Total Quality Management (TQM)

TQM is a theory of management based on the principles of quality assurance. It consists of the
integration of all functions and processes within an organization in order to achieve continuous
improvement of the quality of goods and services. As such, TQM is described as a process for
managing quality; a philosophy of perpetual improvement. TQM relies on the fundamental principle
that is the core of any business: maximize productivity while minimizing costs. Its goal is customer
satisfaction.

The Concept of Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management (TQM) is based on a number of ideas. It means thinking about quality in
terms of all functions of the enterprise, and it can be viewed as a management-led approach in which
top management commitment is essential, a start-to-finish systems approach that integrates
interrelated functions at all levels. TQM considers every interaction between the various elements of
the organization.

The emphasis is on quality in all aspects and functions of the company operation, companywide, not
just the manufacturing function or provision of a major service to the external end-customer.
Employee awareness and motivation are essential. All are responsible for ensuring quality in terms of
satisfying the customer in all they do, and the approach is one of prevention of errors and faults rather
than detection and correction. Thus, the overall effectiveness of the system is higher than the sum of
the individual outputs from the subsystems.

The subsystems include all the organizational functions in the life cycle of a product, such as design,
planning, production, distribution, and field service. Management subsystems also require integration,
including strategy with a customer focus, the tools of quality, and employee involvement (an
important linking process that integrates the whole)

A corollary is that any product, process, or service can be improved, and a successful organization is
one that consciously seeks and exploits opportunities for improvement at all levels. The load-bearing
structure is customer satisfaction. The watchword is Continuous Improvement.

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 Following the Japanese, most TQM programs extensively employ teamwork to provide improved
planning analysis and problem solving, communication, motivation, and collective responsibility.

Note: TQM can also be explained using the concept of different policy orientations.

Policy orientations

For quality policy various orientations are used, depending on the organization’s culture and
individual beliefs of top management. In companies where technology plays an important role,
managers tend to first introduce technological solutions for arising problems, such as automation of
processes and redesign of products and processes. In other companies, managers prefer changing
culture and attitude of employees, because they strongly believe that this is the only way to accomplish
improvements in future. Generally speaking three policy orientations can be distinguished.

1. Product/ process orientation

Technological solutions are preferred in order to make product quality, processes, and materials
predictable and controllable

2. Procedure orientation
Solutions are looked for within the quality system. The underlying belief is that a clear description of
responsibilities, accompanied with a broad description of procedures and work instructions, form the
basis of controlling quality performance

3. People orientation
Problems are analysed in the field of human behaviour. Solutions are searched in changing people by
means of organizational development, training and empowerment.

According to Dean and Evans (1994), the term TQM covers a total, company-wide effort including
all employees, suppliers and customers, and that seeks continuously to improve quality of products
and processes to meet the need and expectations of customers. TQM has become the basic business
strategy for firms that aspire to meet and exceed needs of their customers.

There are probably as many different approaches to TQM as there are businesses. Although no TQM
program is ideal, successful programs share many characteristics. The basic attributes of TQM include

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 customer focus, strategic planning and leadership, continuous improvement and empowerment &
teamwork.

Customer focus

The customer is finally judging the quality. Quality systems must address all product and service
attribute that provide value to the customer, which lead to customer satisfaction and loyalty. Many
factors influence value and satisfaction throughout the customer’s overall purchase, ownership, and
service experiences. This includes the relationship between the company and customers, i.e. the trust
and confidence in products and services, which leads to loyalty.

Strategic planning and leadership

Achieving quality and market leadership requires a long- term strategy. Improvements do not occur
overnight. Planning and organizing of improvement activities require time and major commitments
of all members of the organization. Strategies, plans and budget allocations need to reflect longer term
commitments to customers, employees, stockholders and suppliers. They must also address training,
employee development, supplier development, technology evolution and other factors that support
quality.

Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement is part of the management of all systems and processes. Achieving the
highest levels of quality and competitiveness requires a well- defined and well- executed approach to
continuous improvement. Such improvements need to be part of all operations and all work unit
activities in a company. Improvements may be of several types:

- Enhancing value to the customer through new and improved products and services
- Reducing errors, defects, and waste
- Improving responsiveness and cycle time performance
- Improving productivity and effectiveness in the use of all resources.
Thus, improvement is driven not only by the objective to provide better quality, but also by the need
to be responsive and efficient.

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 Empowerment and teamwork

All functions at all levels of an organization must focus on quality to achieve goals. Teamwork can
be viewed in three ways:

- Vertical view, i.e. teamwork between top management and lower-level employees. Employees are
empowered to make decisions that satisfy customers without a lot of bureaucratic hassles; barriers
between levels are removed
- Horizontal view, i.e. teamwork within work groups and across functional lines. An example is a cross
functional product development team that might consist of designers, manufacturing personnel,
suppliers, salespeople and customers
- Inter-organizational view, i.e. organizational partnerships with suppliers and customers. Rather than
dictating specifications for purchased parts, a company might develop specifications jointly with
suppliers to take advantage of the supplier’s manufacturing capabilities.

THE PRINCIPLES OF TQM

TQM’s primary objective is to achieve customer satisfaction by involving everybody dealing with
product manufacturing, directly or indirectly. To do this, TQM operates on the basis of the following
principles:
1. Involve and respect people: everyone associated with the organization, including personnel,
customers, and suppliers. Management must be involved by providing leadership.
2. Processes, not people, are the problem.
3. Every employee is responsible for quality.
4. Everyone is a customer and a supplier.
5. Prevent problems. Do not wait for them to occur and then fix.
6. Involve the processes of preparing and delivering products and services to customers.
7. Quality improvements must be continuous.
8. Quality can and must be managed.
9. Plan and organize for quality improvement.
10. The quality standard is: defect free.
11. Goals are based on requirements, not negotiated.
12. Life cycle costs, not front end costs.

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The 10 Steps to TQM
Maintenance of these principles is based in turn on 10 steps recognized as fundamental to a TQM
program.
1. Pursue new strategic thinking
2. Know your customers
3. Set true customer requirements
4. Concentrate on prevention, not correction
5. Reduce chronic waste
6. Pursue a continuous improvement strategy
7. Use structured methodology for process improvement
8. Reduce variation
9. Use a balanced approach
10. Apply to all functions

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT TOOLS

In the quality management field, there are statistical methods for analyzing numerical data focusing
on results. However, in the world of business, it is also crucial to analyze language data such as
customer requirements and ideas, and thus focus on processes. In both fields, the practice of TQM
uses tools that help to reach the desired goals and results that characterize success.

