Introduction to Biomedical Sensors and

Transducers

Prof. Dr. Eyad Hamad

 ABC
Transducer
Sensor
Actuator
A device
A device
that
A device
converts
thatthat
converts
aconverts
a a
signal from
signal
form toform
signal
one
fromphysical
from
oneone
a corresponding
form
physical
physical
to atocorresponding
a corresponding
Transducers
signal having
signal
signal
having
a different
having
a different
a different
physicalphysical
form
physical
formform
 A B C
Transducer Sensor Actuator
A device that converts a A device that detects A device that that works
signal from one physical changes and events in a opposite to sensor,
form to a corresponding physical stimulus and Actuator is a device that
signal having a different provides a corresponding converts electrical signal
physical form output signal that can be into a physical event
measured and/or
recorded.
Transducers

Sensor Actuator Input

Output
signal
signal
Sensor Processor Actuator
(measurand)
(measurand)
Input Output
transducer transducer

Transducers
Transducers

Input
Output
signal
signal
Sensor Processor Actuator
(measurand)
(measurand)
Input Output

Sensor Actuator transducer transducer

Transducers
Transducers
Types of Energy

Potential Energy: Stored Thermal Energy: Energy

Kinetic Energy: Energy of
energy due to position or related to temperature
motion.
state. and heat.

Nuclear Energy: Energy

Chemical Energy: Energy Electrical Energy: Energy
stored in the nucleus of
stored in chemical bonds. from electric currents.
atoms.

Radiant Energy: Energy Mechanical Energy: Sum

carried by light and of kinetic and potential
electromagnetic waves. energy in a system.
 Kinetic Energy: The energy of motion. Any moving object has kinetic energy.

Potential Energy: Stored energy due to an object’s position or state. For example, an apple hanging from
a tree has gravitational potential energy.
Thermal Energy: Energy related to the temperature of an object, often referred to as heat energy.

Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds, released or absorbed during chemical reactions.

Electrical Energy: Energy from electric currents, which is the flow of electric charge.

Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of atoms, released during nuclear reactions such as fission
or fusion.

Types of Radiant Energy: Energy carried by electromagnetic waves, including light.

Energy Mechanical Energy: The sum of kinetic and potential energy in a system.

Sound Energy: Energy carried by sound waves, which are vibrations traveling through a medium like air or
water.
Elastic Energy: Energy stored in objects that can be stretched or compressed, such as springs or rubber
bands.
Gravitational Energy: Energy due to an object’s position in a gravitational field, often considered a form
of potential energy.
 Physical Quantities: Fundamental Physical Quantities

Length (meter, m)
Mass (kilogram, kg)
Time (second, s)
Electric Current (ampere, A)
Temperature (kelvin, K)
Amount of Substance (mole, mol)
Luminous Intensity (candela, cd)
 Physical Quantities: Derived Physical Quantities Quantities

Acceleration (meter
Area (square meter, Volume (cubic meter, Speed/Velocity (meter
per second squared, Force (newton, N) Pressure (pascal, Pa)
m²) m³) per second, m/s)
m/s²)

Electric Electric Potential (volt,

Energy (joule, J) Power (watt, W) Capacitance (farad, F) Resistance (ohm, Ω)
Charge (coulomb, C) V)

Conductance (siemens, Magnetic Flux (weber, Magnetic Field Luminous Flux (lumen,
Inductance (henry, H) Illuminance (lux, lx)
S) Wb) Strength (tesla, T) lm)
Sensor characteristics

