Preparation of weed herbarium and survey of weed

species of Department of Botany, University of Lucknow

Dissertation thesis submitted to University of Lucknow for the

Partial fulfilment for Award of Degree of Bachelor of Science

Submitted by:
Aniket Chaudhary
Roll no.: 2110011016157

Dr. Sushma Mishra Prof. Munna Singh

(Supervisor) (Head of the Department)

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW
LUCKNOW - 226007

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am beholden to all the people whose indispensable backing was a milepost in the completion
of my dissertation. I thank God for providing me with this great opportunity and making me
efficient enough to progress effectively. This dissertation would not have been possible without
the following people’s supervision and sustenance.
Primarily, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Sushma Mishra, Department of
Botany, University of Lucknow, for always being a tower of strength and I cherish her
benefaction of time and suggestion to make my work more promising and productive. I am
highly obliged to you, ma’am, for correcting my mistakes and guiding me on every step. You
shaped me into a better version of myself. I am also grateful to you for having faith that I could
do something different and stand the crowd.
I am thankful to Dr. Munna Singh, Head of Department of Botany, University of
Lucknow for his encouragement and kind support.
Finally, I owe my special thanks and deepest regards to all the delightful people in my life, be
it my family members or my seniors and mentors for their immense support, love, and
guidance. I feel highly blessed that I have such loving and caring family members who helped
in arranging resources for this dissertation.

Date: (Aniket Chaudhary)

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the minor project entitled “Preparation of weed herbarium and survey

of weed species of Department of Botany, University of Lucknow” submitted by Aniket

Chaudhary in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor in

Science has been carried out by him under the supervision of the undersigned in the Department

of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow.

Dr. Sushma Mishra

(Supervisor)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S. No. Content Page No

1. Acknowledgements 2

2. Certificate 3

3. Introduction 5

4. Review of Literature 7
• Weeds
• Types of Weeds
• Deleterious Impacts of Weeds
• Positive Impacts of Weeds
• Weed Management
• Weed Control Methods
• Herbarium
5. Materials and Methods 18

6. Results 19

7. Discussion 38

8. Significance of Study 39

9. References 40

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 INTRODUCTION

Traditionally, weeds are defined as plants growing where they are unwanted, encompassing
crops, native, and non-native species. They pose significant negative impacts, competing with
crops, reducing yields, and increasing labour and food costs (Klingman and Ashton, 1975).
Weediness is often associated with annual or biennial growth, fast reproduction, colonization
under high sunlight and low soil moisture, herbivory tolerance, and allelopathic traits
(Sutherland, 2004). Certain non-native species exhibit heightened weediness due to faster
growth, larger size, increased reproduction, and enhanced survival outside their native habitats,
possibly due to the absence of environmental checks (Ward et al., 2008). Genetic makeup plays
a role in a plant's weediness potential, although specific genetic patterns remain elusive.
Weeds, though often overlooked, play a significant role in botanical ecosystems, exerting
profound impacts on plant communities, biodiversity, and ecosystem dynamics. Understanding
the ecology and distribution of weeds is crucial for effective management and conservation
efforts within botanical research. In this context, conducting a survey of weeds within the
Department of Botany is essential to gain insights into the composition, distribution, and
ecological implications of weed species within this specialized environment.
Weeds, characterized by their ability to thrive in disturbed habitats and compete
aggressively with native vegetation, represent a ubiquitous challenge in botanical research and
conservation. They can alter soil composition, nutrient cycling, and water availability, leading
to shifts in plant community structure and dynamics. Furthermore, invasive weeds can
outcompete native species, disrupt ecological interactions, and threaten the biodiversity of
natural ecosystems. As such, studying weeds is essential for understanding ecosystem
functioning and resilience, as well as for informing strategies to mitigate their negative impacts.
Conducting a survey of weeds within the Department of Botany holds particular significance
due to the unique role of botanical institutions in plant research, conservation, and education.
Botanical gardens, research centers, and educational facilities often serve as repositories of
diverse plant species, providing valuable resources for scientific study and public engagement.
However, these environments are not immune to weed infestations, which can compromise the
integrity of research collections, disrupt ongoing experiments, and degrade the aesthetic value
of botanical displays. Therefore, conducting a comprehensive survey of weeds within the
Department of Botany is essential for assessing the extent of weed presence, identifying
problematic species, and implementing effective management strategies to preserve the
integrity and functionality of botanical spaces.
The primary objective of this survey is to systematically document the diversity and
distribution of weed species within the campus of Department of Botany. By conducting
thorough field assessments and specimen collections, we aim to identify the most common
weed species present, characterize their ecological niches, and assess their potential impacts on
native plant communities. Additionally, we seek to evaluate the effectiveness of current weed
management practices within the department and identify areas where additional interventions
may be needed to mitigate weed spread and establishment.

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 Based on the existing literature and observations from preliminary surveys, we
hypothesize that the Department of Botany harbors a diverse assemblage of weed species,
reflecting the varied environmental conditions and human activities present within botanical
settings. Furthermore, we anticipate that certain weed species may exhibit preferences for
specific microhabitats or cultivation practices, influencing their distribution and abundance
within the department. Through this survey, we aim to provide valuable insights into the
ecology and management of weeds within botanical environments, contributing to the broader
understanding of plant-invasive dynamics and informing best practices for botanical
stewardship.

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 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Weeds
Various definitions have emerged to distinguish weed species from others, generally referring
to plants growing in undesired areas, often causing adverse effects on surrounding vegetation
or land users. Research on successful weeds has identified distinct traits separating them from
non-weedy species, notably their ability to thrive in disturbed areas. These areas, crucial for
human food production and livelihoods, provide favorable habitats for weeds. The ongoing
struggle between humans and weeds underscores the importance of understanding the traits
enabling weeds to establish themselves.
Like all plants, weeds require sunlight, nutrients, and water to survive. In agricultural settings,
they compete with desired crops for these resources. Unlike many row crops, weeds exhibit
rapid development from seedling to flowering stages, along with prolific seed production and
the capacity for vegetative reproduction. Effective seed dispersal mechanisms and long-lived
viable seeds in the seed bank enable weeds to infiltrate undisturbed regions and proliferate
when sites are disrupted.
Weeds may possess traits such as allelopathy to outcompete other species and deter herbivory,
even human interference. Their ability to adapt genetically to environmental factors challenges
conventional herbicides. Defining successful weeds involves identifying core traits, with
ongoing developments likely to expand this understanding as weed control mechanisms evolve.
This dynamic relationship between humans and weeds continues as both parties strive for
dominance.

Types of Weeds
Most weeds found in agronomic cropping systems are herbaceous, although a few, such as
maple trees, can establish themselves in reduced-tillage fields. Weeds are classified based on
their life cycle: annual, biennial, and perennial. Understanding these life cycles is crucial for
managing weed reproduction and dispersal.
Annual plants complete their life cycle within a year, with summer annuals emerging in
spring, growing through spring and summer, flowering, and producing seeds in late early fall.
These are common in agronomic crops and can be controlled with soil-applied or post-
emergence herbicides, with effectiveness decreasing as weeds grow larger.
Winter annual weeds emerge in late summer or fall, overwinter in a vegetative state, and
produce seeds the following spring. They are prevalent in untilled fields after harvest and in
fall-seeded crops. Control measures involve herbicide applications in late fall or early spring.
Biennial plants require two years to complete their life cycle, typically emerging in spring or
summer, overwintering as a rosette, and flowering and seeding in the second year.
Postemergence herbicides are effective during the rosette stage, with control becoming more
challenging after bolting.

