INTRODUCTION

FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
Welding Defined
 Joining process in which two (or more) parts are
coalesced at their contacting surfaces by application of
heat and/or pressure
 Many welding processes are accomplished by heat
alone, with no pressure applied
 Others by a combination of heat and pressure
 Still others by pressure alone with no external heat
 In some welding processes a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence
CONT…
 In other word Welding is a process for joining two
similar or dissimilar metals by fusion.
 It joins different metals/alloys, with or without the
application of pressure and with or without the use of
filler metal.
CONT…
 The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat.
 The heat may be generated either from combustion of
gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical
reaction.
 Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally
affects the metallurgy of the components.
 It is therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat
treatment for most of the critical components.
CONT…
 The welding is widely used as a fabrication
and repairing process in industries.
 Some of the typical applications of welding
include the fabrication of ships, pressure
vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore
platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of
nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.
weldability
 The weldability may be defined as property
of a metal which indicates the ease with
which it can be welded with other similar or
dissimilar metals.
 Weldability of a material depends upon
various factors like the metallurgical
changes that occur due to welding, changes
in hardness in and around the weld, gas
evolution and absorption,extent of
oxidation, and the effect on cracking
tendency of the joint.
weldability
 Plain low carbon steel (C-0.12%) has
the best weldability amongst metals.

 Generally it is seen that the materials

with high castability usually have low
weldability.
 TERMINOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF
WELDING PROCESS

The terminological elements of

welding process used with common
welding joints such as base metal,
fusion zone, weld face, root face,
root opening toe and root are
depicted in Fig.
Cont.

Fig. Terminological elements of welding process

Edge preparations

 For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals

are prepared first.

 Different edge preparations may be used for

welding butt joints, which are given in Fig.
Fig. Butt welding joints edge preparations
Welding joints
 Welding joints are two major kinds namely lap
joint and butt joint.
1. Lap weld joint
 Single-Lap Joint
 This joint, made by overlapping the edges of
the plate, is not recommended for most work.
 The single lap has very little resistance to
bending.
 It can be used satisfactorily for joining two
cylinders that fit inside one another.
Welding joints
 Double-Lap Joint
 This is stronger than the single-lap joint but
has the disadvantage that it requires twice as
much welding.
Tee Fillet Weld
 This type of joint, although widely used,
should not be employed if an alternative
design is possible
Welding joints

Fig. Types of welding joints

Welding joints
2. Butt weld joint
Single-Vee Butt Weld
 It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick.
 The angle of the vee depends upon the
technique being used, the plates being
spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
Welding joints
Double-Vee Butt Weld
 It is used for plates over 13 mm thick
when the welding can be performed on
both sides of the plate.
 The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°,
while the bottom angle is 80°,
depending on the technique being
used.
Welding Positions
There are four types of welding
positions, which are given as:
1. Flat or down hand position
2. Horizontal position
3. Vertical position
4. Overhead position
Cont.

Fig. Kinds of welding positions

Flat or Down hand Welding Position

 The flat position or down hand position is one in

which the welding is performed from the upper
side of the joint and the face of the weld is
horizontal.
 This is the simplest and the most convenient
position for welding.
 Using this technique, excellent welded joints at a
fast speed with minimum risk of fatigue to the
welders can be obtained.
Horizontal Welding Position
 In horizontal position, the plane of the work
piece is vertical and the deposited weld head
is horizontal.
 The metal deposition rate in horizontal
welding is next to that achieved in flat or
down hand welding position
 This position of welding is most commonly
used in welding vessels and reservoirs.
Vertical Welding Position

In vertical position, the plane of the

work piece is vertical and the weld
is deposited upon a vertical surface.
It is difficult to produce satisfactory
welds in this position due to the
effect of the force of gravity on the
molten metal.
Overhead Welding Position
The overhead position is probably
even more difficult to weld than
the vertical position.
Here the pull of gravity against the
molten metal is much greater.
 The force of the flame against the
weld serves to counteract the pull
of gravity.

Overhead Welding Position

 In overhead position, the plane of the

workpiece is horizontal.
 But the welding is carried out from the
underside. The electrode is held with its
welding end upward.
 It is a good practice to use very short arc and
basic coated electrodes for overhead
welding.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
WELDING
Advantages
1. Welding is more economical and is much faster
process as compared to other processes (riveting,
bolting, casting etc.)
2. Welding, if properly controlled results permanent
joints having strength equal or sometimes more than
base metal.
3. Large number of metals and alloys both similar and
dissimilar can be joined by welding.
4. General welding equipment is not very costly.
Cont…
5. Portable welding equipments can be easily
made available.
6. Welding permits considerable freedom in
design.
7. Welding can join welding jobs through
spots, as continuous pressure tight seams,
end-to-end and in a number of other
configurations.
8. Welding can also be mechanized.
Cont….
Disadvantages
1. It results in residual stresses and distortion of the
work-pieces.
2. Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat
treatment.
3. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light),
fumes and spatter.
4. Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to hold and
position the parts to be welded
Cont…
5. Edges preparation of the welding jobs are
required before welding.
6. Skilled welder is required for production of
good welding.
7. Heat during welding produces
metallurgical changes as the structure of the
welded joint is not same as that of the
parent metal.
other Limitations and Drawbacks of
Welding

 Most welding operations are performed manually

and are expensive in terms of labor cost
 Most welding processes utilize high energy and are
inherently dangerous
 Welded joints do not allow for convenient
disassembly
 Welded joints can have quality defects that are
difficult to detect
Types of Welding Processes

