Analysis of Diode circuit:

The circuit consisting of many diodes, resistance and sources can be analysed.
1. Begins with assuming certain diodes ON and other diodes OFF.(This assumption is
based on the polarities of sources connected to the circuit)

2. Then diodes must be replaced by a battery of voltages Vγ and series resistance

RL. If RL is not known it can be assumed as zero.

3. The Off diodes must be replaced by open circuit.

4. Then the circuit becames linear and can be analysed using Kirchoff’s laws.
5. The assumption of ON diodes can be verified from the direction of circuits
obtained by Kirchoff’s laws analysis.
For the above figure, applying Kirchoff’s law we get:
-IRL-Vγ+Vin=0
IRL = Vo = -Vo-Vγ+Vin =0
Vo = Vin-Vγ (For Vin = 5V and Vγ = 0.7V)
Vo= 4.3V

Clipper Circuits: (Limiters)

The basic action of clipper circuits is to remove the certain portions of the waveform, above
or below the certain levels, as per the requirements.
Definition: the circuits which are used to clip off unwanted portion of the waveform, without
distorting the remaining part of the waveform are called clipper circuits or clippers.
It is also called as limiters or slicers.
Classified as : depending of the orientation of the diode in the circuit.
The half wave rectifier is the best and simplest type of clipper circuit.
By changing the orientation of the diode in the circuit, positive or negative portion of the
input signal can be clipped off
Two types of clipper circuits:
1. Series clippers 2. Parallel clippers.
When the diode is connected in series with the load, such circuit is called series clipper.
When the diode is connected in a branch which is parallel to the load, it is called parallel
clipper.

Steps to analysis of clipper circuits:

The various clipper circuits can be analysed using the following steps:
1: Replace the diodes by one of its equivalent models.
2: Identify ON and OFF states of the diodes and the clipping levels of Vin
3. Derive the equation for transfer characteristics of the circuit.
4. Plot the transfer characteristics and input -output waveforms of the circuit.
1. Series clippers:
A:Series Negative Clippers :
i)Operations of circuit:
ii) Transfer characteristics:
iii) Effect of cut-in (Vγ) voltage of diode:

1. Series clippers: A series clipper can be used to clip off the entire positive or negative
half cycles of input waveforms. It can be used to clip off the portion above the
certain reference voltage or below the certain reference voltage.
 Working of series clipper circuits:

i)Operations of circuit:
in the above circuit where diode is connected in series with the load.
For positive half cycle the diode D is forward biased. Hence the voltage waveform across RL
looks like a positive half cycle of the input voltage.
While for a negative half cycle diode D is reverse biased and hence will not conduct at all.
Hence there will not be any voltage available across resistance RL. Hence the negative half
cycle of input voltage gets clipped off.
As it clips off negative half cycle of the input waveform it is called as series negative clipper.

ii) Transfer characteristics:

the graph of output against input variable of the circuit is called transfer characteristics of
the circuit.
Thus for the negative clipper, the graph of Vo against Vi is the transfer characteristics.
The mathematical equation for such a graph assuming ideal is given by.

iii) Effect of cut-in (Vγ) voltage of diode:

In series negative clipper, the diode D conducts when vi>vγ (vo=vi) vi = input voltage, vo =
output voltage, vγ = cutin voltage of diode.
Where Vγ is 0.7V for silicon diodes
While for Vi < vγ, the diode D is OFF and Vo = 0V.
Thus due to cut-in voltage of diode
1. Only negative half cycle does not get clipped off but part of the positive half cycle till
Vi becomes more than Vγ of diode also gets clipped off.
2. The max output voltage Vo available is less than max input voltage Vm by the
amount equal to Vγ.
3. The mathematical equation for transfer characteristics now becomes
Vo = 0 …. For Vi<0.7V
Vo = Vi ….. for Vi >0.7V
2. Series positive clipper circuits:
(The positive series clipper can be obtained by changing the direction of diode in negative
clipper circuit.)
Similar to series negative clipper, a circuit which clips off positive part of the input can be
obtained. It is called series positive clipper.