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Perennial weeds live longer than two years and can reproduce via seed or vegetative
propagules like roots or rhizomes. They often thrive in no-till fields and are difficult to control,
requiring post-emergence translocated herbicides. Effective control involves targeting both
above-ground growth and underground storage structures. Herbicide applications during
periods of active growth or flowering, as well as in early to mid-fall, maximize effectiveness
by targeting food movement to the roots.
Table 1: Characteristics of weed life cycle (Kelton MD, 2009)

Weed type Duration of life Overwintering Method of

cycle state reproduction
Annual 1 year Seed Seed
Biennial 2 year Rosette Seed
Perennial >2 year Seed, vegetative Seed, vegetative
propagules propagules

Deleterious Impact of Weeds

1. Competition for Resources:
Weeds compete fiercely with desired plants for essential resources like light, water, and
nutrients. Their aggressive root systems can deprive crops of vital water and nutrients,
hindering growth and potentially leading to yield reductions. Studies have shown that weed
competition can significantly decrease crop yields by up to 50% or more in severe cases
(Zimdahl, 1999). This translates to substantial economic losses for farmers.
2. Harbouring of Pests and Diseases:
Weeds can act as alternate hosts for plant pathogens and insect pests, creating a reservoir for
these detrimental organisms within the managed area. The close proximity of weeds to desired
plants facilitates the spread of diseases and pests, further jeopardizing crop health and
productivity. (Liebman & Dyck, 1993).
3. Infrastructure Disruption:
Certain aggressive weed species, particularly those with robust root systems, can damage
infrastructure like irrigation systems, roads, and sidewalks. Their roots can infiltrate cracks and
crevices, causing structural damage and requiring costly repairs(California Invasive Plant
Council, 2006).
4. Reduced Aesthetic Value:
The presence of weeds detracts from the visual appeal of managed landscapes. This is
particularly concerning for ornamental gardens, parks, and recreational areas where aesthetics
play a significant role.
5. Environmental Impact:

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Weeds can disrupt ecological balance in natural ecosystems. Their rapid growth and
competitive nature can outcompete native plant species, reducing biodiversity and altering
habitat structure. Additionally, some invasive weed species can alter soil properties, leading to
long-term changes in ecosystem health. (Vila et al., 2000).
6. Increased Management Costs:
The presence of weeds necessitates additional management efforts to control their populations.
This often translates into increased costs associated with herbicides, labour, and other control
methods. Effective weed control strategies are crucial for minimizing these economic burdens.
Positive Impact of Weeds
1. Soil Enrichment and Stabilization:
Beyond their perceived competition for resources, weeds, particularly those with deep taproots,
can act as allies in maintaining soil health. Their root systems enhance soil aeration by creating
channels for air and water infiltration, alleviating compaction issues. Additionally, as these
roots decompose, they contribute organic matter, a crucial component for soil fertility. Studies
by [Teasdale, 1996] demonstrate the positive impact of weeds on soil structure and nutrient
cycling, particularly in no-till agricultural systems.
2. Erosion Control and Fostering Biodiversity:
The rapid growth and dense foliage of certain weed species can provide a vital service: erosion
control. This is particularly beneficial on slopes or in areas exposed to strong winds. Their
dense cover helps to hold soil particles in place, minimizing the risk of erosion and soil loss.
Furthermore, the presence of weeds can create valuable habitat for a diversity of beneficial
organisms, including pollinators like bees and butterflies. Research by (Morandin et al., 2008)
suggests that some weed species can support and even enhance pollinator communities in
agricultural landscapes, contributing to ecosystem resilience.
3. Food Source for Wildlife:
Often overlooked is the role weeds play in supporting wildlife populations. Their seeds and
fruits can be a crucial food source for a variety of birds, small mammals, and insects,
particularly during periods when preferred food sources are scarce. This ecological role
contributes to maintaining a healthy and balanced food web with cascading effects throughout
the ecosystem.
4. Potential Medicinal Value:
Many weeds possess a surprising secret: medicinal properties. Traditional medicine has utilized
these plants for centuries, highlighting their potential as a source of bioactive compounds.
Research by (Mills et al., 2004) explores the potential of various weed species as sources of
bioactive compounds with potential therapeutic applications. While further scientific
investigation is needed, some weeds may offer valuable medicinal benefits in the future.

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5. Bioindicators of Soil Conditions:
The presence or absence of specific weed species can be indicative of specific environmental
conditions in the soil. For example, the presence of certain nitrogen-fixing weeds can suggest
high nitrogen content in the soil. By understanding the ecological preferences of particular
weeds, land managers can gain valuable insights into the health and composition of their soil,
informing more sustainable management practices.
Weed Management
Weed management is the application of certain principles and suitable methods that will
improve the vigor and uniform stand of the crop. At the same time ignore or discourage the
invasion and growth of weeds.
Principles of weed management are:
a) Prevention
b) Eradication
c) Control

a. Preventive weed control

It encompasses all measures taken to prevent the introduction and/or establishment and spread
of weeds. Such areas may be local, regional or national in size. No weed control programme is
successful if adequate preventive measures are not taken to reduce weed infestation. It is a long
term planning so that the weeds could be controlled or managed more effectively and
economically than is possible where these are allowed to disperse freely. Following preventive
control measures are suggested for adoption wherever possible & practicable.
1. Avoid using crop that are infested with weed seeds for sowing
2. Avoid feeding screenings and other material containing weed seeds to the farm animals.
3. Avoid adding weeds to the manure pits.
4. Clean the farm machinery thoroughly before moving it from one field to another. This is
particularly important for seed drills
5. Avoid the use of gravel sand and soil from weed-infested
6. Inspect nursery stock for the presence of weed seedlings, tubers, rhizomes, etc.
7. Keep irrigation channels, fence-lines, and un-cropped areas clean
8. Use vigilance. Inspect your farm frequently for any strange looking weed seedlings. Destroy
such patches of a new weed by digging deep and burning the weed along with its roots. Sterilize
the spot with suitable chemical.
9. Quarantine regulations are available in almost all countries to deny the entry of weed seeds
and other propagules into a country through airports and shipyards.
Weed free crop seeds
It may be produced by following the pre-cautionary measures:

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i. Separating crop seeds from admixture of crop & weed seeds using physical differences like
size, shape, colour, weight / texture & electrical properties.
ii. Using air-screen cleaners & specific gravity separators, which differentiate seeds based on
seed size, shape, surface area & specific gravity.
iii. Through means of Seed certification we can get certified seeds and can be used safely
because the certified seeds contain no contaminant weed seeds
iv. Weed laws are helpful in reducing the spread of weed species & in the use of well adapted
higher quality seeds. They help in protecting the farmers from using mislabeled or
contaminated seed and legally prohibiting seeds of noxious weeds from entering the country.
v. Quarantine laws enforce isolation of an area in which a severe weed has become established
& prevent the movement of the weed into an uninfected area.
vi. Use of pre-emergence herbicides also helpful in prevention because herbicides will not
allow the germination of weeds.