 Some 50 different types of welding processes

have been catalogued by the American
Welding Society (AWS)
 Welding processes can be divided into two
major categories:
 Fusion welding
 Solid state welding
Fusion Welding
 Joining processes that melt the base metals
 In many fusion welding operations, a filler
metal is added to the molten pool to
facilitate the process and provide bulk and
added strength to the welded joint
 A fusion welding operation in which no
filler metal is added is called an autogenous
weld
Some Fusion Welding Processes
 Arc welding (AW) – melting of the metals is
accomplished by an electric arc
 Resistance welding (RW) - melting is
accomplished by heat from resistance to an
electrical current between faying surfaces held
together under pressure
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) - melting is
accomplished by an oxyfuel gas such as acetylene
Arc Welding

 Basics of arc welding: (1) before the

weld; (2) during the weld, the base
metal is melted and filler metal is
added to molten pool; and (3) the
completed weldment
Cont…
Solid State Welding
 Joining processes in which coalescence
results from application of pressure alone
or a combination of heat and pressure
 If heat is used, temperature is below
melting point of metals being welded
 No filler metal is added in solid state
welding
Some Solid State Welding
Processes
 Diffusion welding (DFW) –coalescence is by solid
state fusion between two surfaces held together under
pressure at elevated temperature
 Friction welding (FRW) - coalescence by heat of
friction between two surfaces
 Ultrasonic welding (USW) - coalescence by
ultrasonic oscillating motion in a direction parallel to
contacting surfaces of two parts held together under
pressure
Principal Applications of Welding

 Construction - buildings and bridges Piping,

pressure vessels, boilers, and storage tanks
 Shipbuilding
 Aircraft and aerospace
 Automotive
 Railroad
Welder and Fitter

 The welder manually controls the path or

placement of welding gun
 Often assisted by second worker, called a
fitter, who arranges the parts prior to
welding
 Welding fixtures and positioners are used to
assist in this function
The Safety Issue

 Welding is inherently dangerous to human

workers
 High temperatures of molten metals
 In gas welding, fuels (e.g., acetylene) are a
fire hazard
 Many welding processes use electrical
power, so electrical shock is a hazard
Special Hazards in Arc Welding
 Ultraviolet radiation emitted in arc welding is
injurious to human vision
 Welder must wear special helmet with dark viewing
window
 Filters out dangerous radiation but welder is blind
except when arc is struck
 Sparks, spatters of molten metal, smoke, and fumes
 Ventilation needed to exhaust dangerous fumes from
fluxes and molten metals
Automation in Welding
 Because of the hazards of manual welding, and to
increase productivity and improve quality, various
forms of mechanization and automation are used
 Machine welding – mechanized welding under
supervision and control of human operator
 Automatic welding – equipment performs welding
without operator control
 Robotic welding - automatic welding implemented
by industrial robot
The Weld Joint

 The junction of the edges or surfaces of

parts that have been joined by welding
 Two issues about weld joints:
 Types of joints
 Types of welds used to join the pieces that
form the joints
Five Types of Joints
(a) Butt joint, (b) corner joint, (c) lap joint, (d) tee joint, and
(e) edge joint
Types of Welds

 Each of the preceding joints can be made by

welding
 Other joining processes can also be used for
some of the joint types
 There is a difference between joint type and
the way it is welded - the weld type
Fillet Weld

 Used to fill in the edges of plates created by

corner, lap, and tee joints
 Filler metal used to provide cross section in
approximate shape of a right triangle
 Most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel
welding
 Requires minimum edge preparation
Fillet Welds

 (a) Inside single fillet corner joint; (b)

outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double
fillet lap joint; (d) double fillet tee joint
(dashed lines show the original part edges)
Cont…
Groove Welds
 Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a
groove to facilitate weld penetration
 Edge preparation increases cost of parts
fabrication
 Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J,
in single or double sides
 Most closely associated with butt joints
Groove Welds

 (a) Square groove weld, one side; (b) single bevel

groove weld; (c) single V-groove weld; (d) single U-
groove weld; (e) single J-groove weld; (f) double V-
groove weld for thicker sections (dashed lines
show original part edges)
Cont…
Plug Weld and Slot Weld
(a) Plug weld and (b) slot weld
Spot Weld and Seam Weld

 Fused section between surfaces of two

sheets or plates: (a) spot weld and (b)
seam weld
 Used for lap joints
 Closely associated with resistance
welding
Cont…
Flange Weld and Surfacing Weld

 (a) Flange weld and (b) surfacing weld

used not to join parts but to deposit
filler metal onto surface of a base part
Cont…
Typical Fusion Welded Joint

 Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint: (a)

principal zones in the joint, and (b) typical grain
structure
Cont…
Features of Fusion Welded Joint
 Typical fusion weld joint in which filler metal has been
added consists of:
 Fusion zone
 Weld interface
 Heat affected zone (HAZ)
 Unaffected base metal zone
Heat Affected Zone
 Metal has experienced temperatures below melting
point, but high enough to cause microstructural
changes in the solid metal
 Chemical composition same as base metal, but this
region has been heat treated so that its properties and
structure have been altered
 Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually
negative
 It is here that welding failures often occur
ARC WELDING
 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES

• Welding processes may also be classified in two

categories namely plastic (forge) and fusion.
• However, the general classification of welding
and allied processes is given as under
(A) Welding Processes
1. Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding Processes
1 Air-acetylene welding
2 Oxy-acetylene welding
3 Oxy-hydrogen welding
4 Pressure gas welding
 CONT…

2. Arc Welding Processes

1. Carbon Arc Welding
2. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
3. Submerged Arc Welding
4. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
5. Gas Metal Arc Welding
6. Plasma Arc Welding
 CONT..