Circuit operation: For positive half cycle of input, Vi > 0 and diode is reverse biased. Hence it
acts as open circuit and Vo = 0V.
For negative half cycle, when Vi < 0, the diode conducts, and it is forward biased. Hence the
output voltage Vo available is same as input voltage (Vo=Vi). Thus entire negative half cycle
input is available at the output.

Input and Output waveform:

Transfer characteristics:
With ideal diode, the equation for transfer characteristics is,
Vo = 0 ……for Vi > 0V
Vo = -Vi …….for Vi≤ 0V

If the diode is not ideal then as long as Vi is less than -Vγ i.e -0.7V, the diode cannot
conduct.
Hence mathematical equation for transfer characteristics with practical diode (non ideal)
having cut-in voltage Vγ is
Vo = 0 ….. for Vi ≥ - 0.7V
Vo = -Vi -(-0.7) ….for Vi ≤ - 0.7
Thus due to Vγ, the part of negative half cycle also gets clipped off along with a positive half
cycle of the input, in a positive series clipper circuit.
Analysis and Equivalent circuit :

+vin - Vγ -IRl=0 , +vin - vγ-vo

Vo = vin-vγ = -vin+vγ

Clipping above Reference Voltage VR:

Steps to analyse the circuit:

If D is forward biased by Vi, it may reverse bias by VR.
If D is reverse biased by Vi, it may forward bias by VR.
In both cases check the voltage level of Vi and VR. (Vi<VR or Vi>VR. Because to that voltage
level diode will be either forward bias or reverse biased).
Plot the output waveforms based on the conditions.
Circuit operation: When Vi is less than VR, the diode becomes forward biased and the circuit
can be reduced to as shown in fig (a). in this case the output voltage Vo is equal to input
voltage Vi. i.e Vo=Vi
2.When Vi is greater than VR, the diode is reverse biased and circuit gets reduced to as
shown in fig.(b). No current flows in the circuit as circuit is open and hence Vo = VR.

Equivalent circuit :

The input and output waveforms for such a clipper are shown :

Transfer characteristics:
The mathematical representation helps us to sketch the transfer characteristics of the
clipper circuit. The equations below are called the transfer characteristics equations.
Vo = Vi…… for Vi<VR
Vo = VR …. for Vi > VR
For the portion till Vi < VR the graph is straight line. This region is called the transmission
region, as it transmits Vi at the output same as Vo. While the portion for Vi>VR the output is
constant. This region is called clipping region.
Problem:

-IR – Vi + 5=0 , I = 5-Vi/R ,

Vo = 5 – IxR = 5-(5-Vi)/R x R
Vo = Vi
Vi>5V the diode is reverse biased and acts as open circuit. The circuit reduced to Fig.(b) Vo =
5V
Clipping below Reference Voltage VR:

Let the diode D is an ideal diode.

1.When Vi is less than VR, the diode is reverse biased and the circuit is as shown in (a). No
current can flow in the circuit hence Vo = VR.

2)Vi > VR diode is forward biased, thus the output is equal to input voltage Vi.Vo = Vi
Input and output waveforms:
Transfer characteristics:
Mathematically this can be written as
Vo = VR , ….. for Vi<VR
Vo = Vi, …… for Vi>VR

Problem:Analyse the clipper circuit and draw the output waveform and transfer
characteristics

=-IR-VR+Vin = 0 , -Vo-5V+15V = Vo = 15-5V= 10

Additional D.C Supply voltage in Series with Diode:

In the above circuit an additional d.c. supply has been added in series with the diode.
Now let us see what happens to the diode when Vi>VR and Vi< VR.
i. As long as Vi < VR, the diode is reverse biased, with the VR. and circuit becomes as
shown below

2. When Vi > VR , the diode is forward biased and it starts conducting and the circuit
becomes as shown below
 Applying the KVL to the circuit we get (ideal diode)
-IRL -VR + Vi ∴ Vo = IRL ∴ Vo = Vi – VR
3. The input and output waveforms can be drawn from the above equation

Thus for Vi>VR, Vo will follow the input because diode is forward biased (Vo = Vi – VR).
And when Vi<VR diode is reverse biased Vo = 0.
Thus by selecting the proper value of VR, the output can be adjusted as per the
requirement.
Problem: Sketch the output for the given circuit assuming ideal diode.