b. Eradication: (ideal weed control rarely achieved)

It infers that a given weed species, its seed & vegetative part has been killed or completely
removed from a given area & that weed will not reappear unless reintroduced to the area.
Because of its difficulty & high cost, eradication is usually attempted only in smaller areas such
as few hectares or few thousand or less. Eradication is often used in high value areas such as
green houses, ornamental plant beds & containers. This may be desirable and economical when
the weed species is extremely noxious and persistent as to make cropping difficult and
economical.
c. Control
It encompasses those processes where by weed infestations are reduced but not necessarily
eliminated. It is a matter of degree ranging from poor to excellent. In control methods, the
weeds are seldom killed but their growth is severely restricted, the crop makes a normal yield.
In general, the degree of weed control obtained is dependent on the characters of weeds
involved and the effectiveness of the control method used.
Life cycle of weeds with an insight into weed control
Understanding the life cycle of weeds, whether annual or perennial, is fundamental for
implementing effective control strategies (Ross and Lembi, 1999). Knowledge of growth stages
helps determine the most appropriate course of action, focusing on the most vulnerable stages
to achieve partial control over persistent weed problems in agricultural production.
The germination and seedling stages of weed life cycles are critical periods susceptible to
targeted weed control (Swanton et al., 2008). Seedlings compete with surrounding plants for
nutrients, water, and light, making this stage ideal for chemical or biological weed control
interventions to mitigate yield losses in crops.
Weed species adapted to specific cropping systems often outcompete row crops by germinating
earlier or exhibiting rapid growth when germinating simultaneously with crops (Swanton et al.,

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2008). Identifying key weed threats and their germination patterns aids in timing herbicide
applications aligned with crop planting dates.
Weeds exhibit rapid vegetative growth up to the flowering stage, often flowering earlier and
longer than agricultural crops (Swanton et al., 2008). This adaptation allows weeds to thrive in
specific crop settings but makes them more susceptible to suppression under crop rotation.
Systemic herbicides are most effective before flowering, as weeds become more resilient once
they reach this stage.
Weed species ensure their survival through seed production, facilitated by self-compatibility
and wind pollination mechanisms (Sutherland, 2004). Efficient pollination enhances seed
production, crucial for weed species' persistence.
Seed dispersal is vital for weed colonization and reducing intra-specific competition
(Sutherland, 2004). Dissemination occurs through various means, including wind, water,
animals, machinery, and contaminated crop seeds.
Perennial weeds reproducing via vegetative structures can grow larger and faster than
seedlings, often with high levels of stored food enabling survival under adverse conditions.
Additionally, many perennials can reproduce both by seed and vegetatively, posing challenges
for control efforts due to continuous reproductive potential.
Effective perennial weed control involves employing multiple management tactics during
susceptible periods of active growth, excluding early development and flowering stages.
Repeated control measures during these stages can mitigate crop damage by perennial weeds.

Weed Control Methods

Physical Methods
Physical methods of weed control involve mechanical or manual techniques to physically
remove or suppress weeds. These methods are often used in combination with other weed
control strategies to manage weed populations effectively. Some common physical methods of
weed control include:
1. Hand weeding: Manually pulling or digging out weeds by hand or using handheld tools such
as hoes, weeders, or trowels. This method is effective for removing weeds individually and is
commonly used in gardens, flower beds, and small-scale agriculture.
2. Hoeing: Using a handheld or mechanical hoe to cut or uproot weeds from the soil surface.
Hoeing disrupts weed growth and can be used to cultivate the soil between rows of crops or in
areas where machinery cannot reach.
3. Mulching: Applying a layer of organic or synthetic mulch to the soil surface to smother
weeds and prevent their emergence. Mulching also helps conserve soil moisture, regulate soil
temperature, and improve soil health.
4. Tilling: Using mechanical tillage equipment, such as plows, cultivators, or rotary tillers, to
break up soil and bury weeds. Tilling can disrupt weed growth, expose weed seeds to

