right (starboard) wing is given by
Z b/2
1 2
NR = ρV [−Cl,R βΓ + CD0,l + CDα,l (α + βΓ)] c(y )ydy (314)
2 0 0
Similarly the yawing moment caused by the left (port) wing is given by:
Z b/2
1
NL = ρV02 [−Cl,L βΓ − CD0,l − CDα,l (α − βΓ)] c(y )ydy (315)
2 0
Where Cl,L is the local (sectional) lift coefficient of the left wing.
Stability.
directional stability: Effect of wing dihedral

The net yawing moment is the sum of the moments in the right and left
wings:
Z b/2
1 2
N= ρV [−βΓ (Cl,R + Cl,L ) + 2CDα,l βΓ] c(y )ydy (316)
2 0 0
We have
Cl,R = a0 (α + βΓ) (317)

Cl,L = a0 (α − βΓ) (318)
So that
Cl,R + Cl,L = 2a0 α = 2CL (319)

Then Z b/2
N = −ρV02 βΓ (CL − CDα,l ) c(y )ydy (320)
0
Stability.
Directional stability: Effect of wing dihedral

In coefficient form:
Z b/2
2βΓ
(Cn )Γ,W = − (CL − CDα,l ) c(y )ydy (321)
Sb 0
and
Z b/2
2Γ
(Cnβ )Γ,W =− (CL − CDα,l ) c(y )ydy (322)
Sb 0
For rectangular wing with constant chord c, the above expression reduces
to:
Γ (CL − CDα,l )
(Cnβ )Γ,W = − (323)
4
Usually, CL > CDα,l so that (Cnβ )Γ,W < 0 which implies the wing contribu-
tion to directional stability due dihedral angle is destabilizing. Conversely
the wing anhedral has a stabilizing effect on directional stability.
Stability.
Directional Stability: Effect of wing dihedral
Due the strip theory ignores the induced drag effects, the error increases
when the aspect ratio decreases. For such cases, the following empirical
formula may be used for low subsonic speeds:
(Cnβ )Γ,W = −0.075ΓCL /rad (324)

Where the dihedral angle Γ is in radians. For supersonic speeds, according
to Datcom, this contibution is generally small and can be ignored.
Stability.
Directional Stability: Effect of sweep.
The wing-sweep back has a stabilizing effect on static direcional stability.

Let us consider a swept-back wing of sufficiently high aspect ratio and with
zero dihedral operating at an angle of attack α and sideslip β and moving
at a forward velocity V0 as shown in Fig (178) and (179) . The velocity
components in the spanwise, chordwise and normal directions are given by:
Vs = V0 (sin Λ cos α ∓ β cos Λ) (325)

Vc = V0 (cos Λ cos α ± β sin Λ) = V0 cos Λ (cos α ± β tan Λ) (326)
VN = V0 sin α (327)
Where the first (upper) sign refers to the right wing and the second (lower)
refers to the left wing when the wing is in positive sideslip.
Stability.
Directional stability: Effect of sweep
Let us assume that β and α are small, then
Vs = V0 cos Λ (tan Λ ∓ β) (328)

Vc = V0 cos Λ (1 ± β tan Λ) (329)
VN = V0 α (330)
The spanwise component of the velocity does not affect the pressure dis-
tribution and hence is ignored in the following. It only adds to skin friction.
The angle of attack of right (starboard) and left (port) wings are given by:
VN α
αl = tan αl = = = α sec Λ (1 ∓ β tan Λ) (331)
Vc cos Λ (1 ± β tan Λ)
Stability.
Directional stability: Effect of sweep.
For level flight with zero sideslip, the local angle of attack is given by
αs = α sec α (332)
So that
αs − αl = ±αβ sec Λ tan Λ (333)

The dynamic pressures experienced by the right and left wings are given
by
1 1 2
ρ Vc2 + VN2 = ρV02 cos2 Λ (1 ± β tan Λ)
ql = (334)
2 2
Where the terms containing high orders of α and β or its product, have
been ignored.
Stability.

Stability.
Lateral stability: Effect of sweep.

Stability.