Problem: Sketch the output for the given circuit assuming ideal diode.

Solution: The diode is forward biased due to the battery voltage 10V when Vin = 0 (as long as
Vin > -10V) and equivalent circuit is

Applying the KVL to loop, we get +10 – Vo + Vin = 0

i.e Vo = Vin + 10. For Vin = 0 Vo = 10V and Vin = 50V then Vo = 60V.
when Vin < -10V the diode is reverse biased and circuit becomes open and Vo = 0.
Input and output waveforms:

Problem 2: Sketch the output for the given circuit assuming practical diode.(Vγ = 0.7V).
Problem3: sketch the waveform of Vo for the circuit shown in fig.

Basic Parallel Clipper with Positive Clipping:

This is called as parallel clipper circuit in which D is connected across load resistance RL
The resistance R1 is current controlling resistance.
Circuit operation:(ideal diode)
Assume ideal diode. During positive half cycle of the input Vi, the diode D is forward biased
till negative half cycle of Vi. As RL in parallel with diode no current flows through it and
output voltage Vo = 0V. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.
As diode is ideal acts as short circuit when forward biased, the current I flow entirely
through diode D. The Drop across short circuit diode is zero.
During negative half cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and acts as open circuit.
The entire current flows through RL as shown in fig below

Hence Vo = IRL since I = V/R = Vin/R1+RL

𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑅1+𝑅𝐿

As Vo αVi during negative half cycle of the input, proportionate negative half cycle is
available at the output.
Input and output waveforms:

Transfer characteristics:
The mathematical equations for the transfer characteristics are,
Practical diode:(cuttin voltage Vγ=VR = 0.7V)
Assume practical diode. During positive half cycle of the input Vi, as long as Vin < Vγ, the
diode D will not conduct. But when Vin = Vγ, the diode D is forward biased till negative half
cycle of Vi. As RL in parallel with diode no current flows through it and output voltage Vo =
Vγ= 0.7V. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.

Transfer characteristics: The mathematical equations are: Vo = Vi…. for Vi < Vγ (0.7)
Vo = Vγ…. for Vi > Vγ
Parallel clipper circuits with Reference voltage VR:(Positive)
It is necessary to have reference voltage level for clipping, other than Vγ then an external
battery can be used in the basic circuit.
The introduction of battery in series with the diode is effective in clipping the a.c voltage
waveform above the certain reference voltage called bias voltage or reference voltage.

Circuit Operation:
The operation for positive half cycle of the input can be divide into two cases.
Case 1: Vi is positive but less than VR

When Vi is positive but less than VR, the diode D is reverse biased (due to VR) and acts as
open circuit as shown in equivalent circuit.
Hence the output voltage
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑅1+𝑅𝐿
But by selecting R1<<RL, Vo = Vi.
Case 2: Vi positive and greater than VR. when vi becomes greater than VR, the diode is
forward biased and acts as short circuit as shown in fig. the output voltage Vo = VA (at node
A) which is VR now no other source in circuit, as the drop across ideal ON diode is zero.

Hence Vo = VR.
When Vi again becomes less than VR the diode D becomes OFF and Vo = Vi .
During Negative half cycle of the input, Vi <VR hence diode D remains reverse biased. It acts
as open circuit.
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑅1+𝑅𝐿
= Vi ….R1<<RL.