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environmental conditions that inhibit germination, and create a suitable seedbed for planting
crops.
5. Mowing: Using mechanical mowers or trimmers to cut weeds at or near ground level.
Mowing reduces weed height, prevents seed production, and can help maintain a neat
appearance in lawns, roadsides, and other areas.
6. Burning: Applying controlled burns or flaming devices to weeds to kill or suppress their
growth. Burning can be used to clear large areas of weeds and reduce weed seed viability, but
it requires careful planning and may not be suitable in all environments.
7. Flooding: Submerging fields or areas under water to drown weeds or inhibit their growth.
Flooding is commonly used in rice cultivation but can also be employed as a weed control
method in other aquatic or wetland environments.
Physical methods of weed control are often labor-intensive and may require repeated or timely
applications for effective weed management. However, they are generally environmentally
friendly and can be used in conjunction with other weed control strategies to achieve long-term
weed suppression.
Cultural Methods
Cultural methods of weed control involve practices that manipulate the crop environment or
cropping system to reduce weed competition and promote crop growth. These methods aim to
create conditions that are unfavorable for weed establishment and growth while favoring the
growth and development of crops. Some common cultural methods of weed control include:
1. Crop rotation: Rotating different crops in sequence can disrupt weed life cycles, reduce weed
pressure, and help break pest and disease cycles. Crops with different growth habits or root
structures can also compete more effectively with weeds.
2. Crop spacing and density: Planting crops at optimal spacing and density can promote crop
competitiveness and shade out weeds, reducing their ability to establish and compete for
resources.
3. Cover cropping: Planting cover crops can help suppress weeds by providing competition for
resources, shading the soil surface, and releasing allelopathic compounds that inhibit weed
germination and growth.
4. Mulching: Applying organic or synthetic mulches to the soil surface can suppress weed
growth by blocking sunlight, reducing soil temperature and moisture loss, and providing a
physical barrier to weed emergence.
5. Weed seed management: Implementing practices to reduce the introduction and spread of
weed seeds, such as cleaning equipment between fields, controlling weed escapes, and
preventing seed dispersal, can help minimize weed populations over time.
6. Soil fertility management: Maintaining optimal soil fertility levels can promote vigorous
crop growth and competitiveness, reducing the space and resources available for weed
establishment and growth.
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7. Timing of operations: Timing planting, irrigation, and cultivation operations to coincide with
periods of low weed competition can help minimize weed pressure and promote crop growth.
Cultural methods of weed control are often used in combination with other weed management
strategies, such as mechanical, chemical, and biological control, as part of an integrated
approach to sustainable weed management.
Biological Methods
Biological weed control involves using living organisms, such as insects, pathogens, or grazing
animals, to suppress weed populations. These organisms can be natural enemies of the weeds,
predators, or competitors that help reduce weed growth and spread. Some common biological
control methods for weeds include:
1. Insect herbivory: Introducing or encouraging the presence of insects that feed on weeds can
help reduce weed populations. Examples include using insects like weevils or beetles that
specifically target certain weed species.
2. Pathogens: Using plant pathogens, such as fungi or bacteria, that infect and kill weeds can
be an effective biological control method. These pathogens can be naturally occurring or
introduced into weed populations.
3. Grazing animals: Allowing livestock or other grazing animals to feed on weeds can help
control their growth and spread. Animals like goats, sheep, or cattle can be used to selectively
graze on weeds, reducing their abundance.
4. Allelopathy: Some plants release chemicals into the soil that inhibit the growth of nearby
plants, including weeds. Intercropping with allelopathic plants or incorporating their residues
into the soil can help suppress weed growth.
Biological weed control can be a sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to
managing weeds, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas where chemical herbicides may
not be suitable. However, it often requires careful planning and management to ensure that the
biological control agents effectively target the weeds without causing harm to desirable plants
or ecosystems. Additionally, biological control methods may take time to establish and may
not provide immediate control of weed populations. Therefore, they are often used in
combination with other weed management strategies as part of an integrated approach.
Herbicides
Herbicides are chemicals capable of killing or inhibiting the growth of plants. Today we have
150 herbicides in common use for selective and non selective control in different areas.
Historical Development of Herbicides
Common salt, ash etc. have been used for centuries to control weeds on roadsides, fence rows
& pathways. But Selective control of weeds in Agriculture was first conceived in 1896 with
the chance observation of French farmer that Bordeaux mixture sprayed on Grape vine to
control downy mildew damaged certain broad leaf weeds. It was found Cu So4 present in the
Bordeaux mixture was responsible for its weed killing effect. Between 1896 and 1908 several
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inorganic salts as also sulphuric acid is found selective to small grain crops. A real breakthrough
in selective weed control was achieved in 1945, with the discovery of 2,4-D & MCPA in USA
& England independently by P.W. Zimmerman and A.E Hitchkock. Both 2,4-D and MCPA
were found highly selective for cereals and phytotoxic to broad leaved weeds.
In Agriculturally developed countries, herbicides form over 45% of the total pesticides used.
In India, share of herbicides is only 8% of the total pesticides consumed. The average herbicide
usage in India is 40g/ha/year as against 675-1350 g/ha/year in many advanced countries. While
in Japan it is as much as 5,000 g/ha/year. The present annual capacity of herbicide production
in India is about 6000t ha-1.
Objectives of herbicides usage about ¾ th of the available herbicides in India are used in
plantation crops.
1. The primary objective of introducing herbicides in Agriculture is to replace the drudgery of
manual weeding.
2. The labour power could be utilized more effectively for brining additional land under
cultivation and for improving the overall Agricultural production.
3. Increasing costs of hired labour and limited supply of fuel for mechanical weed control.
4. Herbicides are not aimed at substituting the Physical, Biological or good crop husbandry
methods. These are only meant to bridge the gap in these methods.
5. In water bodies herbicides can be efficiently employed to free them of their weedy vegetation
that hinder the proper water use.
Chemical Method
Chemical weed control involves using herbicides, which are chemical substances specifically
designed to kill or inhibit the growth of weeds. Herbicides can be classified based on their
mode of action, application method, and selectivity to target weeds while minimizing harm to
desirable plants. Some common types of herbicides and methods of application include:
1. Pre-emergent herbicides: Applied to the soil before weed seeds germinate, pre-emergent
herbicides prevent weed seedlings from emerging or establishing themselves. They are
effective for controlling annual weeds and can be incorporated into soil or applied as surface
treatments.
2. Post-emergent herbicides: Applied to actively growing weeds, post-emergent herbicides
target weeds that have already emerged from the soil. They can be selective, targeting specific
weed species while leaving desirable plants unharmed, or non-selective, killing all vegetation
they come into contact with.
3. Contact herbicides: Kill only the plant tissue they come into contact with and do not
translocate within the plant. Contact herbicides are effective for controlling annual weeds and
are commonly used in non-crop areas or as spot treatments.

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4. Systemic herbicides: Absorbed by plant foliage or roots and translocated throughout the
plant, systemic herbicides kill weeds from within. They are effective for controlling perennial
weeds with extensive root systems and can provide long-lasting control.
5. Selective herbicides: Target specific weed species or plant types while sparing desirable
plants. Selective herbicides are commonly used in agricultural settings to control weeds in
crops without causing harm to the crop plants.
Chemical weed control is a widely used and effective method for managing weeds in various
agricultural, horticultural, and landscape settings. However, it requires careful selection and
application to minimize environmental impact, avoid off-target damage, and prevent the
development of herbicide resistance in weed populations. Integrated weed management
approaches, which combine chemical, biological, cultural, and mechanical control methods,
are often recommended to achieve sustainable and effective weed control while reducing
reliance on herbicides.
Herbarium
A herbarium is an organized collection of preserved plant specimens used for scientific study.
These specimens are typically pressed, dried, and mounted on sheets of high-quality paper for
long-term storage [Training Course on Herbarium Techniques and Curation [PDF document],
Botanical Survey of India]. Herbaria serve as vital resources for botanists and researchers,
allowing them to:
● Identify plant species
● Study plant morphology and anatomy
● Track plant distribution and diversity
● Conduct historical research on plant populations

Key aspects of a herbarium:

Dimensions: While there's no universally mandated size, a standard herbarium sheet measures
approximately 11.5 x 16.5 inches (29 x 41.5 cm) [The University of Iowa Herbarium - Herbaria
& Specimens]. This size allows for easy storage and handling of a vast collection within
cabinets.
Paper Quality: Herbarium sheets are made from acid-free, archival-quality paper. This ensures
the longevity of the specimens by preventing deterioration from acidic compounds [UWGB
Herbarium Label].
Label Dimensions: Label size can vary among herbaria, but they typically fit comfortably on
the standard herbarium sheet. Labels contain crucial information about the plant specimen,
including:

• Scientific name (Latin)

• Collection location
• Date of collection

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 • Collector's name
• Habitat description
• Collector's number (unique identifier)
Importance of Herbarium for Weed Survey
1.Accurate Identification: Herbarium specimens can be used to accurately identify weeds,
which is essential for developing effective control strategies.
2. Documentation of plant diversity: Herbarium collection can be used to document the plant
diversity of a particular area, including the presence of invasive or exotic weeds.
3. Monitoring changes over time: Herbarium Specimens can be used to monitor changes in
weed population over time which can help to track the spread of invasive species and
effectiveness of used control measures.
4. Reference for future research: Herbarium specimens can be used as a reference for future
research on weeds such as studies on their biology, ecology, and management.

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 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fieldwork
• Data recording sheets: To record observations on weed species, abundance, and other
relevant data.
• Hand lens: For aiding weed identification in the field.
• Zip-lock bags: For temporarily storing weed specimens.
• Permanent markers: For labelling weed samples.
• Camera (optional): To capture photos of weeds for reference or later identification.
Herbarium Collection

• Plant press: A specialized tool to flatten and dry plant specimens.

• Newspaper sheets: Used to absorb moisture from plant specimens during drying.
• Blotting paper (optional): Additional absorbent material for stubborn moisture.
• Sturdy folders or herbarium sheets: For long-term storage of dried specimens.
• Data labels: Including information like collection date, location, and species name.
Methods of weed survey

• Survey area: Old and New Department of Botany University of Lucknow

• Sampling Method: Recording the weed species randomly from selected survey area.
• Data Collection: Identification of Weed Species.

