Forging - 4

press.
The initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some machines can accept bars up to 25 cm
(9.8 in) in diameter and a capacity of over 1000 tons. The standard upsetting machine employs
split dies that contain multiple cavities. The dies open enough to allow the workpiece to move from
one cavity to the next; the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram, then moves longitudinally
against the bar, upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are utilized on every cycle, then a
finished part will be produced with every cycle, which makes this process advantageous for mass
production.[18]
These rules must be followed when designing parts to be upset forged:[19]
The length of unsupported metal that can be upset in one blow without injurious buckling
should be limited to three times the diameter of the bar.
Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset successfully, provided
that the diameter of the upset is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock.
In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the stock, and where
the diameter of the cavity is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock, the length of
unsupported metal beyond the face of the die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.
Automatic hot forging

The automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-length steel bars (typically 7 m (23 ft)
long) into one end of the machine at room temperature and hot forged products emerge from the
other end. This all occurs rapidly; small parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm)
and larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. The parts can be solid or hollow, round or
symmetrical, up to 6 kg (13 lb), and up to 18 cm (7.1 in) in diameter. The main advantages to this
process are its high output rate and ability to accept low-cost materials. Little labor is required to
operate the machinery.
There is no flash produced so material savings are between 20 and 30% over conventional forging.
The final product is a consistent 1,050 °C (1,920 °F) so air cooling will result in a part that is still
easily machinable (the advantage being the lack of annealing required after forging). Tolerances
are usually ±0.3 mm (0.012 in), surfaces are clean, and draft angles are 0.5 to 1°. Tool life is nearly
double that of conventional forging because contact times are on the order of 0.06-second. The
downside is that this process is only feasible on smaller symmetric parts and cost; the initial
investment can be over $10 million, so large quantities are required to justify this process.[20]
The process starts by heating the bar to 1,200 to 1,300 °C (2,190 to 2,370 °F) in less than 60
seconds using high-power induction coils. It is then descaled with rollers, sheared into blanks, and
transferred through several successive forming stages, during which it is upset, preformed, final
forged, and pierced (if necessary). This process can also be coupled with high-speed cold-forming
operations. Generally, the cold forming operation will do the finishing stage so that the advantages
of cold-working can be obtained, while maintaining the high speed of automatic hot forging.[21]
Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel hub unit bearings, transmission gears, tapered
roller bearing races, stainless steel coupling flanges, and neck rings for liquid propane (LP) gas
cylinders.[22] Manual transmission gears are an example of automatic hot forging used in
conjunction with cold working.[23]
Forging 7
Roll forging
Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in thickness and increased in
length. Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing
one or more shaped grooves. A heated bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a spot the rolls
rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled through the machine. The piece is then
transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves. This
continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The advantage of this process is there is no
flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece.[24]
Examples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers and leaf springs.
Net-shape and near-net-shape forging

This process is also known as precision forging. It was developed to minimize cost and waste
associated with post-forging operations. Therefore, the final product from a precision forging
needs little or no final machining. Cost savings are gained from the use of less material, and thus
less scrap, the overall decrease in energy used, and the reduction or elimination of machining.
Precision forging also requires less of a draft, 1° to 0°. The downside of this process is its cost,
therefore it is only implemented if significant cost reduction can be achieved.[25]
Cold forging
Near net shape forging is most common when parts are forged without heating the slug, bar or
billet. Aluminum is a common material that can be cold forged depending on final shape.
Lubrication of the parts being formed is critical to increase the life of the mating dies.
Induction forging
Unlike the above processes, induction forging is based on the type of heating style used. Many of
the above processes can be used in conjunction with this heating method.
Multidirectional forging
Multidirectional forging is forming of a work piece in a single step in several directions. The
multidirectional forming takes place through constructive measures of the tool. The vertical
movement of the press ram is redirected using wedges which distributes and redirects the force of
the forging press in horizontal directions.[26]
Isothermal forging
Isothermal forging is a process by which the materials and the die are heated to the same
temperature (iso- meaning "equal"). Adiabatic heating is used to assist in the deformation of the
material, meaning the strain rates are highly controlled. This technique is commonly used for
forging aluminium, which has a lower forging temperature than steels. Forging temperatures for
aluminum are around 430 °C (806 °F), while steels and super alloys can be 930 to 1,260 °C (1,710
to 2,300 °F).
Benefits:
Near net shapes which lead to lower machining requirements and therefore lower scrap rates
Reproducibility of the part
Forging 8
Due to the lower heat loss smaller machines can be used to make the forging
Disadvantages:
Higher die material costs to handle temperatures and pressures

Uniform heating systems are required
Protective atmospheres or vacuum to reduce oxidation of the dies and material
Low production rates
Materials and applications
Forging of steel
Depending on the forming temperature steel forging can be
divided into:[27]
Hot forging of steel

Forging temperatures above the recrystallization
temperature between 950–1250 °C
Good formability
Low forming forces
Constant tensile strength of the workpieces
Warm forging of steel
Forging temperatures between 750–950 °C
Less or no scaling at the workpiece surface Solid forged billets of steel (glowing
Narrower tolerances achievable than in hot forging incandescently) being loaded in a
Limited formability and higher forming forces than for large industrial chamber furnace, for
hot forging re-heating
Lower forming forces than in cold forming

Cold forging of steel
Forging temperatures at room conditions, self-heating up to 150 °C due to the forming
energy
Narrowest tolerances achievable
No scaling at workpiece surface
Increase of strength and decrease of ductility due to strain hardening
Low formability and high forming forces are necessary
For industrial processes steel alloys are primarily forged in hot condition. Brass, bronze, copper,
precious metals and their alloys are manufactured by cold forging processes; each metal requires a
different forging temperature.
Forging of aluminium
Aluminium forging is performed at a temperature range between 350–550 °C
Forging temperatures above 550 °C are too close to the solidus temperature of the alloys and
lead in conjunction with varying effective strains to unfavorable workpiece surfaces and
potentially to a partial melting as well as fold formation.[28]
Forging 9

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press.

These rules must be followed when designing parts to be upset forged:[19]

Automatic hot forging

Net-shape and near-net-shape forging

Higher die material costs to handle temperatures and pressures

Materials and applications

Hot forging of steel

Lower forming forces than in cold forming

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