The input and output waveforms and transfer characteristics:

Parallel clipper circuits with Reference voltage VR:(Negative)
In this case the voltage source VR is added in such a way it opposes the drop VD = Vγ = 0.7V

Assume practical diode. During positive half cycle of the input Vi, as long as Vin < Vγ, the
diode D will not conduct. But when Vin = Vγ, the diode D is forward biased and as -VR is
more negative than 0.7, the diode D is forward biased by -VR, thus the overall clipping level
VA becomes negative.
Hence as long as Vin > -VR + 0.7 i.e VA , the diode is forward biased and the output voltage is
Vo = VA.
∴ Vo = VA = -VR + 0.7 …. Vin ≥ VA…….(1)
During negative half cycle the diode is reverse biased but it is forward biased by VR until Vin
>-VA .
When Vin is less than VA, the diode D becomes reverse biased and acts as an open circuit.
And output is same as input assuming R1<< RL.
∴ Vo = Vin…. for Vin <VA…….(2)

The transfer characteristics:

The shaped portion is the transmitting region.

The equation (1) and (2) are the transfer characteristics equations, from which the transfer
characteristics can be shown.
Problems:
Basic Parallel Clipper Circuits with negative clipping:
The negative clipping with basic parallel clipper can be achieved by reversing the direction of
diode.

When Vin is positive then the diode is reversed biased and acts as an open circuit. Thus the
output voltage Vo is same as Vin for R1 << RL. Hence the positive half cycle of Vin gets
reproduced at the output.
The magnitude of the output voltage during positive half cycle is: (open circuit)
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑅1+𝑅𝐿
= Vi ….R1<<RL.

During negative half cycle of Vin the diode is forward biased and
Assume ideal diode. During negative half cycle of the input Vi, the diode D is forward biased
till positive half cycle of Vi. As RL in parallel with diode no current flows through it and output
voltage Vo = 0V. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.

As diode is ideal acts as short circuit when forward biased, the current I flow entirely
through diode D. The Drop across short circuit diode is zero.
Consider the practical diode, during the negative half cycle of Vin . As Vin decreases below
zero and becomes – 0.7V, the diode becomes forward biased and starts conducting. As long
as Vin <- 0.7V, the diode remains ON and drop across it is cut-in voltage Vγ = 0.7V, with
polarities as shown in the Figure.
Vo = - 0.7 V ….. for Vin< - 0.7V
Thus the entire negative half cycle gets clipped off, as shown in the figure.

Input and output waveforms: (for both practical and ideal diode)

Transfer characteristics :
The transfer characteristic equations are
Vo = Vin ….. Vin ≥ - Vγ
Vo = Vγ ….. Vin ≤ - Vγ

Problem:
Draw the output voltage waveforms for the circuit shown in the figure if input voltage is
square wave of amplitude 5V. Assume ideal diode ( Vγ = 0) identify the circuit.

Solution:
1. For positive half cycle of the input, Vi = 5V hence diode D is reverse biased, and hence
current I flows (fig.a) as :
Vo = IRL
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼 = 𝑅1+𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝐿 5000
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑅1+𝑅𝐿
= 𝑣𝑖 50+5000
= 0. 99𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖

2. For negative half cycle of the input, the diode D is forward biased and becomes ON. The
drop across it is 0V as it is ideal. Hence RL gets bypassed through short provided by diode.
(fig.b)
∴ Vo = 0V
Thus Vo = Vi ….. Vi > 0 and Vo = 0V ……. Vi < 0V
Basic Parallel Negative Clipper Circuits with +ve
Reference Voltage VR:
If it is necessary to have reference voltage level for clipping, other than Vγ then an external
battery can be used in the basic circuit.
The introduction of battery in series with the diode is effective in clipping the A.C voltage
waveform above the certain reference voltage called bias voltage or reference voltage.
The reference voltage is denoted as VR.

Circuit Operation:
The figure shows parallel negative clipper with bias reference voltage VR. This is obtained by
reversing the direction of diode in a parallel positive clipper with reference voltage VR.