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 RESULTS
A total of 30 weed species were collected from the campus of Old and New Department of
Botany. Care was taken to collect the plants in their reproductive phase i.e. with flower and/or
fruit. Herbarium was prepared from the dried and pressed weed plants belonging to 30 different
species (Please refer to Annexure I for the herbarium). The collected 30 weed plant species
were found to belong to 18 families and 28 genera (Table 2). The families to which weed
species belongs are: Amaranthaceae (3), Asteraceae (7), Primulaceae (1), Papaveraceae (1),
Cannabaceae (1), Poaceae (4), Cyperaceae (1), Scrophulariaceae (1), Brassicaceae (1),
Malvaceae (1), Fabaceae (2), Oxiladaceae (2), Pteridaceae (1), Verbanaceae (1), Plantaginaceae
(1), Solanaceae (1), Euphorbiaceae (1). Highest number of weed species were reported from
Asteraceae, followed by Poaceae, Amaranthaceae and Fabaceae.
Table 2: Scientific name and families of different weed species
S. No Scientific Name of Weeds Family
1 Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae
2 Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae
3 Ageratum houstonianum Asteraceae
4 Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthaceae
5 Anagallis arvensis Primulaceae
6 Argemone maxicana Papavaraceae
7 Cannabis sativa Cannabaceae
8 Chenopodium album Amaranthaceae
9 Cynodon dactylon Poaceae
10 Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae
11 Cyanthillium cinerum Asteraceae
12 Eclipta alba Asteraceae
13 Ehrharta erecta Poaceae
14 Ergrostis barrelieri Poaceae
15 Digitaria ciliaris Poaceae
16 Gamocheata pensylvanica Asteraceae
17 Linderbergia indica Scrophulriaceae
18 Lepidium didynum Brassicaceae
19 Malvastrum coramendelium Malvaceae
20 Medicago orbicularis Fabaceae
21 Melilotus indicus Fabaceae

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 22 Oxalis articulata Oxalidaceae
23 Oxalis latifolia Oxalidaceae
24 Pteris vitata Pteridaceae
25 Parthenium hysterophorus Asteraceae
26 Phyla nodiflora Verbanaceae
27 Scoparia dulcis Plantaginaceae
28 Solanum nigrum Solanaceae
29 Tridax procumbens Asteraceae
30 Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae

Chart 1: Pie chart representing plant family of weeds found in this study

3% 3% 10%
3%
3%
3%

7%
23%

7%

3%
3% 3%
3% 3%
3% 3%
13%

Amaranthaceae Asteraceae Primulaceae Papaveraceae Cannabaceae

Poaceae Cyperaceae Scrophulariaceae Brassicaceae Malvaceae
Fabaceae Oxalidaceae Pteridaceae Verbanaceae Plantaginaceae
Solanaceae Euphorbiaceae

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Botanical Description and Medicinal Importance of collected weeds
1. Achyranthes aspera (Annexure 1.1):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: chaff flower or devil's horsewhip
- Habit: Erect, herbaceous
- Leaves: Simple, alternate
- Flowers: Small, inconspicuous, arranged in dense spikes or clusters
- Habitat: Typically found in tropical and subtropical regions
Medicinal Importance
● Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties: Achyranthes extracts have been shown to reduce
inflammation and pain, making them potentially beneficial for conditions like arthritis and
rheumatism (Rehman et al., 2018).
● Antimicrobial activity: Achyranthes has been shown to inhibit the growth of various bacteria,
fungi, and viruses.
● Wound healing: Achyranthes extracts may promote wound healing by stimulating collagen
synthesis and reducing inflammation (Rehman et al., 2018).
● Diabetes management: Some studies suggest that Achyranthes may help regulate blood sugar
levels.
● Cancer: Recent research suggests that Achyranthes extracts may have anti-cancer properties.

2. Ageratum conyzoides (Annexure1.2):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: white weed, bhakla or lantana
- Habit: Herbaceous annual or perennial plant
- Leaves: Opposite, ovate to lanceolate, serrated margins
- Flowers: Small, fluffy, lavender to white in color, arranged in dense clusters
- Habitat: Native to tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, often found in disturbed areas,
roadsides, and cultivated fields.
Medicinal Importance
Traditionally, Ageratum conyzoides has been used in various folk medicines (Baral et al 2022).
Studies have shown it may have properties that can help with:
● Wounds and skin disorders

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● Headaches and fever
● Respiratory problems like pneumonia
● Gynecological issues
● Pain relief

3.Ageratum houstonianum (Annexure 1.3):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: floss flower or blueweed
- Habit: Herbaceous annual plant
- Leaves: Opposite, ovate to lanceolate, serrated margins, often hairy
- Flowers: Small, fluffy, blue, purple, pink, or white in color, arranged in dense clusters
- Habitat: Native to Central America, but widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens
and landscapes worldwide.
Medicinal Importance
Traditionally, various cultures have used Ageratum haustonianum in folk medicine for a variety
of ailments. Studies have identified some potentially beneficial biocompounds in the plant, but
more scientific research is needed to confirm its efficacy and safety for medicinal use (Igarashi,
Shirakawa, K. 2006].
Here are some potential applications based on preliminary studies:
● Wound healing: Extracts from Ageratum haustonianum have shown wound healing
properties in animal studies.
● Anti-inflammatory: The plant may possess anti-inflammatory properties that could be
beneficial for conditions like arthritis (Igarashi et al., 2006).

4.Amaranthus spinosus (Annexure 1.4):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: Spiny Pigweed
- Habit: Herbaceous annual plant
- Stem: Erect, branched, often spiny
- Leaves: Alternate, lanceolate to ovate, with spiny margins
- Flowers: Small, greenish to reddish in color, arranged in dense spikes
- Fruit: Small, round capsules containing numerous seeds

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- Habitat: Commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in disturbed habitats such
as fields, roadsides, and waste areas.
Medicinal Importance
● Rich in nutrients: Amaranth leaves are a powerhouse of vitamins and minerals, including
vitamins A, C, E, K, B complex, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron.
● Antioxidant properties: Studies suggest that amaranth possesses antioxidant properties that
may help protect against cell damage and chronic diseases (Xu et al., 2003).
● Anti-inflammatory effects: Amaranth may have anti-inflammatory properties that could be
beneficial for conditions like arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease (Wang et al., 2011).
● Other potential benefits: Some studies suggest amaranth may also help with blood sugar
control, wound healing, and digestive health, but more research is needed (Joshi et al., 2013).