According to the experts, the seven statistical quality control tools for analyzing and interpreting
numerical data include: (1) data sheet, (2) cause-and-effect diagram, (3) scatter diagram, (4)
flowchart, (5) Pareto chart, (6) histogram, and (7) control chart.

When working with ideas, the seven management and planning tools used are: (1) affinity diagram,
(2) interrelationship digraph, (3) tree diagram, (4) matrix diagram, (5) prioritization matrices, (6)
process decision program chart, and (7) activity network diagram. Regardless of the
recommendations for the use of these techniques for quality control or as management tools, they
can be used in either area, depending upon circumstances and needs. As an example, the cause-and
effect diagram (manufacturing) can be interrelated to the affinity diagram (administration). By

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 understanding all of its processes, companies are able to define them, implement controls, and,
monitor performance and measure improvements by using these techniques. This is the fundamental
basis of TQM.

Following is a general review of these management tools.

Statistical Analysis Tools

a) Data Sheet

The data from a table, form, query, view, or stored procedure displayed in a row-and-column format

b) Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Kaoru Ishikawa, who pioneered quality management processes and in the process became one of the
founding fathers of modern management, created the cause-and-effect diagram. Causes are arranged
according to their level of importance or detail, resulting in a depiction of relationships and hierarchy
of events. This helps to identify areas where there may be problems, and allows for comparison of
their relative importance. Cause-and-effect diagrams are typically constructed through
brainstorming techniques. Causes in a cause-and-effect diagram are frequently arranged into the four
most common major categories. Manpower, methods, materials, and machinery (for
manufacturing), Equipment, policies, procedures, and people (for administration and planning)
The cause-and-effect diagram (Figure below) is also known as “Ishikawa diagram” or “fishbone
diagram” because it was drawn to resemble the skeleton of a fish, with the main causal categories
drawn as bones attached to the spine of the fish.

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Scatter Diagram
A scatter diagram or scatter chart is similar to a line graph, except that the data points are plotted
without a connecting line drawn between them. Scatter charts are suitable for showing how data
points compare to each other.
At least two measured objects are needed for the query (one for the x-axis and one for the y-axis).
Scatter diagrams are used to study possible relationships between two variables. Although these
diagrams cannot prove that one variable causes the other, they do indicate the existence of a
relationship, as well as the strength of that relationship. In a scatter diagram the horizontal axis
contains the measured values of one variable and the vertical axis represents the measurements of
the other variable.

The purpose of the scatter diagram is to display what happens to one variable when the other variable
is changed. The diagram is used to test the theory that the two variables are related. The slope of the
diagram indicates the type of relationship that exists. More than one measure object can be used for
the y-axis as long as the objects are of the same type and scale; i.e., number of 16-oz bottles and
number of 8-oz bottles.

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A scatter chart

Flowchart
A flowchart is defined as a graphic representation employing standard graphic icons, usually a series
of blocks with each block representing one major process that describes an operation that is studied
or is used to plan stages of a project. Flowcharts provide an excellent form of documentation for a
process operation, and often are useful when examining how various steps in an operation work
together. A flowchart is an important project development and documentation tool; it visually
records the steps, decisions, and actions of any manufacturing or service operation and defines the
system, its key points, activities, and role performances.

In a flowchart, the description of each process is written inside the blocks. Any other significant
information is usually written outside the blocks. Each block is connected with an arrow to show
where that process leads.
The graphic icons generally used are:

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_ The start/stop icon:
_ The decision icon:

_ The result icon:

_ An icon to represent the flow itself, an arrow:

A diagram of a flow chart

Pareto Chart
Alfredo Pareto was an Italian sociologist who suggested that “80% of all wealth in this country is
owned by 20% of the people.” This supposition, known as the “Pareto Principle” was further
developed by business and industry leaders who found that most of the quality problems were
confined to a small number of machines or workers. In other words, “80% of problems come from
20% of the equipment or workforce.” The Pareto Principle is used by business and industry to work
to continually improve quality, whether it is a product or a service.

Quality improvement involves tackling one issue at a time. By addressing the ones causing the most
difficulty (the 20% that are causing 80% of the problem), improvements can be made and monitored
for continuous progress. Pareto charts are used to decide what steps need to be taken for quality
improvement. A Pareto chart (Figure below) graphically summarizes and displays the

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relative importance of the differences between groups of data. A Pareto chart can be constructed by
segmenting the range of the data into groups (also called segments, bins, or categories). The number
of data points in each group is determined and the Pareto chart constructed; however, unlike the bar
chart, the Pareto chart is ordered in descending frequency magnitude. The groups are defined by the
user.

The Pareto chart is valuable in answering questions such as: What are the largest issues facing a
team or business? What 20% of sources are causing 80% of the problems (80/20 rule)? What efforts
should be focused on to achieve the greatest improvements?

Histogram
A histogram (below) is used to graphically summarize and display the distribution of a process
dataset. It can be constructed by segmenting the range of the data into equal-sized bins (segments,
groups, or classes). The vertical axis of the histogram is the frequency (the number of counts for
each bin), and the horizontal axis is labeled with the range of the response variable. The number of
data points in each bin is determined and the histogram constructed. The user defines the bin size.
A histogram can help answers questions such as: What is the most common system response? What
distribution (center, variation, and shape) do the data have? Do the data look symmetric or skewed
to the left or right? Do the data contain outliers?

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Control Chart
Control charting is one of the most technically sophisticated tools of statistical quality control. Dr.
Walter A. Shewhart of the Bell Telephone Labs developed it in the 1920s as a statistical approach
to the study of manufacturing process variation for the purpose of improving the economic
effectiveness of the process. These methods are based on continuous monitoring of process variation.

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A control chart is a graphical display of a quality characteristic that has been measured or computed
from a sample vs. the sample number or time. The chart contains a center line that represents the
average value of the quality characteristic corresponding to the in-control state.

Two other horizontal lines called the upper control limit (UCL) and the lower control limit (LCL)
are also drawn. These control limits are chosen so that if the process is in control, nearly all of the
sample points will fall between them. As long as the points plot within the control limits, the process
is assumed to be in control and no action is necessary.