Transducers, sensors and measurements

Calibration, interfering and modifying inputs

Static sensor characteristics

Dynamic sensor characteristics

SENSOR
CLASSIFICATION
 Sensor Characteristics

Calibration Interfering Inputs Modifying Inputs

Calibration is the process of establishing Interfering inputs are external factors Modifying inputs are deliberate changes
the relationship between the sensor's that can influence the sensor's output. to the sensor's input signal. This can be
output and the corresponding physical These inputs can be environmental done for various reasons, such as to
quantity being measured. This ensures factors such as temperature or humidity, improve sensitivity or reduce noise.
accuracy and reliability of sensor data. or even mechanical vibrations.
Measurements A simple instrument model
Measurements
• A simple instrument model
Display Measurement
Physical Sensor
measurement Signal
variable variable
Measurand X S M

PHYSICAL
PROCESS

An observable variable X is obtained from the X is related to the measurand in some KNOWN way (i.e.,
measurand measuring mass)

The sensor generates a signal variable that

Processed, transmitted or displayed
can be manipulated:

In the example above the signal is passed to a display, where a measurement can be taken

The process of comparing an unknown quantity with a standard of the same quantity
Measurement (measuring length) or standards of two or more related quantities (measuring velocity)
Measurements Process
The measurement process begins with a sensor acquiring data from a measurand, which is the physical quantity being measured. The sensor then
transforms this information into a measurable signal that can be processed and analyzed. This signal is often a voltage, current, or frequency.

Sensor
1
The sensor converts the physical quantity into a signal.

Signal Processing
2
The signal is amplified, filtered, and conditioned for further use.

Display/Output
3
The processed signal is displayed in a meaningful format for the user.

The resulting output, or measurement, is a numerical representation of the measurand. The accuracy of this measurement depends on various factors,
including the sensor's sensitivity, noise levels, and calibration methods. In essence, this process allows us to translate physical phenomena into a
quantifiable form, enabling us to understand and control the world around us.
Additional inputs
• Interfering inputs (Y)
• Those that the sensor to respond as the linear superposition with the
measurand variable X
• Linear superposition assumption: S(aX+bY)=aS(X)+bS(Y)
Modifyi
ng input
Physical Z Sign
variable X variabl
al
Measura Interfering Sens
Senso e S
nd input Y or
r

Signal output (Y)

I

II
• Modifying inputs (Z)
• Those that change the behavior of the
sensor and, hence, the calibration
curve
• Temperature is a typical modifying input Physical input (X)
 Active vs Passive Sensors:

• Requires an external AC or DC electrical

Active Sensor: source to power the device
• Strain gauge, blood pressure sensor

Passive Sensor • Provides its own energy or derives

(self- energy from phenomenon being studied
generation): • Thermocouple
Sensor characteristics

• Static characteristics • Repeatability

• The properties of the system after all • Error
transient effects have settled to their • Accuracy
final or steady state • Precision
• Lifetime • Resolution
• Selectivity • Drift
• Sensitivity • Dynamic Range (Span)
• Accuracy
• Detection limit
• Linearity
• Hysteresis
Sensor characteristics

• Dynamic characteristics
• The properties of the system transient response to an input
•Zero order systems
•First order systems
•Second order systems
Calibration
• The relationship between the physical measurement variable
(X) and the signal variable (S)
• A sensor or instrument is calibrated by applying a number of KNOWN
physical inputs and recording the response of the system

Signal output (Y)

Physical input (X)
Calibration
• The relationship between the physical measurement variable
(X) and the signal variable (S)
• A sensor or instrument is calibrated by applying a number of KNOWN
physical inputs and recording the response of the system

Signal output (Y)

Physical input (X)
Calibration
• The relationship between the physical measurement variable
(X) and the signal variable (S)
• A sensor or instrument is calibrated by applying a number of KNOWN
physical inputs and recording the response of the system
Any type of energy

Voltage (v)
Linearity

Output
y=ax+b

Input

Output=A*Input +B
Linearity

• Correlation coefficient (𝑅 2 )

2
𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑦
𝑅2 = 2 ∙ 𝑆𝑆 2
𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦

𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 = ෍(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)ҧ , 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 = ෍(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦)

ത

𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑦 = ෍(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦)(𝑥