5. Anagallis arvensis (Annexure 1.5):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: Pimpernel or Scarlet Pimpernel
- Habit: Herbaceous annual or perennial plant
- Stem: Prostrate or ascending, often branching
- Leaves: Opposite, ovate to lanceolate, sometimes with a reddish tint
- Flowers: Small, typically bright red, but can also be blue or purple, with a prominent central
yellow or white eye, solitary in leaf axils
- Fruit: Capsule containing numerous small seeds
- Habitat: Commonly found in disturbed areas, fields, gardens, and along roadsides in
temperate regions worldwide.
Medicinal Importance:
● Detoxification
● Diuretic effects
● Antiviral activity
● Antifungal properties

6. Argemone maxicana (Annexure 1.6):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: prickly poppy or Mexican poppy
- Habit: Annual or biennial herbaceous plant

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- Stem: Erect, branching from the base, often with spiny stems and leaves
- Leaves: Alternate, deeply lobed or pinnatifid, bluish-green in color, with prickly margins
- Flowers: Large, bright yellow, with numerous stamens, solitary or in small clusters at the ends
of branches
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary racemes
- Fruit: Large, prickly capsules containing numerous small black seeds
- Habitat: Commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in open fields, disturbed
areas, and along roadsides.
Medicinal Importance
A. mexicana has a history of use in traditional medicine for various ailments like skin
infections, wounds, and toothaches (Alam et al., 2020). However, it's crucial to note that these
uses are based on anecdotal evidence and lack robust scientific validation.

7. Cannabis sativa (Annexure 1.7):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: Hemp
- Habit: Dioecious annual herbaceous plant
- Stem: Tall, slender, with distinct nodes and internodes
- Leaves: Palmately compound with serrated leaflets, typically with 5-7 leaflets per leaf
- Flowers: Small, greenish-yellow, arranged in clusters or racemes
- Male and female flowers borne on separate plants
- Female flowers develop into seed-bearing structures known as buds or "flowers"
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded fruits called achenes
- Habitat: Cultivated in various climates worldwide, including temperate, subtropical, and
tropical regions.
Medicinal Importance
Cannabis sativa contains a variety of chemical compounds known as cannabinoids, the most
well-known being tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). THC is the
psychoactive component that produces the "high" associated with marijuana use. CBD, on the
other hand, is non-psychoactive and has been shown to have a wide range of therapeutic effects.
Here are some of the conditions for which cannabis sativa is being studied:
● Chronic pain: Studies have shown that cannabis can be effective in reducing chronic pain,
such as pain from neuropathy or arthritis [National Institute on Drug Abuse].

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● Nausea and vomiting: Cannabis is often used to alleviate nausea and vomiting caused by
chemotherapy or other medical conditions.
● Muscle spasticity: Cannabis can help to reduce muscle spasticity associated with multiple
sclerosis and other neurological conditions.
● Anxiety and depression: There is some evidence that cannabis may be helpful in treating
anxiety and depression.
● Epilepsy: CBD has been shown to be effective in reducing seizures in some forms of epilepsy.

8. Chenopodium album (Annexure 1.8):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: lamb's quarters, goosefoot, or white goosefoot.
- Habit: Annual herbaceous plant
- Stem: Erect or ascending, often branched, with a white powdery coating
- Leaves: Alternate, simple, triangular to diamond-shaped, with toothed margins, and often with
a mealy texture
- Flowers: Small, greenish, arranged in dense clusters or spikes at the ends of branches
- Fruit: Small, round, flattened seeds enclosed in a papery perianth
- Habitat: Commonly found in disturbed areas, cultivated fields, gardens, roadsides, and waste
places worldwide.
Medicinal Importance
● Traditional Uses: Chenopodium album has a long history of use in traditional medicine
around the globe. The leaves and seeds have been used to treat a variety of ailments including
coughs, stomach aches, and worms (Bradley & Peter,1982).
● Anti helminthic Properties: Perhaps the most well-documented medicinal use of
chenopodium is its effectiveness as a deworming agent. The seeds contain an oil rich in
terpenes, particularly ascaridole, which paralyzes and kills intestinal worms.

9. Cynodon dactylon (Annexure 1.9):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: Bermuda grass
- Habit: Perennial grass
- Stem: Creeping, wiry, and tough, with nodes and internodes
- Leaves: Linear, alternate, often with a prominent midrib and parallel venation
- Flowers: Small, inconspicuous, borne in spike-like clusters called racemes

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- Inflorescence: Spikes arranged in digitate clusters
- Root system: Fibrous roots and rhizomes, forming dense mats
- Habitat: Widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, commonly found in lawns,
pastures, roadsides, and disturbed areas.
Medicinal Importance
● Anti-inflammatory Properties: Studies suggest the plant may possess properties that reduce
inflammation associated with conditions like arthritis and wounds (Singh & Yadav, 2017).
● Antimicrobial Activity: Research indicates the grass might exhibit properties that combat
bacteria and fungi (Shaheen et al., 2018).
● Wound Healing Potential: Topical application of the plant's juice is sometimes used to
promote wound healing, although further investigation is needed (Shaheen et al., 2018).
● Diuretic Effects: The rhizomes (underground stems) may act as a diuretic, increasing urine
output (Singh & Yadav, 2017).

10.Cyperus rotundus (Annexure 1.10):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: Nut Grass
- Habit: Perennial herbaceous plant
- Stem: Triangular in cross-section, creeping rhizomes with tubers or nutlets
- Leaves: Linear, grass-like, arranged in three ranks, with sheathing leaf bases
- Flowers: Small, brown to reddish-brown, arranged in umbels at the end of stems
- Inflorescence: Umbels composed of multiple spikelets
- Fruit: Small, brown, nut-like structures called achenes
- Habitat: Commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in moist or wet habitats
such as marshes, ditches, and along water edges.
Medicinal Importance
● Anti-inflammatory Activity: Studies have demonstrated the presence of anti-inflammatory
compounds within Cyperus rotundus tubers (Singh et al., 2011). This suggests its potential
application in managing conditions like arthritis, asthma, and inflammatory bowel disease.
● Antimicrobial Effects: Research indicates the plant exhibits antimicrobial activity against a
range of bacterial and fungal pathogens (Rajkumar & V. et al., 2003). This property holds
promise for applications in wound healing and combating infections.
● Digestive Benefits: Cyperus rotundus is believed to be beneficial for digestion and relieving
stomach discomfort, based on traditional knowledge.

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11. Cyanthillium cinerum (Annexure 1.11):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: Little Ironweed
- Habit: Herbaceous annual or perennial plant
- Stem: Erect, branched, with a greyish-green color
- Leaves: Alternate, lanceolate to ovate, with serrated margins and a rough texture
- Flowers: Small, discoid, yellowish to whitish, arranged in dense clusters at the ends of
branches
- Inflorescence: Terminal corymbs or panicles
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded fruits called achenes
- Habitat: Native to tropical and subtropical regions, commonly found in open fields,
grasslands, disturbed areas, and along roadsides.
Medicinal Importance
● Traditional Uses: Leaves of Cyanthillium cinereum possess some antibiotic properties and
find use in various traditional medicinal practices (Holm et al., 1997).
● Applications: In India, these leaves are used to treat conjunctivitis, dropsy, and urinary
disorders. The Philippines utilize it as an infusion for coughs and skin ailments.

12. Eclipta alba (Annexure 1.12):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: False daisy
- Habit: Herbaceous annual or perennial plant
- Stem: Prostrate or ascending, branching, often hairy
- Leaves: Opposite, lanceolate to ovate, with serrated margins and a smooth or hairy surface
- Flowers: Small, white with yellow centers, daisy-like, arranged in dense clusters at the ends
of branches
- Inflorescence: Terminal corymbs or panicles
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded fruits called achenes
- Habitat: Commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in damp or marshy areas,
along riverbanks, and in cultivated fields.