3. Resistance Welding
1. Spot Welding
2. Seam Welding
3. Projection Welding
4. Resistance Butt Welding
 CONT….

4. Solid-State Welding Processes

1. Forge Welding
2. Cold Pressure Welding
3. Friction Welding
4. Explosive Welding
5. Diffusion Welding
6. Thermo-compression Welding
 CONT…

5. Thermit Welding Processes

1. Thermit Welding
2. Pressure Thermit Welding

6. Radiant Energy Welding Processes

1. Laser Welding
2. Electron Beam Welding
 CONT….

(B) Allied Processes

1. Metal Joining or Metal Depositing Processes
1. Soldering
2. Braze Welding
3. Adhesive Bonding
 ARC WELDING PROCESSES
• The process, in which an electric arc between an
electrode and a work piece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is
called an arc welding process.
The various arc welding processes are:
1. Carbon Arc Welding
2. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
3. Flux Cored Arc Welding
4. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
5. Gas Metal Arc Welding
6. Plasma Arc Welding
 Cont.

Fig. Principle of arc welding

 Cont.
• Using either a consumable or non-consumable
electrode (rod or wire), an arc is produced
between the tip of the electrode and the work
piece to be welded, using ac or dc power
supplies.
• This arc produces temperatures in the range
of 30,000°C (54,000 °F), which is much higher
than those developed in oxy-fuel gas welding.
 Arc Welding Equipment
• Arc welding equipment, setup and
related tools and accessories are shown
in Fig. below.
• However some common tools of arc
welding are shown separately through.
• Few of the important components of
arc welding setup are described as
under.
Fig. Arc welding process setup
 Arc welding power source
• Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used
for electric arc welding, each having its particular applications.
• DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators driven
by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal
combustion engines.
• For AC welding supply, transformers are predominantly used
for almost all arc welding where mains electricity supply is
available.

• They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400

volts) to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts).
Alternating and Direct Current Welding
AC (alternating current)
– Most common
– 180 Ampere or 225 Ampere between 220-240 volts
– Can handle most agriculture and construction jobs
– Alternating flow of electrons
Direct Current Welding
• DC (direct current)
– Can produce direct current of both straight (negative)
and reverse (positive) polarity.
– Polarity is the direction in which the current flows
across the arc.
– Makes a continuous flow of electrons
 Straight/Reverse Polarity
• Straight Polarity (DC-)
– Work is positive and electrode is negative
– Used to weld thinner metals
– Shallow penetration
• Reverse Polarity (DC+)
– Work is negative and electrode is positive
– Used to weld thicker metals
– Deeper penetration
Electric arc welding machine
 Welding cables
• Welding cables are required for conduction of
current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the workpiece and back
to the welding power source.
• These are insulated copper or aluminum cables.
Electrode holder
• Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode
manually and conducting current to it. These are
usually matched to the size of the lead, which in
turn matched to the amperage output of the arc
welder.
• Electrode holders are available in sizes that range
from 150 to 500 Amps.
 Welding Electrodes
• An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal
or alloy, with or without coatings.
• An arc is set up between electrode and work-
piece.
• Welding electrodes are classified into following
types-
1) Consumable Electrodes
(a) Bare Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes
(2) Non-consumable Electrodes
(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
(b) Tungsten Electrodes
 Welding Electrodes
• Consumable electrode is made of different metals
and their alloys.
• The end of this electrode starts melting when arc
is struck between the electrode and workpiece.
• Thus consumable electrode itself acts as a filler
metal.
• Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire
without any flux coating on them.
• Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts
melting as soon as an electric arc is struck.
• This coating on melting performs many functions
like prevention of joint from atmospheric
contamination, arc stabilizers etc
 Welding Electrodes
• Non-consumable electrodes are made up of
high melting point materials like carbon, pure
tungsten or alloy tungsten etc.
• These electrodes do not melt away during
welding. But practically, the electrode length
goes on decreasing with the passage of time,
because of oxidation and vaporization of the
electrode material during welding.
• The materials of non-consumable electrodes
are usually copper coated carbon or graphite,
pure tungsten, thoriated or zirconiated
tungsten.
 Welding hand tools and equipment
• Hand Screen
• Hand screen used for protection of eyes and
supervision of weld bead
Chipping hammer
• Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by
striking.
Wire brush
• Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.
Protective clothing
• Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron
to keep away the exposure of direct heat to the body.
 1. Carbon Arc Welding
• In this process, a pure graphite or baked
carbon rod is used as a non-consumable
electrode to create an electric arc between it
and the work piece.
• The electric arc produces heat and weld can
be made with or without the addition of filler
material.
 2.Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or
Manual Metal Arc Welding
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a commonly
used arc welding process manually carried by welder.
• It is an arc welding process in which heat for welding
is produced through an electric arc set up between a
flux coated electrode and the work-piece.
Advantages
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) can be carried
out in any position with highest weld quality.
2. MMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding
processes.
 Cont.
3. This welding process finds innumerable applications,
because of the availability of a wide variety of
electrodes.
4. Big range of metals and their alloys can be welded
easily.
5. The process can be very well employed for hard facing
and metal resistance etc.
6. Joints (e.g., between nozzles and shell in a pressure
vessel) which because of their position are difficult to
be welded by automatic welding machines can be
easily accomplished by flux shielded metal arc welding.
7. The MMAW welding equipment is portable and the
cost is fairly low.
 Cont.
Limitations
1. Due to flux coated electrodes, the chances of
slag entrapment and other related defects are
more as compared to MIG and TIG welding.
2. Due to fumes and particles of slag, the arc
and metal transfer is not very clear and thus
welding control in this process is a bit difficult
as compared to MIG welding.
3. Due to limited length of each electrode and
brittle flux coating on it, mechanization is
difficult.
 Cont.
4. In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure
vessels), as one electrode finishes, the weld is
to be progressed with the next electrode.
Unless properly cared, a defect (like slag
inclusion or insufficient penetration) may
occur at the place where welding is restarted
with the new electrode.
5. The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is
slower as compared to MIG welding.
 Applications
1. Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and
their alloys can be welded by this process.
2. Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication
process and for maintenance and repair jobs.
3. The process finds applications in
(a) Building and Bridge construction
(b) Automotive and aircraft industry, etc.
(c) Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel
fabrication
(d) Ship building
(e) Pipes and
(f) Penstock joining
 3.Submerged Arc Welding
• Schematic submerged arc welding process is
shown in Fig. shown below. In this welding process,
a consumable bare electrode is used in
combination with a flux feeder tube.
• The arc, end of the bare electrode and molten pool
remain completely submerged under blanket of
granular flux.
• The feed of electrode and tube is automatic and
the welding is homogenous in structure.
• No pressure is applied for welding purposes.
• This process is used for welding low carbon steel,
bronze, nickel and other non-ferrous materials.
Submerged Arc Welding