ത 𝑖 − 𝑥)ҧ
Accuracy, discrimination and precision

• Accuracy is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give

RESULTS close to the TRUE VALUE of the measured quantity
• Accuracy is related to the bias of a set of measurements
• Accuracy is measured by the absolute and relative errors

ABSOLUTE ERROR = RESULT - TRUE VALUE

ABSOLUTE ERROR
RELATIVE ERROR =
TRUE VALUE

• Discrimination is the minimal change of the input necessary to

produce a detectable change at the output
• Discrimination is also known as RESOLUTION
• When the increment is from zero, it is called THRESHOLD
Accuracy and errors
• Systematic errors
• Result from a variety of factors
• Interfering or modifying variables (i.e., temperature)
• Drift (i.e., changes in chemical structure or mechanical stresses)
• The measurement process changes the measurand (i.e., loading errors)
• The transmission process changes the signal (i.e., attenuation)
• Human observers (i.e., parallax errors)
• Systematic errors can be corrected with COMPENSATION methods (i.e.,
feedback, filtering)
• Random errors
• Also called NOISE: a signal that carries no information
• True random errors (white noise) follow a Gaussian distribution
• Sources of randomness:
• Repeatability of the measurand itself (i.e., height of a rough surface)
• Environmental noise (i.e., background noise picked by a microphone)
• Transmission noise (i.e., 60Hz hum)
• Signal to noise ratio (SNR) should be >>1
• With knowledge of the signal characteristics it may be possible to interpret a signal with
a low SNR (i.e., understanding speech in a loud environment)
Precision

• The capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the
same prescribed conditions
• Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value
• Precision is related to the variance of a set of measurements
• Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy
• Two terms closely related to precision
• Repeatability
• The precision of a set of measurements taken over a short time interval
• Reproducibility
• The precision of a set of measurements BUT
• taken over a long time interval or
• Performed by different operators or
• with different instruments or
• in different laboratories
• Shooting darts
• Discrimination
• The size of the hole produced by a dart
• Which shooter is more accurate?
• Which shooter is more precise?

mean
Systematic Random Example: systematic and
error (Bias) error
(Precision) random errors
Accuracy
• Accuracy = maximum difference that will
exist between the actual value and the
indicated value of the sensor

Xi Xo
Sensor Error Sources
• Error:
• Difference between measured value and true value.
Categories of Errors:
• Insertion Error
• Application Error
• Characteristic Error
• Dynamic Error
• Environmental Error
Insertion Error:
• Error occurring when inserting a sensor
Application Error:
• Errors caused by Operator
Characteristic Error:
• Errors inherent to Device
Dynamic Error:
• Most instruments are calibrated in static conditions if you are reading
a thermistor it takes time to change its value. If you read this value
too quickly an error will result.
Environmental Error:
• Errors caused by environment
• heat, humidity
Offset Error
• Offset error = output that will exist when it should be zero
• The characteristic curve had the same sensitive slope but had a y intercept

Output Output
Input Input
Offset Error
Zero offset error
More static characteristics

Input range
•The maximum and minimum value of the physical variable that can be measured (i.e., -40F/100F in a
thermometer)
•Output range can be defined similarly

Sensitivity
•The slope of the calibration curve y=f(x)
•An ideal sensor will have a large and constant sensitivity
•Sensitivity-related errors: saturation and “dead-bands”

Linearity •The closeness of the calibration curve to a specified straight line (i.e., theoretical behavior, least-squares fit)

Monotonicity •A monotonic curve is one in which the dependent variable always increases or decreases as the independent
variable increases

Hystheresis
•The difference between two output values that correspond to the same input depending on the trajectory
followed by the sensor (i.e., magnetization in ferromagnetic materials)
•Backslash: hystheresis caused by looseness in a mechanical joint
• Range = Maximum and Minimum values of applied parameter that can be measured.