A point that plots outside of the control limits is interpreted as evidence that the process is out of
control; investigation and corrective action are required in such a case to find and eliminate the
causes responsible for this behavior. The control points are connected with straight-line segments
for easy visualization.

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Control charts are universally used to present quality data. They are sufficiently simple to interpret
so that misunderstandings are avoided. Regardless of type, control charts all contain a few
fundamental characteristics:
_ They contain upper and lower control limits within which all observations will lie if the process is
under control.
_ They contain a center line which is usually considered the target value for the process.
_ They generally show numbers along the vertical axis to define the values of the control limits and
observations.

Control charts are used as a proven technique for improving productivity, as an effective tool in
defect prevention, to prevent unnecessary process adjustments, to provide diagnostic information,
and to provide information about process capability. A typical example of a control chart in the food
industry is that used for net weight control.

X-Bar and R Charts

The X-bar and the R charts (Figure 2.7 and Figure 2.8) are the most commonly used of the control
charts and the most valuable. They are easy to prepare, simple to understand, and extremely useful
in locating problems. They are ideal tools to improve product quality and process control and can
help to drastically reduce scrap and rework while assuring the production of only satisfactory
products. In the food industry they can be used for controlling every step of a production process,
for the acceptance or rejection of lots, and for early detection of equipment or process failures.
The X-bar and the R charts are used for control of variables that are expressed in discrete numbers
such as inches, pounds, pH units, angstroms, percent solids, or degrees of temperature.

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An X-bar is usually written as X and is the average value of several measurements, each of which is
called X. A possible weakness of an X chart is that individual points are represented by an average
of data that might contain a wide range of values but are masked by the smoothing effect of the X
chart. To overcome this difficulty, the range of data from which each average is obtained is also
required, and in turn its control values (upper and lower) must also be calculated.

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The R chart is developed from the ranges of each subgroup data, which are calculated by subtracting
the maximum and the minimum value in each subgroup. Since the R chart indicates that the process
variability is in control, the X-bar chart can then be constructed. The center line is the mean of the
sample means.

Attribute Charts
In addition to X-bar and R charts, a group of charts called “attribute charts” are also used for control
of defect analysis. They are particularly useful for controlling raw material and finished product
quality and for analyzing quality comments in consumer letters. An attribute is a characteristic of a
product, a process, or a population that can be counted but cannot be described in incremental
numbers. It is a characteristic that is satisfactory or unsatisfactory, defective or nondefective, good
or bad, heavy or light, etc. The only numbers that can be applied are the number or percentage of
the satisfactory or unsatisfactory units. They are generally easier to construct and to use on a routine
basis, although they occasionally lack the power of variable charts to spot problem areas quickly. A
major advantage is the simple nature of the concept. Hubbard10 lists the following four types of
attribute charts: p-charts (fraction or percent defective, with constant lot size and with variable lot
size), np-charts (number of defectives), and c- or u-charts (number of defects).

p-Charts

The p-chart shows the percent of samples in a manufacturing process, being nonconforming or
defective relative to either a fixed or varying sample size. p-Charts are also called control charts for
fraction nonconforming items

They are of two types:

p-Chart with constant lot size.
Used to determine control of percent defective units and to establish whether the process is in control
for the day (week, month). Constant means within 20%

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p-Chart with variable lot size. Usually intended to control percent defective units where the
number of units varies from sample to sample. Used to determine if a process is in control for each
lot’s control limits.

np-Charts
The np-chart monitors the number of times a condition occurs relative to a constant sample size and
assures that the process is in control.

c- or u-Charts
Used to determine if the number of defects in a single product is within control limits.

Other Types of Charts

Other types of charts and diagrams used to graph and report manufacturing or quality control data
and that are in common use include the following:

Bar Chart A bar chart is used to graphically summarize and display the differences between groups
of data. A bar chart can be constructed by segmenting the range of the data into groups (segments,
bins, or classes). For example, if the data range from machine to machine, the data will consist of a
group from machine 1, a second group of data from machine 2, a third group of data from machine
3, and so on.

The vertical axis of the bar chart is labeled frequency (the number of counts for each bin), and the
horizontal axis is labeled with the group names of the response variables.

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The number of data points that reside within each bin is determined by the user and the bar chart
constructed. A bar chart answers the questions: What are the differences in system response between
the groups? Does the data contain outliers?

Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle graph divided into pieces or segments, each displaying the size of some related
piece of information. Pie charts are used to display the sizes of parts that make up some whole (i.e.,
percentages of a whole at a set point in time). They do not show changes over time. To create a pie
chart, it is necessary to supply a value and a name for each segment (each slice) and the title of the
graph.

Pie charts should not include more than eight segments and each segment should be labeled with
percentages of absolute amounts. Patterns or colors can be used to distinguish the segments. The pie
chart shows the % production of tomato sauce by each production line. The information provided

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allows for comparisons of production efficiency and can contribute to the detection of
malfunctioning conditions and their subsequent correction.

Spider Chart

Spider charts (radar charts) graphically display the performance of multiple variables on a single
page providing easy-to-read data. The normalized data spider chart depicts an activity’s performance
compared to other like activities. The activity’s actual performance measurement value (raw data)
is normalized for these spider charts. This is done to graphically display the difference in
performance measurement values between activities when the range of values is too close to be
distinguished. The raw/normalized data spider chart shows a comparison between the activity’s
actual performance values (raw data) with their normalized data value.

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Quality Circles

One major characteristic of Japanese company-wide quality control is the quality control circle (also
called quality improvement team) concept originated in Japan and introduced in 1962 by Dr. Kaoru
Ishikawa in the inaugural issue of the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers journal Genba-to-
QC.
The first quality control circle was registered with the Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public
Corporation. In the last 40 years, the quality circle concept has spread to banks and retailing, and it
has been exported worldwide to as many as 130 countries; regardless of this, the concept is well
established only in Asian countries like Japan, South Korea, People’s Republic of China, and
Taiwan. Success in the West has not been so extensive.