Assuming ideal diode. During positive half cycle of the input, when Vi = 0V, due to VR diode
is forward biased immediately.
The voltage of the node A is VA = VR when diode is ON as shown in figure.
∴Vo = VA = VR ….. D ON . This condition exists as long as Vi < VR.
When Vi increases more than VR, the diode D becomes reverse biased. The equivalent circuit
is shown in fig.

The output voltage follows the input voltage:

𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑅1+𝑅𝐿
= 𝑣𝑖 …… R1<<RL

When Vi becomes less than VR , the diode D again becomes ON and Vo = VR. The diode
remains ON for entire negative half cycle of the input and for which Vo = VR.
Input and output waveforms:

Transfer characteristics: The equations for the transfer characteristics are,

Vo = Vi , ………. For Vi > VR
Vo = VR , ………. For Vi < VR

Problem: sketch the output waveform Vo for the circuit shown in Figure. Assume ideal
diode.
Solution:
During positive half cycle, When the Vi is less than VR reference voltage 4V than diode is
forward biased by VR voltage and Vo = VA (node voltage) = VR = 4V.
And when Vi > VR than diode is reverse biased and Vo = Vi.
During negative half cycle the diode is forward biased, no current flows and the entire cycle
is clipped off. Since Vo = 0.
Input and output waveforms:

Problem 2: Analyze the give circuit and sketch the nature of its output voltage.
Parallel Negative clipper circuits with Reference voltage VR:(Negative)
In this case the voltage source VR is added in such a way it opposes the drop VD = Vγ = - 0.7V

Assume practical diode. During negative half cycle of the input Vi, as long as Vin > Vγ, the
diode D will not conduct. But when Vin = Vγ, the diode D is forward biased and as -VR is
more negative than 0.7, the diode D is reverse biased by -VR, the circuit is now open circuit,
thus the Vo = Vi.
Hence as Vin < -VR + (- 0.7) i.e VA , the diode is forward biased and the output voltage is Vo =
VA.
∴ Vo = VA = -VR + (-0.7) …. Vin < VA…….(1)
During positive half cycle the diode is reverse biased, and acts as an open circuit. And
output is same as input assuming R1<< RL.
hence Vo = Vin.
∴ Vo = Vin…. for Vin >VA…….(2)

The transfer characteristics:

The equation (1) and (2) are the transfer characteristics equations, from which the transfer
characteristics can be shown.

Two Way Parallel Clipper Circuit:

In this circuit it is required to clip off the portions of both positive and negative half cycles of
the input. For this clipping at two different levels is required.
Combining positive and negative clipper circuits with VR, a two way parallel clipper can be
obtained.
The circuit diagram of two way parallel clipper is shown in fig below
Assume that the input is purely sinusoidal in nature. The diodes D1 and D2 are ideal diodes.
Circuit Operation:
During Positive half cycle of the input:
When Vin goes positive till it becomes more than V1, D1 and D2 both the diodes are reverse
biased. And hence Vo = Vin.
When Vin > V1 then D1 becomes forward biased and conducts. While D2 remains reverse
biased for the entire positive half cycle of the input. This shown in Fig a and b.
Thus When Vin < V1, D1 and D2 are OFF and Vo = Vin.
While when Vin > V1, D1 is ON and D2 is OFF and Vo = V1.

During Negative half cycle of the input:

When Vin goes negative the diode D1 remains OFF for the entire negative half cycle of the
input.
As long as Vin is greater than V2, D1 and D2 both the diodes are reverse biased. And hence Vo
= Vin.
When Vin < V2 then diode D2 becomes forward biased and conducts. While D1 remains
reverse biased for the entire positive half cycle of the input. This shown in Fig a and b. The
output Vo = V2.
Thus When Vin > V2, D1 and D2 are OFF and Vo = Vin.
While when Vin < V2, D2 is ON and D1 is OFF and Vo = V2.