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Medicinal Importance
● Hair growth: Eclipta alba leaf extracts are commonly used in hair oils and supplements to
promote hair growth and prevent hair loss (Witt et al., 2014). Studies suggest it may stimulate
hair follicle activity.
● Liver health: The herb may have protective effects on the liver and help with liver diseases.
● Wound healing: Eclipta alba extracts might aid wound healing due to its anti-inflammatory
and antioxidant properties.

13.Ehrharta erecta (Annexure 1.13):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Panic veldtgrass
- Habit: Perennial grass
- Stem: Erect, slender, with nodes and internodes
- Leaves: Linear, alternate, usually hairy, with prominent midribs and parallel venation
- Inflorescence: Terminal panicles or spikes composed of numerous small spikelets
- Spikelets: Small, cylindrical, with multiple florets arranged in pairs
- Flowers: Tiny, inconspicuous, usually with bristles or awns
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded grains called caryopses
- Habitat: Native to South Africa, but introduced and invasive in many other regions, often
found in disturbed areas, roadsides, and pastures.

14. Eragrostis barrelieri (Annexure 1.14):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: Canegrass
- Habit: Annual or perennial grass
- Stem: Erect or ascending, slender, with nodes and internodes
- Leaves: Linear or lanceolate, alternate, often rolled inward, with parallel venation
- Inflorescence: Loose or contracted panicles composed of numerous small spikelets
- Spikelets: Small, flattened, with multiple florets arranged along a central axis
- Flowers: Tiny, inconspicuous, typically with awns or bristles
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded grains called caryopses
- Habitat: Native to Mediterranean regions, commonly found in grasslands, meadows, and
disturbed areas.

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15. Digitaria ciliaris (Annexure 1.15):

Botanical Description
-Common Name: Southern Crabgrass
- Habit: Annual or perennial grass
- Stem: Erect or spreading, slender, often branching from the base
- Leaves: Linear or lanceolate, alternate, with hairy margins and parallel venation
- Inflorescence: Terminal racemes or spikes, composed of numerous small spikelets
- Spikelets: Small, compressed, arranged in pairs along a central axis
- Flowers: Tiny, inconspicuous, typically with awns or bristles
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded grains called caryopses
- Habitat: Widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, commonly found in disturbed
areas, pastures, and lawns.
Medicinal Importance
● Anti-ulcer properties: Extracts from some Digitaria species have shown promise in reducing
stomach ulcers (Nema et al., 2021).
● Anti-helminthic activity: Certain Digitaria species may have deworming properties.
● Anti-inflammatory effects: Digitaria extracts might help reduce inflammation.

16. Gamocheata pensylvanica (Annexure 1.16):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Cudweed
- Habit: Herbaceous annual or perennial plant
- Stem: Erect or ascending, slender, often branched
- Leaves: Linear or lanceolate, alternate, densely hairy, with entire margins
- Flowers: Small, inconspicuous, greenish-white, arranged in dense clusters at the ends of
branches
- Inflorescence: Terminal spikes or panicles
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded fruits called achenes
- Habitat: Native to North America, commonly found in open fields, disturbed areas, roadsides,
and waste places.

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17. Linderbergia indica (Annexure 1.17):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Nettle Leaved
- Habit: Herbaceous perennial plant
- Stem: Erect or creeping, depending on the species
- Leaves: Opposite or alternate, simple, typically with serrated margins
- Flowers: Bilaterally symmetrical, usually with five petals, ranging in color from white to pink
or purple
- Inflorescence: Terminal racemes or spikes, or solitary flowers
- Habitat: Typically found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in moist habitats such as
marshes, stream sides, and wetlands.
Medicinal Importance
● Antibacterial properties: These properties could potentially help fight infections.
● Anti-inflammatory properties: These properties could help reduce inflammation associated
with various conditions (Patel et al., 2011).
● Wound healing properties: Extracts from the plant may promote wound healing.

18. Lepidium didynum (Annexure 1.18):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Lesser Swinecress
- Habit: Annual herbaceous plant
- Stem: Erect or ascending, slender, branching from the base
- Leaves: Alternate, pinnately lobed or divided, with narrow segments
- Flowers: Small, white, arranged in compact clusters called racemes
- Inflorescence: Terminal racemes or spikes
- Fruit: Small, round or oval-shaped, flattened capsules containing several seeds
- Habitat: Commonly found in disturbed habitats, such as fields, gardens, roadsides, and waste
places, in temperate regions worldwide.

19. Malvastrum coromandelianum (Annexure 1.19):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: False Mallow, Clock Plant

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- Habit: Perennial herbaceous plant
- Stem: Erect or sprawling, often woody at the base
- Leaves: Alternate, palmately lobed or divided, with serrated margins
- Flowers: Small, yellow with dark centers, arranged in clusters in leaf axils or at the ends of
branches
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary clusters of flowers
- Fruit: Small, round capsules containing numerous seeds
- Habitat: Native to tropical and subtropical regions, commonly found in open fields, disturbed
areas, and along roadsides.

20. Medicago orbicularis (Annexure 1.20):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Button Clover
- Habit: Annual herbaceous plant
- Stem: Erect or ascending, branching from the base
- Leaves: Trifoliate, with oval-shaped leaflets, often hairy
- Flowers: Small, yellow, arranged in dense, spherical clusters
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary racemes
- Fruit: Small, coiled pods containing several seeds
- Habitat: Typically found in open fields, grasslands, and disturbed areas, particularly in
Mediterranean climates.
Medicinal Importance
● Nutrient source: Rich in vitamins, minerals, and protein (Tewari et al., 2000).
● Antioxidant activity: May help reduce inflammation and cell damage (Wang et al., 2007).
● Cholesterol-lowering effects: Studies suggest potential benefits for managing cholesterol
levels (Kozlowski et al., 2016).

21. Melilotus indicus (Annexure 1.21):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Sweet Clover
- Habit: Annual or biennial herbaceous plant
- Stem: Erect or ascending, branching from the base

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- Leaves: Alternate, compound with three leaflets, oblong to lanceolate, serrated margins
- Flowers: Small, yellow, arranged in dense, elongated clusters or spikes
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary racemes
- Fruit: Small, flattened pods containing several seeds
- Habitat: Commonly found in open fields, disturbed areas, roadsides, and waste places,
especially in temperate and subtropical regions.
Medicinal Importance
● Antioxidant properties: A study published in the journal African Journal of Traditional,
Complementary and Alternative Medicines found that Melilotus indicus possesses antioxidant
properties (Abdullahi et al., 2007). Antioxidants can help protect cells from damage caused by
free radicals, which are associated with various chronic diseases.
● Antidiabetic potential: Research published in BMC Complementary and Alternative
Medicine suggests that Melilotus indicus may have alpha-amylase inhibitory activities (Grover
et al., 2002). Alpha-amylase is an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates into sugars. By
inhibiting this enzyme, Melilotus indicus could potentially help regulate blood sugar levels,
which could be beneficial for people with type 2 diabetes.