• If an instrument can read up to 200 mmHg and the actual reading is 250 mmHg then
you have exceeded the range of the instrument
Sensitivity

Output Signal

Slope=sensitivity

Input Signal

Output=Sensitivity*Input
 Sensitivity

Output Output

Input Input

Which is more sensitive? The left side one

because you’ll have a larger change in y for a
given change in x
Accuracy and Precision
Not accurate but precise
Accurate and precise

Output Signal Calibrated Value 2

accurate but not precise

Calibrated Value 1 Not accurate, not precise

Real value1

Real value2
Input Signal
Dynamic Range
• Highest Value of the output to the lowest value of the
output (unitless of course)

Saturation
Max output
Output Signal

FSO

Limit of Detection

Input Signal DR=MAX/MIN

Noise and SNR
AS

A
AN

t
SNR(dB)=20log(As/AN)
Also knownn as Desired to Undesired ratio (DU
ratio) SNR=(As/AN)^2

SNR=Ps/Pn
Stability-Drift
AS

A
AN

Slow long-term variation of an output signal (not the input!)

Hysteresis

Output Signal

Input Signal
Hysteresis
• Hysteresis = measurement of how sensor changes
with input parameter based on direction of change
• The value B can be represented by 2 values of F(x), F1 and F2.
If you are at point P then you reach B by the value F2. If you
are at point Q then you reach B by value of F1.

Output = F(x)
P
F2
F1 Input = x
B
Q
Calibration

• The standard has to be 3 to 10 times

better than the desired calibration
accuracy
• The accuracy of the reference (standard) has
to be traceable to the National Institute of
Standards and Technology
Calibration

•Given:

output
Linear
range

input
One point calibration
Preferable at full
scale output FSO

output
Set Zero input=zero output
•Apply known input
•Measure output

Calculate:
sensitivity

input
Two point calibration

output
Set Zero input=zero output
•Apply known input 1
•Apply known input 2
•Measure output

Calculate: input
Linearity
(if exists)
Sensitivity
Better chance of catching nonlinearity!
Multiple points calibration

in1 in2 in3 in4 in5 in6

out1 out2 out3 out4 out5 out6

output

Set Zero input=zero output

•Apply known input 1
•Apply known input 2
•Apply known input 3
•Measure outputs etc.

input
Response Time
• Response Time: Time required for a sensor output to change from
previous state to final settle value within a tolerance band of correct
new value denoted in red can be different in rising and decaying
directions

F(t) T response Tolerance Band

100%
70% Rising Response Time

Ton Time
Response Time
⚫ Time Constant: Depending on the source is defined as the
amount of time to reach 0% to 70% of final value. Typically
denoted for capacitors as T = R C (Resistance * Capacitance)
denoted in Blue

F(t) T response Tolerance Band

100%
70% Rising Response Time

T on Time
Response Time
• Convergence Eye Movement the inward turning of the eyes have a different
response time than divergence eye movements the outward turning of the
eyes which would be the decay response time

T decay
F(t)
Decaying Response Time

T off Time
Dynamic response

2
d Output dOutput
Input = A + B + COutput
dt 2 dt
Step Function Response

•Underdumped response of the sensor:

Dumping factor = 1/A=A/B

•Critically dumped;
•Overdumped

Figure 14. Different Step function responses and Dumping factor

calculation
Dynamic characteristics
• The sensor response to a variable input is different from that
exhibited when the input signals are constant (the latter is
described by the static characteristics)
• The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of
energy-storing elements
• Inertial: masses, inductances
• Capacitances: electrical, thermal
• Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the
response of the sensor to a family of variable input waveforms:
• Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal, white noise…