Input and output waveforms:

Transfer characteristics:
Problems:
Clamping circuits:
The circuit which are used to add a d.c. level as per the requirements to the a.c. output
signed are called clamper circuits.
Sometimes it is necessary to add a d.c. level to the a.c. output signal.
The three basic elements of a clamper circuit is :
1.Diode 2. Capacitor 3. Resistor 4. Biasing (battery)
The clamper circuits are also called as d.c. restorer or d.c inserter circuits.

Depending upon the whether the positive d.c or negative d.c shift is introduced in the
output waveforms, the clampers are classified as,
i)Negative clampers ii) Positive clamper
Important Assumptions are made while analysing the clamper circuit:
1.The diode is ideal in behaviour
2. The time constant τ = RC is designed to be very large by selecting large value of R and C.
Steps to analyze the clamping network:
1.Start the analysis of the clamping network by considering that part of the input which will
forward bias the diode.
2.When the diode is conducting, assume that the capacitor charges instantaneously to a
voltage level determined by the input.
3.Assume that when the diode is not conducting, due to the large time constant, capacitor
charges instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the input.
4.Analyse the output, taking care of its polarities. Sketch the output waveform

Negative Clamper circuit:

A simple negative clamper which adds a negative level to the a.c output is shown in the Fig.
1.9.1 It consists of a capacitor C, ideal diode D and the load resistance RL.

Circuit Operation:
During the first quarter of positive cycle of the input voltage Vi, the capacitor gets charged
through forward biased diode D upto the maximum value Vm of the input signal Vi.
The capacitor charging is almost instantaneous, which is possible by selecting proper value
of C and RL in the circuit.
The capacitor once charged to Vm, acts as a battery of voltage Vm as shown in fig.1.9.2
Thus when D is ON, the output voltage Vo is zero.

As input voltage decreased after attaining its maximum value Vm, the capacitor remains
charged to Vm and the diode D becomes reverse biased.
Due to large RC time constant the capacitor holds its entire charge and capacitor voltage
remains as VC = Vm as shown in the fig.1.9.3
And the output voltage Vo is now given by,
Vo = Vi – VC = Vi – Vm

In the negative half cycle of Vi, the diode will remain reverse biased. The capacitor starts
discharging through the resistance RL. As the time constant RLC is very large, it can be
approximated that the capacitor holds all its charge and remains charged to Vm, during this
period also. Hence we can write again that,
Vo = Vi – VC = Vi – Vm

Input and output waveforms:

Positive Clamper:
By changing the orientation of the diode in the negative clamper, the positive
clamper circuit can be achieved.
Circuit Operation:

During the first quarter of negative half cycle of the input voltage Vi, diode D gets forward biased and
capacitor instantaneously gets charged equal to the maximum value Vm of the input signal Vi, with
the polarities as shown in Fig. The capacitor once charged to Vm, acts as a battery of voltage Vm with
the polarities as shown in fig. This is because RC time constant is very large hence capacitor holds its
entire charge all the time.

Under steady state condition by applying KVL we can write

Vo = Vi + Vm.
Thus when Vi = Vm the output voltage Vo is 2Vm.
In the positive half cycle, the diode D is reverse biased. The capacitor starts
discharging through RL, But due to large time constant, it hardly gets discharged
during positive half cycle of Vi. This is shown in fig.

Hence Vo = Vi + Vm.
Vo = Vm ….. for Vi = 0
Vo = 2Vm …. For Vi = Vm
Vo = 0, for Vi = -Vm
Addition of Battery in Clamper Circuits:
While the interval t2 and t3 lasts for half of the period i.e T/2 = 1/2x1000 = 0.5 msec.
Thus capacitor holds its entire charge and remains charged at 29V. thus the output
waveforms are shown in fig.1.9.20.
It can be observed that the total output swing, is equal to the total input swing equal to 40V.
The circuit adds 29V d.c to the input, to produce the output.