Experts such as Philip Crosby had warned against the fashion for quality circles as a cure-all for
poor employee motivation or inadequate quality and productivity in the U.S. Joseph Juran, in
particular, expressed doubts about the effectiveness of quality circles in the West at all, where
few company hierarchies have executives trained in quality management.
Model Japanese companies, they asserted, had 75% or more of their workforce in quality circles;
many workers participated in several quality circles. Every worker and supervisor already had

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extensive training in quality measurement concepts, and trust between management and employees
was high. Most Japanese labor unions were company unions that supported different categories of
employees meeting and discussing work process changes; few of these conditions existed in
American corporations and government. Even those experimenting with quality circles with the best
intentions simply faced too many obstacles. After a few successes, most organizations were willing
to declare victory, abandon the circles, and then wait for the next stage of development; an
organizationally comprehensive approach to quality, under the banner of total quality management.

The nature and role of quality circles vary between companies. In general, it consists of a team of 6
to 10 people participating freely in challenging assumptions and existing methods, examining data
and exploring possibilities, calling in expertise and asking for training. The quality circle needs a
skilled team leader to work as a facilitator of the team efforts, and a budget so that members can be
responsible for tests and possible pilots. The aims of the quality circle activities are:

1. To develop the capability and make possible self-actualization for quality circle members
2. To contribute to the improvement and development of the company
3. To analyze the context of a problem and its nature
4. To define what the problem is and the relationship between its components
5. To identify and verify that the causes are indeed the causes
6. To evaluate and recommend possible solutions and the resources needed
7. To fully understand the problem and its solution to prevent recurrence; otherwise solutions as
developed may fail to address the real problem
8. To respect human relations and build a happy workshop offering job satisfaction
9. To deploy human capabilities fully and draw out infinite potential

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Quality and Business Performance
The relationship between quality, profitability, and market share has been studied in depth by the
Strategic Planning Institute of Cambridge, MA. The conclusion, based on performance data of about
3000 strategic business units, is unequivocal: one factor above all others — quality — drives market
share, and when superior quality and large market share are both present, profitability is virtually
guaranteed.

There is no doubt that relative perceived quality and profitability are strongly related. Whether the
profit measure is return-on-sales or return on- investment, businesses with a superior product or
service offering clearly outperform those with inferior quality. In addition to profitability and market
share, quality drives growth.
Quality also reduces costs. This reduction, in turn, provides an additional competitive edge. Figure
2.19 includes two types of quality: customer driven quality and conformance or internal specification
quality. The latter relates to appropriate product specifications and service standards that lead to cost
reduction.

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There is an inverse relationship between internal or conformance quality and costs, and thus the
phrase coined by Crosby: “Quality is Free.” As quality improves, so does cost, resulting in improved
market share and hence profitability and growth. This in turn provides a means for further investment
in such quality improvement areas as research and development. And the cycle goes on. In summary,
improving both internal (conformance) quality and external (customer perceived) quality not only
lowers the cost of poor quality or “non quality” but also serves as a driver for growth, market share,
and profitability. Attainment of quality superiority produces the following organizational benefits:
1. Greater customer loyalty
2. Market share improvements
3. Higher stock prices
4. Reduced service calls
5. Higher prices
6. Greater productivity

CASE STUDY 2

In the last 5 years the consumption of organically produced meat and vegetables have been increased
due to the increased problems in the traditional meat and vegetable production like the dioxin crisis,
BSE crisis, to high amounts of pesticides in fruits and vegetable etc. The family company “Just Meat”
has ambitious plans to turn from production of traditional to organic beef meat products. Currently,
they make several meat products (sliced ham, cooked sausages etc). They realize that they cannot do
this alone and have the intention to collaborate closely with partners in the meat production chain to
assure the production of biological meat products. The new product line will be called “Biologica”.
They realize that for the assurance of safety and quality of the meat products, it is very important to
have control systems/methods at the right place in the production chain.

The figure below shows the global production chain of meat products. ST means storage and transport
facilities (which must be temperature controlled at 4˚C).

Organic Production
Farming ST Slaughter ST Organic meat ST Retailer Consumer
Of pigs products
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The company wants an advice about where to control the quality and with what kind of method. Give
two suggestions for control and motivate.

Case

Johnson and sons produces and sells food products for children. In the company 120 employees, who
all is well-trained and motivated, work hard to satisfy customer expectations. Their quality
performance is very high, due to quality improvement being a normal and continued activity.

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Top management considers quality an essential part of the company system and creates clear quality
values.

The company started years ago with Quality Circles. Recently they have been transformed into self-
managing teams.

The company has good relationships with its customers and is prepared to ensure full service.

Does Johnson and sons meet the TQM requirements? Give a short argumentation.

References
Mercer, D., 1991. Total Quality Management: Key Quality Issues, in Global Perspectives on Total
Quality, Conference Board, New York, NY, p. 11.

Ishikawa, K., 1985. What is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.

Mazur, G.H., Takasu, H., and Ono, M., 1998. Policy Management. Quality Approach to Strategic
Planning, Integrated Quality Dynamics, Torrance, CA.

Juran, J.M., 1999. Juran’s Quality Handbook, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Lecture on

Food analysis for quality control

The reliability of analysis depends on several aspects such as specificity, accuracy, precision and
sensitivity of the analysis.

 Specificity is the ability to measure what actually should be measured. Specificity is affected
by interfering substances, which react similarly to the actual compound to be measured.

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  Accuracy is the degree to which a mean estimate approaches a true estimate of the measured
substance. Deviation may be due to inaccuracy inherent to the method, effects of foreign
compounds and alterations in the compound during analyses
 Precision is the degree to which a determination of a substance yields an analytically true
measurement of that substance. As a rule, analyses should not be made with a precision greater
than required. Repeatability is the within-laboratory precision where reproducibility is the
total between-laboratory precision
 Sensitivity is the ratio between the magnitude of instrumental response and the amount of the
substance
An overview of the major methods and measurements applied in control of agri-food products

Sensory evaluation

The sensory properties of a product are important factors influencing the selection and acceptance
of food. Sensory evaluation can be applied at the final inspection, during product development, to
determine the effects of process changes or to characterize and compare own products with
competitor’s products. Two major types of sensory evaluation can be distinguished i.e.

Consumer acceptance (preference) tests, The consumer panelists evaluate the product by indicating
their preferences

Difference methods, for these methods well-trained analytical panels are used. The panelists are
selected on their ability to detect the four senses (sweet, sour, bitter and salt), their ability to repeat
themselves at any particular threshold level (i.e. repeatability) and their ability to detect relevant
flavours at low thresholds (i.e. Sensitivity)

In addition, in practice product experts are often used to control the quality of the specific products.
They are trained to profile or describe sensory characteristics of specific products, using complex
descriptive language.