Fig. Schematic submerged arc welding process

Fig. Schematic submerged arc welding process
 4.Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
• In this process a non-consumable tungsten
electrode is used with an envelope of inert
shielding gas around it.
• The shielding gas protects the tungsten electrode
and the molten metal weld pool from the
atmospheric contamination.
• The shielding gases generally used are argon,
helium or their mixtures.
• Typical tungsten inert gas welding setup is shown
in Fig. below.
Fig. Tungsten inert gas welding setup
 Cont.

Fig. Tungsten inert gas welding setup

 Electrode materials
• The electrode material may be tungsten, or tungsten
alloy (thoriated tungsten or zirconiated tungsten).
• Alloy-tungsten electrodes possess higher current
carrying capacity, produce a steadier arc as compared to
pure tungsten electrodes and high resistance to
contamination.

Electric power source

• Both AC and DC power source can be used for TIG
welding.
DC is preferred for welding of copper, copper alloys,
nickel and stainless steel whereas DC reverse polarity
(DCRP) or AC is used for welding aluminium, magnesium
or their alloys.
 Inert gases
• The following inert gases are generally used in
TIG welding:
• 1. Argon
• 2. Helium
• 3. Argon-helium mixtures
• 4. Argon-hydrogen mixtures
 5.Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal
Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
• Metal inert gas arc welding (MIG) or more
appropriately called as gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) utilizes a consumable electrode and
hence, the term metal appears in the title.
• There are other gas shielded arc welding
processes utilizing the consumable electrodes,
such as flux cored arc welding (FCAW) all of which
can be termed under MIG.
• Though gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) can be
used to weld all types of metals, it is more
suitable for thin sheets.
Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert
Gas Welding (MIG)
• When thicker sheets are
to be welded, the filler
metal requirement
makes GTAW difficult to
use.
 Cont.

Fig. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) set up

 PLASMA ARC WELDING
• Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process that
melts and joins metals by heating them with a constricted
arc established between a tungsten electrode and the
metals, as shown in Figure below.
• It is similar to GTAW, but an orifice gas as well as a
shielding gas is used.
• As shown in Figure, the arc in PAW is constricted or
collimated because of the converging action of the orifice
gas nozzle, and the arc expands only slightly with increasing
arc length.
• Direct-current electrode negative is normally used, but a
special variable-polarity PAW machine has been developed
for welding aluminum, where the presence of aluminum
oxide films prevents a keyhole from being established.
PLASMA ARC WELDING
Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding
1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall
be efficiently earthed.

2. Welding arc in addition to being very a source of infra-

red and ultra-violet light also; consequently the
operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield
fitted with a special filter glass to protect eyes
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to
sunburn on the skin of the welder
4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from
radiation and burns caused by sparks and flying
globules of molten metal
Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding

5. Gloves protect the hands of a welder.

6. Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to
protect welder’s clothes and his trunk
and thighs while seated he is doing welding.
7. For overhead welding, some form of protection
for the head is required
8. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the
needful.
9. Leather jackets and lather leggings are also
available as clothes for body protection.
Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding

10. Welding equipment shall be inspected

periodically and maintained in safe working
order at all times.
11. Arc welding machines should be of suitable
quality.
12. All parts of welding set shall be suitably
enclosed and protected to meet the usual
service conditions.
GAS WELDING PROCESSES
 INTRODUCTION
GAS WELDING PROCESSES
• A fusion welding process which joins metals,
using the heat of combustion of an oxygen /air
and fuel gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane
or butane) mixture is usually referred as ‘gas
welding.
• The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts
and fuses together the edges of the parts to
be welded, generally with the addition of a
filler metal.
 GAS WELDING PROCESSES

• Operation of gas welding is shown in Fig. The fuel

gas generally employed is acetylene; however
gases other than acetylene can also be used
though with lower flame temperature.
• Oxy-acetylene flame is the most versatile and
hottest of all the flames produced by the
combination of oxygen and other fuel gases.
Other gases such as Hydrogen, Propane, Butane,
Natural gas etc., may be used for some welding
and brazing applications
 Cont.