Let yh denote the spanwise coordinate along the quarter chordline and
c(yn ) denote the local chord normal to the wing leading edge. The com-
ponent of force along Ox (stability axis) for the wing right strip RT is given
by
dF = − dL sin (αs − αl ) − dD cos (αs − αl ) (335)

1 2
= − ρV02 cos2 Λ (1 + β tan Λ) × (336)
2
α sec Λ
Cl,R αβ sec Λ tan Λ + CD0,l + CDα,l c(yh )dyh
1 + β tan Λ
(337)
with
a0 α sec Λ
Cl,R = (338)
1 + β tan Λ
Where a0 = a0 (y ) is the sectional lift-curve slope,
Stability.

Then
1
dF = − ρV02 cos2 Λ (1 + β tan Λ) × (339)
22
a0 α β sec2 Λ tan Λ + CD0,l (1 + β tan Λ) + CDα,l α sec Λ c(yh )dyh

(340)
The yawing moment caused by the right wing is given by
dNR = − ydF (341)

1 2
ρV cos2 Λ (1 + β tan Λ) × (342)
2 0
a0 α2 β sec2 Λ tan Λ + CD0,l (1 + β tan Λ) + CDα,l α sec Λ c(yh )yh dyh

(343)
Stability.
Lateral Stability: Effect of sweep
Z b sec Λ
2
NR = − ydF
0
1 2
ρV cos2 Λ (1 + β tan Λ) ×
2 0
a0 α2 β sec2 Λ tan Λ + CD0,l (1 + β tan Λ) + CDα,l α sec Λ ×

Z b sec2 Λ
c(yh )yh dyh
0
Similarly for the yawing caused by the left wing:

1
NL = ρV02 cos2 Λ (1 − β tan Λ) ×
2
a0 α2 β sec2 Λ tan Λ − CD0,l (1 − β tan Λ) − CDα,l α sec Λ ×

Z b sec2 Λ
c(yh )yh dyh
0
Stability.
Directional stability: Effect of sweep

The total yawing moment is the sum of all moments
Z b sec Λ
2
N = ρV02 β sin Λ cos Λ a0 α2 sec2 Λ + 2CD0,l + CDα,l α sec Λ

c(yh )yh dyh
0
In form of coefficient:
Z b sec Λ
2β sin Λ 2
a0 α2 sec Λ + 2CD0,l cos Λ + CDα,l α

(CN )Λ,W = c(yh )yh dyh
Sb 0
or with
CL,I = a0 α sec Λ when β = 0
Z b sec Λ
2 sin Λ 2
(CNβ )Λ,W = [CL,I α + 2CD0,l cos Λ + CDα,l α] c(yh )yh dyh
Sb 0
Control.
Primary flight controls.
Control in an airplane can be achieved by providing an incremental lift

force over one or more airplane surfaces. The incremental force can be
produced by deflecting an entire lift surface or a flap attached to the lift
surface. The primary aerodynamic controls are:
1. Pitching control via flap on the tail called: elevator
see
2. Rolling control via ailerons located in the wing.

see
3. Yaw control via the flap located in the vertical tail called: rudder.
see
Control.
Control
Figure 37: Elevator’s deflection
The change in pitching moment el acting on airplane:

dCM
∆CM = CMδe δe , CMδe = (344)
dδe
Where CMδe is the power control of the elevator; the higher is the power,
the more effective is for create a control moment.
CM = CM0 + CMα α + CMδe δe (345)
Control.
Control
CMδe and CLδe can be linked through the geometrical and aerodynamic
characteristics of the tail in the following form:
∆L = ∆Lt (346)
St St dCLt
∆CL = η∆CLt = η δe (347)
S S dδe
dCLt
dδe is proportional to the flap size used as elevator and can be estimated
from:
dCLt dCLt dαt
= = CLαt τ (348)
dδe dαt dδe
Where τ can be determined from Fig. (38)
see
Control.
Control
Figure 38: Plot for calculus of elevator effectiveness
elevator characteristics
come back
From equation (347) we have:

∆CL St ∆CLt
= η (349)
∆δe S ∆δe
Control.
Control
or equivalently:
St dCLt
CLδe = η (350)
S dδe
The increment in pitching moment on airplane is:
∆M = −lt ∆Lt (351)

qS c̄∆CM = −lt qt St ∆CLt (352)
lt St qt
∆CM = − ∆CLt (353)
S c̄ q
dCLt dCLt dαt
∆CM = −VH η δe = −VH η δe (354)
dδe dδe dαt
dCLt dαt
∆CM = −VH η δe = −VH ηCLαt τ δe (355)
dαt dδe
Therefore:
CMδe = −VH ηCLαt τ (356)
Control.
Elevator angle to trim.