Physical evaluation

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Physical evaluations, with respect to agri-food quality control, include analyses of colour and
rheological properties. The latter refers to viscosity and elasticity but also texture (e.g. meatness,
crispness) can be considered as a result of rheological properties

Rheology is concerned with the relationship between stress (i.e. compressive, tensile or shear) and
strain, which is measured by deformation, as a function of time. Examples of rheological
measurements are

 Measuring of the kernel hardness of wheat to estimate milling characteristics

 Viscosity measurement of dough to obtain information on changes in the bread-making
process
 Measuring meat tenderness to evaluate consumer acceptance of meat
 Texture evaluation of fruits and vegetables to determine ripeness
 Colour is an appearance property that is attributed to the spectral distribution of light;
whereas gloss, transparency, haziness and turbidity are material properties that contribute to
the manner in which the light is reflected and transmitted. Colour analyses are applied e.g.
o control the amount of synthetic colorants added, to determine the ripeness of fruits and
vegetables or to determine colour changes during processing and /or storage
Microbial analyses

Most methods for microbial analyses are based on their metabolic activity for certain substrates,
measurements of growth response, analysis of some parts of cells. These methods include the
following

 Physical methods are based on measuring e.g the conductivity, enthalpy changes which
correspond to the micro-organisms metabolic activities
 Chemical methods to determine metabolic products
 Immunology methods
Enzyme analyses

Enzymes are heat-labile proteins, which act as specific catalysts in a wide range of, desirable and
undesirable, chemical reactions in agri-food products. Enzymes occur naturally in living plants,

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Lectures 3-4 2022
animal tissues and microbial cells i.e. endogenous enzymes. Especially in raw (unheated) materials,
these endogenous enzymes can influence e.g. textural properties, flavor and off-flavour formation
and de-coloration processes.

Note that enzymes are used as an aid in agri-food processing (i.e. exogenous enzymes) for a wide
range of applications such as accelerating fermentation process, improving cheese flavor,
tenderizing meat texture and bleaching of natural colour pigments

Application of enzyme analyses

- Determination of the quality status and /or the history of the product. For example, in milk
the presence of bacterial dehydrogenase is an indicator of unhygienic conditions whereas
high catalase levels suggest that the milk might be derived from sick cows ( mastitis)
- Monitoring or determination of efficiency of the heat treatment. E.g. peroxidase activity is
determined in fruit and vegetables in fruit and vegetables to establish the efficiency of the
blanching process.
Supply control

In a company, the purchasing department is responsible for obtaining supplies. In fresh-product

business, quality of end products is almost completely dependant on supply-quality. Control
activities in supply management include the following

- Receiving the request (requisition). The request include a description of the item or material
desired, the quality and quantity necessary and desired delivery dates
- Selecting suppliers. The purchasing department must identify suppliers who have the
capability of supplying the desired goods
- Placing order. If the order involves a large expenditure then vendors are asked to bid on a
job
- Monitoring orders, there is need to have routine follow-up on orders
- Receiving orders. Receiving must check incoming shipments from vendors for quality and
quantity

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Lectures 3-4 2022
 - Storage. Received goods must be kept in a store before they are used in production. Quality
control is needed on stored goods and /or storage conditions due to specific requirements of
the product (for instance temperature control in food storage)
The main factors a company should take into account when evaluating a supplier are

1. Price. This is the most obvious factor along with any discounts offered.
2. Quality. What is the quality reputation of the supplier, what quality assurance system does
the supplier have
3. Services. Special services can sometimes be very important in selecting the supplier e.g.
replacement of defective items
4. Location. Location has an impact on shipping time, transportation costs and response times
5. Emergent cases. Sometimes quality claims due to origin can play a role (food and drinks)
6. Flexibility. The willingness and ability of a supplier to respond to changes in demand, and
to accept design changes, can be important consideration
Production control

The purpose of QC of production activities is to assure that processes are running in an acceptable
manner. Companies accomplish this by measuring process outputs using statistical techniques. If
the results are acceptable, no further action is required; un acceptable results call for corrective
action.

Distribution control

Whereas purchasing deals with the incoming flow of materials, distribution deals with the outgoing
flow of materials. Distribution control involves management of the flow of products from
manufacturers to customers and from warehouses to retailers. It also includes the storage and
transportation of products. Quality control in distribution management concerns decision around
transportation and storage of products and measuring the whole process, including consumer usage
of the products

The main steps in distribution control include product and resource decisions. They are

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 a) Selling, receiving orders. Quality in selling means that no deals are made that cannot be
sustained in the course of the year
b) Transportation and storage. These are complex processes within a long supply chain
c) Buying and consumer usage. Quality control in this step is often restricted to, for instance,
information on package, in leaflets and magazines
d) Complaints, market information and analysis. Complaints and market research provide lots
of information about quality and quality performance. This information can be used for
quality improvement.
Costs and benefits of control

As with all organizational activities, control should be pursued if the expected benefits are greater
than the costs of performing them.

Quality Control

Once product and production processes have been designed and developed, the system must be
controlled during manufacturing of agri and food products. Controlling not only means inspection;
but, also taking corrective actions when the performance is not in compliance with specifications
The major aim of quality control is to produce a product that complies with targets within set
tolerances. Therefore, a profound understanding of the sources of variation is required.

Another reason for quality control is quality improvement. The effect of any improvement cannot
be measured if the process is unstable and shows great variation. Quality control can be considered
as a major process to realize quality of products and productions.

Quality control has been described as the ongoing process of evaluating performance and taking
corrective action when necessary (Evans and Lindsay, 1996). It is generally considered as that part
of the quality management system which is focused on operational techniques, and the processes
applied to fulfill quality requirements (ISO, 1998). In this context, the manufacturing- based
definition for quality is dominant, i.e. conformance to targets within specified tolerances (e.g.
specified by designers or legislative regulations).

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Lectures 3-4 2022
Quality control involves both technological and management elements. Typical technological
elements include e.g. the statistical and instrumental methods used. Typical management aspects
refer to responsibility for quality control, relationships with suppliers and distribution, but also
education and instruction of personnel to enable them to control quality.