Fig. Gas welding operation

 Oxy-acetylene welding
• In this process, acetylene is mixed with oxygen in
correct proportions in the welding torch and
ignited.
• The flame resulting at the tip of the torch is
sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal.
• The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature
of about 3300°C and thus can melt most of the
ferrous and non-ferrous metals in common use.
• A filler metal rod or welding rod is generally
added to the molten metal pool to build up the
seam slightly for greater strength.
 Types of Welding Flames
• In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most
important means to control the welding joint and
the welding process.
• The correct type of flame is essential for the
production of satisfactory welds.
• The flame must be of the proper size, shape and
condition in order to operate with maximum
efficiency.
• There are three basic types of oxy-acetylene
flames.
 Types of Welding Flames
a) Neutral welding flame (Acetylene and
oxygen in equal proportions).
b) Carburizing welding flame or reducing
(excess of acetylene).
c) Oxidizing welding flame (excess of oxygen).
Types of Welding Flames
Cont.
 Neutral welding flame
• A neutral flame results when approximately
equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are
mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the
torch tip. The temperature of the neutral
flame is of the order of about 5900°F
(3260°C). It has a clear, well defined inner
cone, indicating that the combustion is
complete.
• The inner cone is light blue in color.
 Cont.
• It is surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced
by the combination of oxygen in the air and
superheated carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases
from the inner cone.
• This envelope is Usually a much darker blue than the
inner cone.
• A neutral flame is named so because it affects no
chemical change on the molten metal and, therefore
will not oxidize or carburize the metal.
• The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of
mild steel, stainless steel, cast Iron, copper, and
aluminium.
 Carburising or Reducing Welding Flame

• The carburizing or reducing flame has excess of acetylene

and can be recognized by acetylene feather, which exists
between the inner cone and the outer envelope.
• The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral
flame and is usually much brighter in color.
• With iron and steel, carburizing flame produces very hard,
brittle substance known as iron carbide.
• A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing
flame by the fact that a carburizing flame contains more
acetylene than a oxidizing flame. A reducing flame has an
approximate temperature of 3038°C.
 Carburising or Reducing Welding Flame

• A carburizing-flame is used in the welding of lead

and for carburizing (surface hardening) purpose.
• A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not
carburize the metal; rather it ensures the absence
of the oxidizing condition.
• It is used for welding with low alloy steel rods
and for welding those metals, (e.g., non-ferrous)
that do not tend to absorb carbon.
• This flame is very well used for welding high
carbon steel
 Oxidising Welding flame

• The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen

over the acetylene.
• An oxidizing flame can be recognized by the
small cone, which is shorter, much bluer in
color and more pointed than that of the
neutral flame.
• The outer flame envelope is much shorter and
tends to fan out at the end.
 Cont.
• Such a flame makes a loud roaring sound.
• It is the hottest flame (temperature as high as 6300°F)
produced by any oxy-fuel gas source.
• But the excess oxygen especially at high temperatures
tends to combine with many metals to form hard,
brittle, low strength oxides.
• A slightly oxidizing flame is helpful when welding (i)
Copper-base metals (ii) Zinc-base metals and (iii) A few
types of ferrous metals such as manganese steel and
cast iron.
• The oxidizing atmosphere in these cases, create a
base-metal oxide that protects the base metal.
 OXYFUEL EQUIPMENT
• The equipment for oxyfuel gas welding
basically consists of a welding torch, which is
available in various sizes and shapes,
connected by hoses to high-pressure gas
cylinders and equipped with pressure gages
and regulators
The basic tools and equipments used for oxy-acetylene welding are following:

Oxy acetylene welding set up

Fig . Oxy acetylene welding set up

 Cont.…
• Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in
compressed gas cylinders.
• These gas cylinders differ widely in capacity,
design and colour code.
• However, in most of the countries, the
standard size of these cylinders is 6 to 7 m3
and is painted black for oxygen and maroon for
acetylene
 Gas pressure regulators

• Gas pressure regulators are employed for regulating

the supply of acetylene and oxygen gas from cylinders.
A pressure regulator is connected between the cylinder
and hose leading to welding torch.
• The cylinder and hose connections have left-handed
threads on the acetylene regulator while these are
right handed on the oxygen regulator.
• A pressure regulator is fitted with two pressure
gauges, one for indication of the gas pressure in the
cylinder and the other for indication of the reduced
pressure at which the gas is going out.
 Welding torch

• It is a tool for mixing oxygen and acetylene in

correct proportion and burning the mixture at the
end of a tip.
• Gas flow to the torch is controlled with the help
of two needle valves in the handle of the torch.
There are two basic types of gas welding torches:
• (1) Positive pressure (also known as medium or
equal pressure), and
• (2) Low pressure or injector type
 Welding torch
• The positive pressure type welding torch is the
more common of the two types of oxy-acetylene
torches.
Torch tips
• It is the portion of the welding apparatus through which
the gases pass just prior to their ignition and burning.
• A great variety of interchangeable welding tips differing in
size, shape and construction are available commercially.
Hose pipes
• The hose pipes are used for the supply of gases from the
pressure regulators.
• The most common method of hose pipe fitting both oxygen
and acetylene gas is the reinforced rubber hose pipe.
• Green is the standard color for oxygen hose, red for
acetylene, and black hose for other industrially available
welding gases.
Goggles
• These are fitted with colored lenses and are used to protect the
eyes from harmful heat and ultraviolet and infrared rays.
• Gloves
• These are required to protect the hands from any injury due to the
heat of welding process.
Spark-lighter
• It is used for frequent igniting the welding torch.
• Filler rods
• Gas welding can be done with or without using filler rod. When
welding with the filler rod, it should be held at approximately 900
to the welding tip.
• Filler rods have the same or nearly the same chemical composition
as the base metal.
Fluxes
• Fluxes are used in gas welding to remove the
oxide film and to maintain a clean surface.
• These are usually employed for gas welding of
aluminium, stainless steel, cast iron, brass and
silicon bronze.
• They are available in the market in the form of
dry powder, paste, or thick solutions.
Safety Recommendations for Gas Welding