An airplane is said to be trimmed if the forces and moments acting on
airplane are on equilibrium. Setting the pitching moment equation equal
to 0 (the definition of trim) we can solve for the elevator angle required to
trim the airplane:
CM = 0 = CM0 + CMα α + CMδe δe
from previous where α = αtrim and δe = δtrim are replaced:
CM0 + CMα αtrim
δtrim = − (357)
CMδe
The lift coefficient to trim is:
CLtrim = CLα αtrim + CLδe δtrim
where the isolated trim angle of attack is:
CLtrim − CLα αtrim
δtrim = (358)
CLδe
Control.

By combining the expressions (357) and (358):

CLtrim CM0 CLα CMα
+ = − αtrim (359)
CLδe CMδe CLδe CMδe
where:
CLtrim CMδe + CLδe CM0
αtrim = (360)
CLα CMδe − CLδe CMα
CL CM + CLα CM0
δtrim = − trim α (361)
CLα CMδe − CLδe CMα
The longitudinal control surface provides a moment that can be used to
balance or trim the airplane at different operating angles of attack or lift
coefficient. The size of the control surface depends on the magnitude of
the pitching moment that needs to be balanced. In general, the largest
trim moments occur when an airplane is in the landing configuration (with
flaps and landing gear deployed) and the center of gravity is at its most
forward location.
Control.
Elevator angle to trim
In the landing configuration we fly at angle of attack or lift coefficient so

that the airplane’s approach speed can be kept as low as possible. There-
fore the airplane must be trimmed at high lift coefficient. Deployment
of the wing flaps and landing gear creates a nose-down pitching moment
increment that must be added to the clean configuration pitching mo-
ment curve. The additional nose-down or negative pitching moment due
to flaps and landing gear shifts the pitching moment curve. As the center
of gravity moves forward the slope of the pitching moment curve becomes
more negative (the airplane is more stable). This results in a large trim
moment at high lift coefficient. The largest pitching moment that must
be balanced by the elevator therefore occurs when the flaps and landing
gear are deployed and the center of gravity is at most forward position.
Control.

Assume the pitching moment curve for the landing configuration for the
analised airplane where the forwardmost center of gravity position is as
follows:
CMcg = −0.20 − 0.035α
Where α is in degrees. Estimate the size of elevator to trim the airplane at
the landing angle of attack of 100 . Assume the elevator angle is constrained
to +200 and −250 .
Solution: The increment in moment created by the control surface ∆CMcg
is a function of both, the elevator control power CMδe and the elevator
deflection angle δe .
∆CMcg = CMδe δe
For a 100 approach angle of attack, the pitching moment acting on airplane
can be estimated as:
∆CMcg = −0.20 − (0.035)(100 ) = −0.55
Control.
Elevator angle to trim
This moment must be balanced by an equal and opposite moment created

by the elevator as shown:
∆CMtrim = CMδe δe
The elevator control power is a function of the horizontal tail volume ratio
and the flap effectiveness ratio τ :
CMδe = −ηVH CLαt τ
The horizontal tail volume ratio, VH is set by the static longitudinal stability
requirements; therefore the designer can change only the flap effectiveness
factor τ , to achieve the appropriate control effectiveness CMδe . The flap
effectiveness is a factor function of the area of control flap to the total
area of the lift surface on which is attached. By proper selection of the
elevator area the necessary control power can be achieved.
Control.

For a positive moment, the control deflection angle must be negative, that
is the trailing edge of the elevator is up:
(+) (−)
∆CMtrim = CMδ δe(−) (362)
e
(+)
(−) ∆CMtrim 0.55
CMδ = = = −0.022/deg (363)
e (−)
δe −250
solving for the flap effectiveness parameter τ

CMδe
τ =−
ηVH CLαt
Using the values from previous exercise Tail characteristics Tail characteristics
−0.022 180deg
deg πrad
τ= − = 0.529
(1)(0.656) 3.63
rad
Control.
Knowing the value of τ = 0.529, we can use Fig (38) Tau and tail data
Aircraft to obtain:
Se
= 0.30
St
Se = 0.30St = (0.30)(43ft 2 ) = 13ft 2
Control.
Elevator for longitudinal control
come back
Control.
Ailerons for lateral control
come back
Control.
Rudder for directional control
come back
Control.
Equations of motion for rigid bodies.
Second law of Newton is given by:

X d
F= (mv) (364)
dt
X d
M= (H) (365)
dt
F represents the forces and v represents the linear velocities. M represents
the moments and H the moment of momentum. Here we have six free
degrees: 3 linear and 3 rotational components.
Equations of motion
Let δm a mass element of the airplane and v the velocity with respect
to an absolute or inertial frame and δF the resulting force acting on the
elemental mass, then the Newton’s second law yields
d
δF = (δmv) (366)
dt
The total force acting on the airplane is found by summing all elements of
airplane
X
F= δF (367)
The velocity of the element of mass is

dr
v = vc + (368)
dt
Where vc is the velocity of the center of mass of the airplane and dr/dt
is the velocity of the element of mass with respect to center of mass.
Equations of motion
Substitution in the Newton’s law:
X X d dr

F= δF = δm vc + (369)
dt dt
X X dvc X d dr
F= δF = δm + δm (370)
dt dt dt
X X dvc d2 X
F= δF = δm + 2 rδm (371)
dt dt
If the mass of the vehicle is constant:
X dvc
F= δF = m (372)
dt
Where we have used:
X X
rδm = (xi − x̄)δm = 0 (373)
It is explained in Marsden & Tromba [4], page 390 and 391

Equations of motion.
For differential element of mass the moment equation can be written as:
d d d
δM = δH = Ωδm = (rxv) δm (374)
dt dt dt
dr
v = vc + = vc + ω × r (375)
dt
d X
X d X
M= (r × vc ) δm +
δM = r × (ω × r) δm (376)
dt dt
X d X d X
M= δM = (rδm × vc ) + r × (ω × r) δm (377)
dt dt
d X
M= r × (ω × r) δm (378)
dt
ω = pi + qj + r k (379)
r = xi + y j + zk (380)
Using tensor notation
r × (ω × r) = pqi rq (ijk ωj rk ) = pqi ijk rq ωj rk
= (δpj δqk − δpk δqj ) rq ωj rk = rq ωp rq − rq ωq rp
(rq rq )ωp − (rq ωq )rp = (r · r) ω − (r · ω) r
= r 2 ω − (r · ω) r
Expanding:
d X d h X 2 X i
r × (ω × r) δm =
M= ω r δm − (r · ω) rδm
dt dt
d h X
2 2 2
X i
(pi + qj + r k) (x + y + z )δm − (px + qy + rz) (xi + y j + zk) δm
dt
Splitting its components
d h X X X i
L= p (y 2 + z 2 )δm − q xy δm − r xzδm
dt
d h X X X i
M= q (x 2 + z 2 )δm − p xy δm − r yzδm
dt
d h X X X i
N= r (x 2 + y 2 )δm − p xzδm − q yzδm
dt
Simplifying
d
L= [pIx − qIxy − rIxz ] (381)
dt
d
M= [qIy − pIxy − rIyz ] (382)
dt
d
N= [rIz − pIxz − qIyz ] (383)
dt
Inertia moments
X X
y 2 + z 2 δm

Ix = Iyz = yzδm
X X
x 2 + z 2 δm

Iy = Ixz = xzδm
X X
x 2 + y 2 δm

Iz = Ixy = xy δm

If the reference frame is not rotating, then as the airplane rotates, the
moments and products of inertia will vary with time. To avoid this difficulty
we will fix the axis system to the aircraft(body axis system). Now we must
determine the derivatives of the vectors u and H referred to the rotating
body frame of reference. It can be shown that the derivative of an arbitrary
vector referred to a rotating body frame having an angular velocity ω can
be represented by the following vector identity:
dA dA
= +ω×A (384)
dt I dt B
Applying this equation to the previous ones:

dvc dvc
F=m =m + (ω × vc ) (385)
dt I dt B
dH dH
M= = +ω×H (386)
dt I dt B

The components are:
duc du
Fx = m = m( + qw − rv ) (387)
dt I dt
dvc dv
Fy = m = m( + ru − pw ) (388)
dt I dt
dwc dw
Fz = m = m( + pv − qu) (389)
dt I dt
And
dHx dHx
L= = + qHz − rHy (390)
dt I dt
dHy dHy
M= = + rHx − pHz (391)
dt I dt
dHz dHz
N= = + pHy − qHx (392)
dt I dt