1
A
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude
Amplitude

1/A time time time time time

Dynamic models
• The dynamic response of the sensor is (typically) assumed to
be linear
• Therefore, it can be modeled by a constant-coefficient linear differential
equation
dk y(t) 2
ak + a 2 d y(t) + a1 dy(t) + a0 y(t) = x(t)
dt k dt 2 dt
• In practice, these models are confined to zero, first and second order.
Higher order models are rarely applied
• These dynamic models are typically analyzed with the Laplace
transform, which converts the differential equation into a
polynomial expression
• Think of the Laplace domain as an extension of the Fourier transform
• Fourier analysis is restricted to sinusoidal signals
• x(t) = sin(t) = e-jt
• Laplace analysis can also handle exponential behavior
• x(t) = e-tsin(t) = e-( +j)t
Pole location and dynamic behavior
Zero-order sensors
• Input and output are related by an equation of the type
Y(s)
y(t) = k  x(t)  =k
X(s)
• Zero-order is the desirable response of a sensor
• No delays
• Infinite bandwidth
• The sensor only changes the amplitude of the input signal
• Zero-order systems do not include energy-storing elements
• Example of a zero-order sensor
• A potentiometer used to measure linear and rotary displacements
• This model would not work for fast-varying displacements
X
VCC
Y
 First-order sensors
• Inputs and outputs related by a first-order differential equation

dy Y(s) 1 k
a1 + a 0 y(t) = x(t)  = =
dt X(s) a1s + a0  s +1
• First-order sensors have one element that stores energy and one that
dissipates it
• Step response
• y(t) = Ak(1-e-t/)
• A is the amplitude of the step
• k (=1/a0) is the static gain, which determines the static response
•  (=a1/a0) is the time constant, which determines the dynamic response
• Ramp response
• y(t) = Akt - Aku(t) + Ake-t/
• Frequency response
• Better described by the amplitude and phase shift plots
First-order sensor response
• Step response • Frequency response
• Corner frequency c=1/
• Bandwidth

• Ramp response
Example of a first-order sensor
• A mercury thermometer immersed into a fluid
• What type of input was applied to the sensor?
• Parameters
• C: thermal capacitance of the mercury
• R: thermal resistance of the glass to heat transfer
• F: temperature of the fluid
(t): temperature of the thermometer
•
F
• The equivalent circuit is an RC network
• Derivation
R
• Heat flow through the glass ( F − (t) )/R d (t) − (t) F 
Temperature of the thermometer rises as = F
•
dt RC C
• Taking the Laplace transform
(s)− (S)
s (S) = F
 (RCs +1) (S) = F (s) 
RC
 (S) = F (s)
 (t) = F (1− e −t/RC )
(RCs +1)
Second-order sensors
• Inputs and outputs are related by a second-order differential
equation

d2 y + a dy + a y(t) = x(t)  Y(s) = 1

a2 2 1 0 2
dt dt X(s) a 2s + a1s + a 0
• We can express this second-order transfer function as
2
Y(s) k
= n 2 a 0 a1
X(s) s 2 + 2 n s+ 2
n

1 a1 a0
with k = , = , n =
a0 a2
• Where
• k is the static gain
•  is known as the damping coefficient
• n is known as the natural frequency
Second-order step response

• Response types
• Underdamped (<1)
• Critically damped (=1)
• Overdamped (>1)
• Response parameters
• Rise time (tr)
• Peak overshoot (Mp)
• Time to peak (tp)
• Settling time (ts)

From [PAW91]
Second-order response (cont)
• Ramp response • Frequency
response

From [PAW91]
Example of second-order sensors
• A thermometer covered for protection
• Adding the heat capacity and thermal resistance of the protection yields a
second-order system with two real poles (overdamped)
• Spring-mass-dampen accelerometer
• The armature suffers an acceleration
• We will assume that this acceleration is
orthogonal to the direction of gravity x0
• x0 is the displacement of the mass M with M
respect to the armature
• The equilibrium equation is: K B
xi

M(x i − x 0 )= Kx 0 + Bx 0


Ms X i (s) = X 0 (s) K + Bs + Ms2
2


X0 (s) M K/M
=
s 2 Xi (s) K s 2 + s(B/M) + K/M