Quality control process in the agri-food production

Any control system consists of the following components: a measuring or inspection unit,
comparison of actual results with a target value (i.e. norm, standard, goal or specification) with
tolerances, and if required corrective actions; this is also called the 'control circle'. The general
components of the control circle are explained in detail below. Furthermore are described
characteristics of agri and food production that may have consequences on quality control.

General principle of quality control

In order to control a product, process or system, it is important to understand the sources of variation.
Shewart (1931) proposed that causes of variation could be distinguished in common and special
causes of variation, which has been later adopted in the foundations of the Deming Philosophy
(1993). Variations in a production process or system can be due to different sources including
people, materials, machines and tools, methods, measurements, and environment. Common causes-
of variation are inherent to the product, process or system -and –involve the combined effect of all
individual sources. Common causes generally account for 80-90% of the observed variation. The
extension of common causes can only be reduced by structural improvements in people (e.g. by
education), materials, machines, tools, methods, measurement and/or environment.

Specific causes of variation are derived from sources not inherent to the product, process or system
and account for 10~20% of the variation. Examples are a bad batch from a material, supplier, an
inexperienced operator, or improper calibration of measuring instruments. Specific causes can be
detected by the use of (graphical) control charts.

The control circle can be considered as a major principle of quality control. Control circles are not
only applied on the level of production but also on management levels. However, this course unit is
focused on aspects of control circles used in the operational manufacturing process.

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Control circles generally include four basic elements, i.e.

1. Measuring of the process parameter, e.g. temperature [T];

2. Testing, which means comparison of the measured value with the norm with specified tolerances,
e.g. temperature must be 25 ± 2°C;

3. Regulator determines which kind and how much action must be carried out, e.g. the thermostat;

4. Corrective action involves the actual action that is carried out, e.g. the heating system that is
turned up or down.

It should be noted that the regulator and corrective action are often embodied in one handling, person
or equipment.

Measuring

In the measuring step the process or product is analysed or measured. Important characteristics of
the measuring unit involve the signal/noise ratio, the reaction velocity to changes in the process and
the correspondence between the signal determined and the actual situation of the process. The results
obtained from analyses or measuring must properly reflect the actual situation of the process.

The measuring unit can be automatic or a manual handling performed by the operator. The
measurement can be visual or instrumental like pH; time, temperature or flow rate. It can also
involve analyses like microbial or sensory analyses. These analyses usually require more time than
direct measurements, which can have consequences for the time span before corrective action can
be carried out.

Measuring units can be distinguished in five typical variants.

• Off-line, i.e. manual sampling followed by transport 'to laboratory for analysis or -measurement.

• At-line i.e. manual sampling followed by analysis or measurement at location.

• On-line, i.e. automatic sampling followed by automatic analysis.

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Lectures 3-4 2022
• In-line, i.e. the signal is observed by a sensor (thus no sampling) in the product stream and
translated to an external signal.

• Non-invasive, i.e. measuring r9f a signal in a product stream without physical contact with
product.

Testing

Testing is comparing the outcome of measurement or analysis results with the established target and
tolerances. The outcome can be a number (e.g. amount of colony forming units of a certain
pathogen) or a visual result (e.g. colour, appearance). For this part of the control circle, control charts
are often used, in which the actual results, the target and tolerances are graphically reflected. With
respect to the causes of variation, the combined effect of common causes is reflected in the tolerance
levels, which can be statistically established. Specific causes can be noticed in the control charts as
the out-of-control situations.

There are several types of control charts. The choice of a certain control chart depends on what must
be monitored and the type of data. For example, different charts are used for variable (i.e. measured
along a continuous scale) and attribute data (e.g. pass or fail). More details about control charts are
described in the section on statistical process control.

Regulator

The regulator determines which corrective action is required based upon the result of the comparison
with the target value. The extent (many or few) and direction (positive or negative) of the corrective
action are thus set by regulator. The regulator must be selected on the basis of the character of the
process and the required accuracy. A wide variety of regulators are used in practice. They vary from
very simple regulators to complex systems. Some common regulators include:

• the open-close regulator, it is the simplest regulator, which has only two fixed positions

• the-proportional regulator, in this regulator the magnitude of the action is proportional to the-
deviation of the process parameter

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Lectures 3-4 2022
• an optimizing regulating system, in such a system several process parameters are compared to-
various targets in order to obtain an optimal regulation

• an expert system, this is a more sophisticated regulator, in which expertise and knowledge of the
system is incorporated For example, in the washing process of re-usable PET bottles- a pattern
recognition system is used. Headspaces of bottles are quickly analysed (within seconds) and the'
patterns of volatile compounds are identified and compared with the information in the expert
system. The bottles are removed if the patterns do not fit, e.g. because there are still contaminants
in the bottles after washing.

Corrective action

The corrective action is the actual handling that is carried out due to exceeding the target tolerances,
i.e. out of control situation. The corrective action can be an instrumental (e.g. temperature increase)
or a human handling (e.g. removal of .the non-conformance products). The accuracy of the
corrective action is essential for a successful execution of the control circle. There are various forms
of control circles, but the basic principle is the same. Two common control circles are the feedback
and the feedforward control circle, as illustrated in Figure below In the feedback control circle, the
corrective action is performed after the trouble is recognized before it occurs in the process. In the
feed forward control circle, the process trouble is recognised before it occurs:, The forward circle
anticipates the expected situation based on earlier measurements in the process. For example, the
composition (e.g. sugar content) of incoming raw tomatoes can be analysed in order to modify the
recipe prior to production to obtain ketchup that complies with the specifications.

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Lectures 3-4 2022
Figure: Schematic presentation of a feedback and a feedforward control circle.

For well functioning of the-control circle it is important that the basic elements are properly tuned.
A profound knowledge of the process is required to assess the appropriate measuring parameters
that correspond with the quality attributes that must be controlled. Moreover, the control circle must
consist of all basic elements and must be tested in situ, prior to use. Besides tuning, another
important aspect is the run-time of the control circle. The process stability must be such that during
the run-time (i.e. the time between measuring the deviation and performing the corrective action)

34
Lectures 3-4 2022
no unacceptable troubles occur. In other words, the run- time must be short enough to get no troubles
in the mean time. As a matter of fact, the corrective action cannot always be carried out in the same
process. Where the action is performed depends, among others, on

 time between measuring or testing and the corrective action;

 type of process: is it a batch or continues process.