• Welding and cutting of metals involve the

application of intense heat to the objects being
welded or cut.
• This intense heat in welding is obtained from the
use of inflammable gases,(e.g. acetylene,
hydrogen, etc.) or electricity.
• Therefore, it is suggested that the beginner in the
field of gas welding must go through and become
familiar with these general safety
recommendations, which are given below.
 Safety Recommendations for Gas Welding

1. Never hang a torch with its hose on regulators or

cylinder valves.
2. During working, if the welding tip becomes overheated
it may be cooled by plunging the torch into water;
close the acetylene valve but leave a little oxygen
flowing.
3. Always use the correct pressure regulators for a gas.
Acetylene pressure regulator should never be used
with any other gas.
4. Do not move the cylinder by holding the pressure
regulator and also handle pressure regulators carefully.
 Safety Recommendations for Gas Welding
5. Use pressure regulator only at pressures for which it is intended.
6. Open cylinder valves slowly to avoid straining the mechanism of
pressure regulator.
7. Never use oil, grease or lubricant of any kind on regulator
connections.
8. For repairs, calibrations and adjustments purposes, the pressure
regulators should
be sent to the supplier.
9. Do cracking before connecting pressure regulator to the gas cylinder.
10. Inspect union nuts and connections on regulators before use to
detect faulty seats
which may cause leakage of gas when the regulators are attached to
the cylinder
valves.
Safety Recommendations for Gas Welding

11. Hose connections shall be well fittings and

clamped properly otherwise securely fastened to
these connections in such a manner as to
withstand without leakage a pressure twice as
great as the maximum delivery pressure of the
pressure regulators provided on the system.
12. Protect the hose from flying sparks, hot slag,
hot workpiece and open flame. If dirt goes into
hose, blow through (with oxygen, not acetylene)
before coupling to torch or regulator.
 Safety Recommendations for Gas Welding
13. Store hose on a reel (an automobile wheel) when not
in use.
14. Never allow the hose to come into contact with oil or
grease; these deteriorate the rubber and constitute a
hazard with oxygen.
15. Use the correct color hose for oxygen (green/black)
and acetylene (red) and never
use oxygen hose for acetylene or vice versa.
16. Always protect hose from being trampled on or run
over. Avoid tangle and kinks.
Never leave the hose so that it can be tripped over.
 BRAZING AND SOLDERING
• Brazing is a process of joining metals without
melting the base metal.
• Filler material used for brazing has liquidus
temperature above 450°C and below the solidus
temperature of the base metal.
• The filler metal is drawn into the joint by means
of capillary action (entering of fluid into tightly
fitted surfaces).
• Brazing is a much widely used joining process in
various industries because of its many
advantages.
 BRAZING AND SOLDERING
• Due to the higher melting point of the filler
material, the joint strength is more than in
soldering.
• Almost all metals can be joined by brazing
except aluminum and magnesium which cannot
easily be joined by brazing.
• Dissimilar metals, such as stainless steel to cast
iron can be joined by brazing.
 Soldering
• Soldering is a method of joining similar or
dissimilar metals by heating them to a suitable
temperature and by means of a filler metal, called
solder, having liquidus temperuatre not
exceeding 450°C and below the solidus of the
base material.
• Though soldering obtains a good joint between
the two plates, the strength of the joint is limited
by the strength of the filler metal used.
 Soldering

• Solders are essentially alloys of lead and tin.

• To improve the mechanical properties and

temperature resistance, solders are added to
other alloying elements such as zinc, cadmium
and silver in various proportions.
 Thermit Welding (TW)
• FW process in which heat for coalescence is
produced by superheated molten metal from the
chemical reaction of thermite
• Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine powders
that produce an exothermic reaction when
ignited
• Also used for incendiary bombs
• Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
• Process used for joining, but has more in
common with casting than welding
 Thermit Welding (TW)
• Heat source utilized for fusion in the thermit
welding is the exothermic reaction ( in which
heat is produced ) of the thermit mixture

• Thermite = mixture of Al ( aluminium )and

Fe3O4 ( Iron oxide ) fine powders is kept in
crucible in a proportion of 1 part of Al and 3
part of Fe3O4.
 Cont…
• Some fluxes ( borax & sodium carbonate ) are also
added into this mixture.

• The igniting mixture which is normally barium peroxide

powder is placed at the top of the thermit mixture.

• This igniting mixture is ignited by means of heated

metal rod .
 Thermit Welding (TW)

▪When the thermit mixture reaches its ignition temp of 12000c,

the reaction starts, and temp reaches to 30000C and large
amount of heat is liberated which melts both iron & aluminum
oxide.

▪ Due to which Al is converted into Al2O3 and Fe ( Iron ) is

melted. This molten metal acts as a filler metal in between the
joint gap.
 Thermit Welding (TW)

▪Now the bottom plug of crucible is opened & molten metal is

allowed to drain into the prepared mould in between the joint
to be weld
▪After the weld cools , excess material is removed by
machining,
Grinding or any other cutting methods.
▪Though this process used for joining but has more common
with Casting than welding
 Thermit Welding