Using the relations (381), (382) and (383):
d
L= (pIx − qIxy − rIxz ) + q (rIz − pIxz − rIyz ) − r (qIy − pIxy − rIyz )
dt
d
M= (qIy − pIxy − rIyz ) + r (pIx − qIxy − rIxz ) − p (rIz − pIxz − rIyz )
dt
d
N= (rIz − pIxz − rIyz ) + p (qIy − pIxy − rIyz ) − q (pIx − qIxy − rIxz )
dt
If we assume that the xz plane is a airplane symmetry plane, the Ixy =
Iyz = 0, then:
d
L= (pIx − rIxz ) + q (rIz − pIxz ) − r (qIy )
dt
d
M= (qIy ) + r (pIx − rIxz ) − p (rIz − pIxz )
dt
d
N= (rIz − pIxz ) + p (qIy ) − q (pIx − rIxz )
dt
Simplifying
L = Ix ṗ − Ixz r˙ + q [r (Iz − Iy ) − pIxz ]

M = Iy q̇ + rp (Ix − Iz ) − Ixz p 2 − r 2

N = (Iz r˙ − Ixz ṗ) + pq (Iy − Ix ) + qrIxz
The equations of motion have been derived for an axis system fixed for the
airplane. Unfortunately, the position and orientation of the airplane cannot
be described relative to the moving body axis frame. The orientation of
the airplane can be described by the consecutive rotations, whose order is
important. The angular rotations are called the Euler angles.
Euler angles
For determining the orientation of body frame, we follow the steps:
Rotate the xf , yf , zf about 0zf , through the yaw angle ψ to the
frame to x1 , y1 , z1 .
Rotate the x1 , y1 , z1 about 0y1 , through the pitch angle θ bringing
the frame to x2 , y2 , z2 .
Rotate the x2 , y2 , z2 about 0x2 , through the roll angle φ to bring the
frame to x3 , y3 , z3 .
Euler angles: first rotation
dx dx
= u1 cos ψ − v1 sin ψ = u1 Cψ − v1 Sψ (393)
dt dt
dy dy
= u1 Sψ + v1 Cψ = u1 sin ψ + v1 cos ψ (394)
dt dt
dz dz
= w1 = w1 (395)
dt dt
Euler angles: first rotation
xf = x1 cos ψ − y1 sin ψ xf = Cψ x1 − Sψ y1 (396)

yf = x1 sin ψ + y1 cos ψ yf = Sψ x1 + Cψ y1 (397)
zf = z1 (398)
    
xf Cψ −Sψ 0 x1
 yf  =  Sψ Cψ 0   y1  Xf = AX1 X1 = A−1 Xf (399)
zf 0 0 1 z1
Euler angles
From the figure 210, second rotation:
u1 = u2 cos θ + w2 sin θ (400)

v1 = v2 (401)
w1 = −u2 sin θ + w2 cos θ (402)
In simplified form:
u1 = u2 Cθ + w2 Sθ (403)
v1 = v2 (404)
w2 = −u2 Sθ + w2 Cθ (405)
Euler angles: second rotation
x1 = x2 cos θ + z2 sin θ x1 = Cθ x2 + Sθ z2 (406)

y1 = y2 (407)
z1 = −x2 sin θ + z2 cos θ yf = −Sθ x2 + Cθ z2 (408)
    
x1 Cθ 0 Sθ x2
 y1  =  0 1 0   y2  X1 = BX2 X2 = B−1 X1 (409)
z1 −Sθ 0 Cθ z2
Euler angles
From the figure 210, third rotation:

dx
=u (410)
dt
dy
= v cos Φ − w sin Φ (411)
dt
dz
= v sin Φ + w cos Φ (412)
dt
In simplified form:
u2 = u (413)
v2 = vCΦ − wSΦ (414)
w2 = v sin Φ + wCΦ (415)
Euler angles: third rotation
x2 = x3 (416)
y2 = y3 cos φ − z3 sin φ y2 = Cφ y3 − Sφ z3 (417)
z2 = y3 sin φ + z3 cos φ yf = Sφ y3 + Cφ z3 (418)
    