Technological variables in control of agri-food production

Variations in a production process or system can be due to different sources including materials,
environment, methods and measures, machines, equipment, tools and people as shown in Figure
above. For quality control it is important to understand these sources of variation. With respect to
the control of quality of agri-food production, a number of typical variables are important to
mention.

• (Raw) materials in agri-food processing often form a large source of variation. This can be
assigned to the following aspects. Raw materials from plant or animal origin have a natural variation
of 10%. For example, a large amount of variation can occur due to seasonal and harvesting effects.
Moreover, raw materials are often unstable due to a variety of reactions that occur immediately
after e.g. harvesting, disruption or processing. Furthermore, batches of materials or raw products are
often inhomogeneous, which can cornplicate quality control. Low concentrations of agents with a
high impact (e.g. off- flavours or pathogenic bacteria) can put high demands on quality control.
Finally, the origin of raw materials is often unknown, which renders quality control more difficult.
As a consequence of these sources of variation, the tolerances should not be specified as too narrow
unless it will result in unsafe products.

• Moreover, the large variations in raw materials put high demands on the methods and
measurements used. Sampling especially (taking the right number of samples at the appropriate
location) and sample preparation are crucial for the control process. The time span of some sampling
methods (e.g. microbial analyses can take more than three days) can make it difficult to react quickly
to disturbances in the process. Furthermore, the methods are often destructive, which means that the
products that are actually consumed have not been controlled. The methods and measurements,
especially the way of sampling, can thus result in a large source of variation.

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Lectures 3-4 2022
• Another important source of variation is the people. On the one hand, in agri-food production
processes often people with rather low education levels are employed. On the other hand, hidden
safety risks (like contamination by growth of pathogens due to unhygienic conditions or improper
processing) require a rather profound knowledge microbial process in food. Shift work can also
form a great source of variation. Mistakes due to misunderstanding or too low levels of knowledge
can result in quality problems,

Another people-related aspect is the fact that in agri-food processing, many control processes
include visual inspections. This type of measurement is very sensitive towards variation due to the
objectivity of the measure and the low accuracy.

• Finally, the machines and equipment used in agri-food production are often very specific for a
certain application. As a consequence, equipment is not easily exchangeable. For each type of
equipment other types of controls are required, which can form a potential source of variation. In
addition, the design of equipment and machines for agri-food processing is essential with respect to
food safety. Microbial contamination due to poor design and/or improper cleaning put high demands
on the control process and is major sources of variation.

At receipt of the incoming materials, quality control is carried out by product inspection. At this
stage it is decided whether batches are rejected or accepted for processing. For this purpose different
methods are available, like spot-check procedure, hundred-percentage inspection or acceptance
sampling.

During processing or manufacturing, quality control is executed by measuring quality attributes at

critical points in the process. For a proper functioning of the process, the principles of statistical
process should be applied, using control charts to monitor the process. Before distribution and
storage, final inspections are carried out to check the actual quality of the manufactured or processed
product. For this purpose similar techniques can be used, like acceptance sampling.

Finally, it has to be mentioned that shifts occur in quality control processes. In the last decade, a
shift can be observed from quality control by acceptance sampling towards controlling the supplier
by auditing or certification. The supplier is now responsible for the quality of the raw materials as
delivered to the customer. Moreover, a shift can be noticed from final inspection to qualii control

36
Lectures 3-4 2022
by (statistical) process control. The quality system HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Points) is a typical illustration of this shift. The HACCP system is developed to control critical
points in the process instead of controlling quality by inspection of the end products.

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Quality analysis and measuring

Quality analysis and measurements are an important facet of quality control processes. Analyses or
measurements are applied to evaluate or quantify relevant attributes or to control processes.

Different sample types can be distinguished (Pomeranz and Meloan, 1994). Incoming raw materials
samples are analysed to check if they are in compliance with the specifications set by the suppliers.
New suppliers submit buying-samples of raw materials to test them for practical use. Process control
samples must often be rapidly measured or analysed (e.g. temperature, pressure, pH) to adjust the
process in order to obtain uniform quality products. Finished products are analyzed to check if the
agri-food products meet legal requirements, comply with product specifications, are acceptable to
their customers and/or have the desired shelf life. Complaint samples are submitted by customers or
consumers and are analysed to detect process mistakes. Finally, competitor's samples are analysed
to obtain information for product development.

Food samples can be controlled by direct measurements, e.g. measuring of pH or visual inspection
of colour. However, if samples cannot be directly measured, then an analysis procedure is needed
before measuring including (1) sampling (2) sample preparation and (3) actual measurement or
analysis. The different aspects of the analysis procedure are described below because they are often
a major source of variance.

Sampling

Sampling often contributes the most to total error, whereas the actual analysis or measurement
comprises least. Ideally, the sample should be identical to the bulk and must reflect same intrinsic
properties, e.g. same textural properties, or equal concentration of toxins, or same taste. According
to Pomeranz and Meloan (1994) typical causes of variation in sampling of agri- food products
include:

• Irregular shapes, e.g., rough particles flow more easily into the sampler compartments than angular
particles of similar size.

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Lectures 3-4 2022
• During or after sampling changes in composition may occur, such as water loss, evaporation of
volatile compounds or enhanced enzymatic reactions by mechanical injury.

 The non-homogeneity of many agri-foods both between-products and within the product. -
For example, compounds can be located in specific compartments or unevenly distributed.

Sample preparation

This is a critical step in agri-food products analysis. Major aims of sample preparation are:

• Minimising of undesired reactions e.g. enzymatic and oxidising reactions

• Preparation of homogeneous samples

• Prevention of microbial spoilage of samples

• Extraction of the relevant compounds

Different preparation methods can be distinguished (Pomeranz and Meloan, 1994), i.e.

• Mechanical grinding of dry and moist materials in order to obtain homogeneous samples;

• Enzymatic and chemical treatment are also used to disintegrate various materials;

• Enzyme inactivation by heat treatment or by inorganic compounds that cause irreversible enzyme
poisoning;

• Controlling oxidative and microbial spoilage by storage at low temperatures under nitrogen and/or
by addition of preservatives.