Figure: Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped,

superheated metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to produce weld
joint.
 TW Applications
• Joining of railroad rails
• Repair of cracks in large steel castings and
forgings
• Weld surface is often smooth enough that no
finishing is required
SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESSES
• In these processes, the base materials to be
joined are heated to a temperature below or just
up to the solidus temperature and then
continuous pressure is applied to form the
welded joint.
• No filler metal is used in solid-state welding
processes. The various solid-state welding
processes are-
(1) Forge Welding
(2) Cold Pressure Welding
(3) Friction Welding
(4) Explosive Welding
 Forge Welding
• In this welding process, the work-pieces to be
welded are heated to the plastic condition (above
1000°C), and then placed together and forged while
hot by applying force.
• Force may be applied by hammering, rolling,
drawing or squeezing to achieve the forging action.
• Forge welding was originally the first process of
welding.
 Friction Welding
• In this process, the heat for welding is obtained
from mechanically induced sliding motion
between rubbing surfaces of work-pieces as
shown in Fig. below .
• In friction welding, one part is firmly held while
the other (usually cylindrical) is rotated under
simultaneous application of axial pressure.
 Friction Welding
• As these parts are brought to rub against each other
under pressure, they get heated due to friction.
• When the desired forging temperature is attained,
the rotation is stopped and the axial pressure is
increased to obtain forging action and hence welded
joint.
• Most of the metals and their dissimilar combinations
such as aluminium and titanium, copper and steel,
aluminium and steel etc. can be welded using friction
welding.
 Friction Welding

Fig. Friction welding process

 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
FSW process in which a rotating tool is fed along a
joint line between two workpieces, generating
friction heat and mechanically stirring the metal
to form the weld seam
• Distinguished from FRW because heat is
generated by a separate wear-resistant tool
rather than the parts
• Applications: butt joints in large aluminum parts
in aerospace, automotive, and shipbuilding
 Friction Stir Welding
• (1) Rotating tool just before entering work,
and (2) partially completed weld seam
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Friction Stir Welding
• Advantages
– Good mechanical properties of weld joint
– Avoids toxic fumes, warping, and shielding issues
– Little distortion or shrinkage
– Good weld appearance
• Disadvantages
– An exit hole is produce when tool is withdrawn
– Heavy duty clamping of parts is required
 Explosive Welding
• In explosive welding, strong metallurgical
bonds can be produced between metal
combinations which cannot be welded by
other methods or processes.
• For example, tantalum can be explosively
welded to steel although the welding point of
tantalum is higher than the vaporization
temperature of steel.
 Explosive Welding
• It is carried out by bringing together properly
paired metal surfaces with high relative
velocity at a high pressure and a proper
orientation to each other so that a large
amount of plastic interaction occurs between
the surfaces.
• The work piece, held fixed is called the target
plate and the other called flyer plate.
 Explosive Welding

Fig. Explosive welding process

RESISTANCE, ELECTRON BEAM AND
LASER BEAM WELDING
 RESISTANCE WELDING
• In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are
heated by their resistance to the flow of an electrical
current.
• In resistance welding processes no fluxes are
employed, the filler metal is rarely used and the joints
are usually of the lap type.
Types of Resistance welding
The major types of resistance welding are given as under:
(1) Spot Welding
(2) Seam Welding
(3) Projection Welding
 RESISTANCE WELDING
(4) Resistance Butt Welding
(5) Flash Butt Welding
(6) Percussion Welding
(7) High Frequency Resistance Welding
(8) High Frequency Induction Welding
Some of the above important welding processes
are discussed as under,
 Spot Welding
• In this process overlapping sheets are joined by
local fusion at one or more spots, by the
concentration of current flowing between two
electrodes.
• This is the most widely used resistance welding
process.
• It essentially consists of two electrodes, out of
which one is fixed.
• The other electrode is fixed to a rocker arm (to
provide mechanical advantage) for transmitting
the mechanical force from a pneumatic cylinder.
 Spot Welding
The events are:
1. The squeeze time is the time required for the electrodes to
align and clamp the two work-pieces together under them
and provide the necessary electrical contact.
2. The weld time is the time of the current flow through the
work-pieces till they are heated to the melting temperature.
3. The hold time is the time when the pressure is to be
maintained on the molten metal without the electric current.
During this time, the pieces are expected to be forged welded.
4. The off time is time during which, the pressure on the
electrode is taken off so that the plates can be positioned for
the next spot.
 Spot Welding

Fig . Resistance spot welding machine setup

 Resistance Seam Welding
• It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein spot
welds overlap each other to the desired extent.
• In this process coalescence at the faying surfaces is
produced by the heat obtained from the resistance to
electric current (flow) through the work pieces held
together under pressure by circular electrodes.
• The resulting weld is a series of overlapping resistance-
spots welds made progressively along a joint by
rotating the circular electrodes.
• Overlapping continuous spot welds seams are
produced by the rotating electrodes and a regularly
interrupted current.
 Resistance Seam Welding

a b

Fig. (a) Principle of seam welding process ,Fig. (b)

Resistance seam welding process setup
 RADIANT ENERGY WELDING PROCESSES

• In radiant energy welding processes, heat is

produced at the point of welding when a
stream of electrons or a beam of electro-
magnetic radiations strikes on the work piece.
• This welding can be carried out in vacuum or
at low pressures.
• Electron beam welding (EBW) and laser
welding are two main types of radiant energy
welding processes.
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
• In EBW process, the heat is generated when
the electron beam impinges on work piece.
• As the high velocity electron beam strikes the
surfaces to be welded, their kinetic energy
changes to thermal energy and hence causes
the work piece metal to melt and fuse.
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
• This process employs an electron gun in which
the cathode in form of hot filament of
tungsten or tantalum is the source of a stream
of electrons.
• The electrons emitted from filament by
thermionic emission are accelerated to a high
velocity to the anode because of the large
potential difference that exists between them.
 Electron Beam Weldinig (EBW)
• The potential differences that are used are of the
order of 30 kV to 175 kV.
• The higher the potential difference, higher would
be the acceleration.
• The current levels are low ranging between 50
mA to 1000 mA.
• The electron beam is focused by a magnetic lens
system on the work pieces to be welded.
• The other advantage of using vacuum is that the
weld metal is not contaminated.
Electron Beam Weldinig (EBW)