x2 1 0 0 x3
 y2  =  0 Cφ −Sφ   y3  X2 = CX3 X3 = C−1 X2 (419)
z2 0 Sφ Cφ z3
Euler angles
Back-substitution of previous equations give:

 dx    
dt Cθ Cψ SΦ Sθ CΦ − CΦ Sψ SΦ Sθ Sψ + SΦ Sψ u
 dy  =  Cθ Sψ SΦ Sθ Sψ + CΦ Cψ CΦ Sθ Sψ − SΦ Cψ   v 
dt
dz −Sθ Sθ Cθ CΦ Cθ w
dt
(420)
Whose integration give the airplane’s position relative to fixed frame of
reference. The relationship between angular velocities in the body frame
(p,q,r) and the Euler rates (ψ̇, θ̇, Φ̇) are:
    
p 1 0 −Sθ ψ̇
 q = 0 CΦ Cψ Cθ Sψ   θ̇  (421)
r 0 −SΦ Cθ CΦ Φ̇
Equation (422) can be solved for the Euler rates in therms of the angular
velocities:
    
ψ̇ 1 SΦ tan θ CΦ tan θ p
 θ̇  =  0 CΦ −SΦ   q  (422)
Φ̇ 0 SΦ sec θ C Φ sec θ r
By integrating these equations one can determine the Euler angles ψ, θ, Φ

X X
rδm = (xi − x̄)δm = 0 (423)
It is explained in Marsden & Tromba [4], page 390 and 391

Robert C Nelson.
Flight stability and automatic control, volume 2.
WCB/McGraw Hill, 1998.
Mohammad H Sadraey.
Aircraft design: A systems engineering approach.
John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
Bandu N Pamadi.
Performance, stability, dynamics, and control of airplanes.
Aiaa, 2004.
Jerrold E Marsden, Anthony J Tromba, and Manuel López Mateos.
Cálculo vectorial, volume 69.
Addison-Wesley Iberoamericana, 1991.

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Aircraft Stability and Control

Aircraft Stability and Control

Alejandro Sebastián Ortiz Pérez

May 27, 2023

Aerospace Engineering Program.

Force over and airfoil

The higher speed in upper surface (Extrados) provides a more negative

Lift and drag forces

Lift and drag forces

Figure 1: Lift coefficient vs attack’s angle

Influence of airfoils type on lift coefficient

Airfoils and Nomenclature

Mean Aerodynamic Chord, MAC

Origin of lift forces

Figure 2: vortex flow around the wing’s surfaces

Wing tip vortex

Figure 3: Wing-tip vortices

Lift and induced drag forces origin

Deflection in the air stream.

Attached free vortices:

Lift and induced drag forces origin

Figure 5: Induced attack’s angle.

Ls1 , Lo1 , Ls2 , Lo2

Lift and induced drag forces origin

Figure 6: Induced drag, here tan αi = Di /L return to Di

Induced attack’s angle

Figure 7: Induced angle of attack

Induced drag calculus

Using the aspect ratio definition:

Importance of aspect ratio

Propulsive characteristic of aircrafts

Balance force equations in aircraft.

Figure 9: Forces acting on the aircraft

Force balance into a vertical plane.

Dimensionless balance forces.

Previous result is substituted in the expression (27) to give:

Dimensionless balance forces.

Dimensionless balance forces.

Using previous result in equation (18) we have:

Horizontal flight with constant velocity.

Exercise: A propeller aircraft weighs 50 000 N and has a wing surface of

Horizontal flight with constant velocity.

Horizontal flight of turbojet aircraft.

Range and endurance

Range of a turbojet aircraft.

Range of a turbojet aircraft.

It is assumed the angle of attack is held constant throughout the cruise, so

Range of a turbojet aircraft: constant altitude.

where W is the instantaneous weight of the airplane, then:

Thus for a given amount

Range of a turbojet aircraft: constant altitude.

Range of a turbojet aircraft: constant velocity.

When the velocity is held constant, equation (48) becomes:

Range of a turbojet aircraft: exercise

A turbojet aircraft has the following data: W=50 000 N, CD =

Range of propeller aircraft.

Range of propeller aircraft.

If we assume the angle of attack constant throughout the cruise so that E

Range of propeller aircraft.