Analysis

Finally the analysis or measurement is performed. The reliability depends on several aspects
including specificity, accuracy, precision and sensitivity of the analysis

39
Lectures 3-4 2022
• Specificity is the ability to measure what actually should be measured. Specificity is affected by
interfering substances, which react similarly to the actual compound to be measured.

• Accuracy is the degree to which a mean estimate approaches a true estimate of the substance.
Deviation may be due to inaccuracy inherent to the method, effects of foreign compounds and
alterations in the compound during analyses.

• Precision is the degree to which a determination of a substance yields an analytically true

measurement of that substance. As a rule, analyses should not be made with a precision greater than
required. Repeatability is the within-laboratory precision where reproducibility is the total between-
laboratory precision.

• Sensitivity is the ratio between the magnitude of instrumental response and the amount of the
substance.

Sensory evaluation

The sensory properties of a product are important influencing factors in the selection and acceptance
of food. Sensory evaluation can be applied at final inspection, during product development, to
determine the effects of process changes or to characterise and compare own products with
competitor's products. Two major types of sensory evaluation can be distinguished.

a) Consumer acceptance (preference) tests. Consumer panels ideally include a true cross
section of the population market for which the product is meant. The consumer panellists
evaluate the product by indicating their preferences. Consumer panels consist of relatively
large number of people to obtain reliable and meaningful results.
b) Difference-methods. For these methods well-trained analytical panels are used. The panellist
are selected on their ability to detect the four taste senses (sweet, sour, bitter and salt), their
ability to repeat themselves at any particular threshold level (i.e. repeatability) and their
ability to detect the relevant flavours at low thresholds (i.e. sensitivity).

40
Lectures 3-4 2022
Sensory tests are often supported with instrumental analysis to identify the chemical and/or physical
parameters involved, to establish sensory observed differences and/or to correlate instrumental and
sensory measurements.

Physical evaluation

Physical evaluations, with respect to agri-food quality control, include analyses of colour and ~
eological properties. The latter refers to viscosity and elasticity but also texture (e.g. eatiness,
crispiness) can be considered as a result of rheological properties

Rheology is concerned with the relationship between stress (i.e. compressive, tensile or shear) and
strain, which is measured b deformation, as function of time. The rheological properties of agri-
foods can be analysed by either an analytical or an integral approach. In the analytical approach the
material properties are related to basic rheological parameters (deformation-time curves). In the
integral approach, empirical relationships between stress, strain and time are determined. Empirical
tests are commonly based on experienced relationships between (poorly) defined properties and
textural quality. In imitative tests various properties are measured under conditions similar to
practice e.g. during processing, handling or consumption

Examples of rheological measurements are

• Measuring of the kernel hardness of wheat to estimate milling characteristics

• Viscosity measurement of dough to obtain information changes in the bread-making process

• Measuring meat tenderness to evaluate consumer acceptance of meat

• Texture evaluation of fruits and vegetables to determine ripeness

Colour is an appearance property that is attributed to the spectral distribution of light; whereas gloss,
transparency, haziness and turbidity are material properties that contribute to the manner in which
the light is reflected and transmitted. Colour analyses are applied e.g. to .control the amount of
synthetic colorants added, to determine the ripeness of fruit and vegetables, or to determine colour
changes during processing and/or storage.

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Lectures 3-4 2022
Microbial Analyses

Most methods for detecting and characterising micro-organisms are based on their metabolic
activity for certain substrates, measurements of growth response, analysis of some parts of cells.
Different methods can be categorized as follows;

• Physical method that are based on measuring e.g. conductivity, enthalpy changes which correspond
to the micro-organisms metabolic activities.

• Chemicals methods to determine metabolic products, or endotoxins or typical bacterial enzymes.

• Characterisation and fingerprinting methods to identify microorganisms.

• immunology methods-are used for detection and quantification of micro-organisms and/or

metabolic products in food.Currently, DNA techniques are used in microbial analyses as well.

Compositional analyses

A wide range of analytical techniques is available to determine composition or specific compounds.

Enzyme analyses

Enzymes are heat-labile proteins, which act as specific catalysts in a wide range of, desirable and
undesirable, chemical reactions in agri-food products. Enzymes occur naturally in living plants,
animal tissues and microbial cells, i.e. endogenous enzymes. Especially in raw (unheated) materials,
these endogenous enzymes can influence e.g. textural properties, flavour and off-flavour formation,
and de-coloration processes. Moreover, enzymes are used as an aid in agri-food processing (i.e.
exogenous enzymes) for a wide range of applications, such as accelerating fermentation processes.

Major applications of enzyme analyses as part of quality control include:

• Determination of the quality status and/or the history of the food product. For example, in milk the
presence of bacterial dehydrogenase is an indicator for unhygienic conditions, whereas high catalase
levels suggest that the milk might be derived from sick cows (mastitis). Not properly stored grains

42
Lectures 3-4 2022
(high humidity and elevated temperature) show increased fat acidity, which is measured by
determining the lipase activity.

• Monitoring or determination of efficiency of the heat treatment. For example, e oxidase activity is
determined in fruit and vegetables to establish the efficiency of the blanching process. Likewise,
phosphatase activity is measured to establish the pasteurisation process of milk.

Enzyme activity can be determined in several ways including,

• Measuring of rheological changes in substrate. For example, (-amylase (i.e. starch liquefying -
enzyme) activity can be measured by monitoring changes in viscosity of the starch.

• Analysis of the degradation products after enzyme action. For example, peptidase activity can be
monitored by measuring the free amino acids released from peptidase activity.

• Monitoring specific effects of enzyme activity. such as coagulation of milk caused by proteolytic
enzymes, which indicate the quality of milk for cheese manufacturing

Common techniques for quantitative monitoring of enzyme reactions include spectrophotometric,

manometric, electrometric, polarimetric, chromatographic and chemical methods.

Both direct measurement and analysis procedures can be applied at acceptance of incoming
materials, during processing and at the final inspection of products. The choice on the type of control
tests is dependent on the availability of appropriate measurements or analyses, which reflect the
actual quality attribute i.e. accuracy of the test). The time span between sampling and the outcome
of the analysis or measurements can also be important. If a quick response is required to adjust a
process, then fast methods are necessary, which may be not as specific as a more time consuming
analysis. The costs can also play a decisive role in the selection of test methods.

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NB. Use your Food Analysis notes to enrich your knowledge on this topic.

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