fig. Electron beam welding set up

The EBW process is mainly used for welding of reactive metals (nuclear reactor
components), titanium, zirconium, stainless steel, etc. for aero-space and automotive
industries.
 Laser Beam Welding
• Laser beam welding is a technique in
manufacturing whereby two or more pieces of
material (usually metal) are joined by together
through use of a laser beam.
• Laser stands for Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
• It is a non-contact process that requires
access to the weld zone from one side of the
parts being welded.
 Laser Beam Welding
• Laser beam welding (LBW) is a process that melts
and joins metals by heating them with a laser beam.
• The laser beam can be produced either by a solid-
state laser or a gas laser. In either case, the laser
beam can be focused and directed by optical means
to achieve high power densities. In a solid-state laser,
a single crystal is doped with small concentrations of
transition elements or rare earth elements. For
instance, in a YAG laser the crystal of yttrium–
aluminum–garnet (YAG) is doped with neodymium.
 Laser Beam Welding
• The electrons of the dopant element can be
selectively excited to higher energy levels upon
expo-sure to high-intensity flash lamps, as shown
in Figure below .Lasing occurs when these excited
electrons return to their normal energy state.The
power level of solid-state lasers has improved
significantly, and continuous YAG lasers of 3 or
even 5 kW have been developed.
• In a CO2 laser,a gas mixture of CO2,N2, and He is
continuously excited by electrodes connected to
the power supply and lases continuously.
Cont.
Laser Beam Welding
 WELDING DEFECTS
• Defects in welding
joints are given in
figures below
 WELDING DEFECTS
1. Lack of Penetration
It is the failure of the filler metal to penetrate into the joint. It is
due to
(a) Inadequate de-slagging
(b) Incorrect edge penetration
(c) Incorrect welding technique.
2. Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the
parent metal. It is due to
(a) Too fast a travel
(b) Incorrect welding technique
(c) Insufficient heat
 WELDING DEFECTS
3. Porosity
It is a group of small holes throughout the weld metal.
It is caused by the trapping of gas during the welding process, due to
(a) Chemicals in the metal
(b) Dampness
(c) Too rapid cooling of the weld.
4. Slag Inclusion
It is the entrapment of slag or other impurities in the weld. It is caused by
(a) Slag from previous runs not being cleaned away,
(b) Insufficient cleaning and preparation of the base metal before welding
commences.
5. Undercuts
These are grooves or slots along the edges of the weld caused by
(a) Too fast a travel
(b) Bad welding technique
(c) Too great a heat build-up.
 WELDING DEFECTS
6. Cracking (Fig. 17.31 (vi))
It is the formation of cracks either in the weld metal or in the
parent metal. It is due to
(a) Unsuitable parent metals used in the weld
(b) Bad welding technique.
Distortion (Fig. 17.31 (viii))
Distortion is due to high cooling rate, small diameter electrode,
poor clamping and slow arc
travel speed
9. Overlays
These consist of metal that has flowed on to the parent metal
without fusing with it. The
defect is due to
(a) Contamination of the surface of the parent metal
(b) Insufficient heat
 WELDING DEFECTS
10. Blowholes
These are large holes in the weld caused by
(a) Gas being trapped, due to moisture.
(b) Contamination of either the filler or parent metals.
11. Burn Through
It is the collapse of the weld pool due to
(a) Too great a heat concentration
(b) Poor edge preparation.
12. Excessive Penetration
It is where the weld metal protrudes through the root of the
weld. It is caused by
(a) Incorrect edge preparation
(b) Too big a heat concentration
(c) Too slow a travel.
Metals and their weld ability
 WELDABILITY
• Weldability is the capacity of a metal or
combination of metals to be welded into a
suitably designed structure, and for the
resulting weld joint(s) to possess the required
metallurgical properties to perform
satisfactorily in the intended service.
 Cont…
Good weldability is characterized by the ease with
which the welding process is accomplished,
absence of weld defects, and acceptable strength,
ductility, and toughness in the welded joint
 Factors that affect weldability
• Factors that affect weldability include
• (1) welding process,
• (2) base metal properties,
• (3) filler metal, and
• (4) surface conditions.
 Cont..
• The welding process is significant.
• Some metals or metal combinations that can
be readily welded by one process are difficult
to weld by others.
• For example, stainless steel can be readily
welded by most AW processes, but is
considered a difficult metal for oxyfuel
welding.
 Cont..
Properties of the base metal affect welding
performance.
• Important properties include melting point,
thermal conductivity, and coefficient of
thermal expansion.
• One might think that a lower melting point
would mean easier welding.
• However, some metals melt too easily for
good welding (e.g., aluminum).
 Cont..
• Metals with high thermal conductivity tend to
transfer heat away from the weld zone, which
can make them hard to weld (e.g.copper).

• High thermal expansion and contraction in the

metal causes distortion problems in the
welded assembly.
 Cont..
• Dissimilar metals pose special problems in
welding when their physical and/or
mechanical properties are substantially
different.
• Differences in melting temperature are an
obvious problem.
• Differences in strength or coefficient of
thermal expansion may result in high residual
stresses that can lead to cracking.
 Cont..
• If a filler metal is used, it must be compatible
with the base metal(s).
• In general, elements mixed in the liquid state
that form a solid solution upon solidification
will not cause a problem.
• Embrittlement in the weld joint may occur if
the solubility limits are exceeded
 Cont…
• Surface conditions of the base metals can
adversely affect the operation.
• For example, moisture can result in porosity in
the fusion zone.
• Oxides and other solid films on the metal
surfaces can prevent adequate contact and
fusion from occurring.