22. Oxalis articulata (Annexure 1.22):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Pink-sorrel
- Habit: Perennial herbaceous plant
- Stem: Prostrate or trailing, succulent, often forming dense mats, with segmented or jointed
stems
- Leaves: Compound, with three heart-shaped leaflets, each on a long petiole
- Flowers: Small, five-petaled, usually pink, but can also be white or purple, borne singly or in
small clusters
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary umbels
- Fruit: Capsule containing numerous tiny seeds
- Habitat: Native to South America but widely naturalized in other regions, commonly found
in gardens, lawns, fields, and disturbed areas, often considered invasive in some areas.
Medicinal Importance
-It contains various bioactive compounds, including flavonoids and phenolic compounds,
contributing to its therapeutic potential.

32 | P a g e
-The plant has been investigated for its antimicrobial activity, suggesting its potential use in
treating microbial infections (Yasmeen & Pari, 2012).
-Additionally, Oxalis articulata has been studied for its antioxidant properties, which may help
combat oxidative stress-related disorders.

23. Oxalis latifolia (Annexure 1.23):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Garden pink-sorrel
- Habit: Perennial herbaceous plant
- Stem: Erect or spreading, often with multiple stems arising from a central point
- Leaves: Alternate, compound with three leaflets, heart-shaped, with smooth margins
- Flowers: Small, five-petaled, typically yellow, but can also be white or pink, borne singly or
in clusters
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary umbels
- Fruit: Capsule containing numerous tiny seeds
- Habitat: Widely distributed in various habitats, including gardens, lawns, fields, and disturbed
areas, often considered a weed in some regions.
Medicinal Importance
- The plant contains various bioactive compounds, including flavonoids and alkaloids, which
contribute to its therapeutic potential (Singh & Singh, 2013).
- It has been used traditionally to treat various ailments such as inflammation, digestive
disorders, and skin conditions.

24. Pteris vittata (Annexure 1.24):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Chinese brake fern
- Habit: Perennial fern
- Fronds: Bipinnate, deeply lobed, with elongated, narrow segments
- Rhizome: Creeping, underground stem
- Sori: Linear, arranged along the margins or near the midrib of the fronds
- Spores: Produced in sporangia within the sori
- Habitat: Typically found in moist, shady habitats, such as forests, swamps, and wetlands

33 | P a g e
- Distribution: Native to tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, often cultivated as an
ornamental plant and used in phytoremediation for arsenic-contaminated soils.
Medicinal Importance
● Antioxidant activity: Studies suggest Pteris vittata is rich in phenols and flavonoids, which
act as antioxidants and may help combat chronic diseases (Singh et al. 2021)
● Wound healing: The fern is reported to have properties that promote wound healing and tissue
regeneration, possibly due to the presence of flavonoids like rutin (Verma et al. 2020).
● Antimicrobial activity: Research suggests Pteris vittata extracts may have properties that
fight against bacteria like E. coli (Verma et al. 2020).

25. Parthenium hysterophorus (Annexure 1.25):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Gajar ghas, Bitter weed
- Habit: Annual herbaceous plant
- Stem: Erect, branched, reaching heights of up to 2 meters
- Leaves: Alternate, deeply lobed or dissected, with serrated margins
- Flowers: Small, white, with five petals, arranged in dense clusters at the ends of branches
- Inflorescence: Terminal corymbs or panicles
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded fruits called achenes
- Habitat: Native to tropical and subtropical regions, commonly found in disturbed habitats
such as fields, roadsides, and waste areas.
Medicinal Importance
● Potential health benefits: Studies suggest Parthenium extracts might have anti-diabetic,
antioxidant, antitumor, and antimalarial properties (Singh et al., 2011).
● Traditional uses: In some regions, it's used in traditional medicine for skin conditions,
rheumatism, and other ailments (Patel et al., 2017).

26. Phyla nodiflora (Annexure 1.26):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Turkey Tangle Fogfruit
- Habit: Herbaceous perennial plant
- Stem: Creeping or trailing, often forming dense mats
- Leaves: Opposite, simple, oval to lanceolate, with serrated margins

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- Flowers: Small, white or pale pink, with five petals, borne singly or in clusters in the leaf
axils
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary cymes
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded fruits called nutlets
- Habitat: Commonly found in moist or wet habitats, such as marshes, riverbanks, and ditches,
as well as in open fields and disturbed areas.
Medicinal Importance
● Phyla nodiflora has been used in traditional medicine for various ailments, including coughs,
wounds, and diarrhea. However, scientific evidence to support these uses is limited.
● Some studies suggest that extracts of Phyla nodiflora may possess anti-inflammatory and
antimicrobial properties (Nirmala et al., 2012).

27. Scoparia dulcis (Annexure 1.27):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Goat weed, Sweet-broom
- Habit: Herbaceous perennial plant
- Stem: Erect, branching from the base, reaching heights of up to 1 meter
- Leaves: Opposite, lanceolate to ovate, with serrated margins, aromatic when crushed
- Flowers: Small, white, tubular, with five petals, borne in axillary clusters
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary spikes
- Fruit: Small, round capsules containing numerous seeds
- Habitat: Commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in disturbed areas, open
fields, gardens, and along roadsides.
Medicinal Importance
- The plant contains bioactive compounds such as scoparic acid, flavonoids, and alkaloids,
which contribute to its therapeutic effects (Jadhav et al., 2010).
- It has been traditionally used to treat conditions such as diabetes, inflammation, fever, and
gastrointestinal disorders.

28. Solanum nigrum (Annexure 1.28):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Black Nightshade
- Habit: Annual herbaceous plant

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- Stem: Erect or spreading, branching, often with fine hairs
- Leaves: Alternate, ovate to elliptic, with wavy or toothed margins, often with a distinctive
white midrib on the undersides
- Flowers: Small, white to purplish, star-shaped, with prominent yellow stamens, borne in
clusters or solitary in leaf axils
- Fruit: Small, round berries, initially green turning to black when ripe, containing numerous
seeds
- Habitat: Widely distributed in various habitats, including gardens, cultivated fields, waste
places, and disturbed areas, often considered a weed.
Medicinal Importance
● Traditional Uses: S. nigrum has a long history of use in various traditional medicines. In
Ayurveda, it is used for treating respiratory problems, skin diseases, and inflammation.
● Bioactive Compounds: Studies have identified various bioactive compounds in S. nigrum,
including alkaloids, steroids, and flavonoids. These compounds exhibit potential anti-
inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties (Singh et al., 2011).

29. Tridax procumbens (Annexure 1.29):

Botanical Description
- Common Name: Coatbuttons or Tridax daisy
- Habit: Herbaceous annual or perennial plant
- Stem: Prostrate or ascending, branching from the base, often hairy
- Leaves: Opposite, trifoliate, with toothed margins, and long petioles
- Flowers: Small, yellow, daisy-like, with tubular florets surrounded by white ray florets,
arranged in clusters at the ends of branches
- Inflorescence: Terminal corymbs or panicles
- Fruit: Small, dry, one-seeded fruits called achenes
- Habitat: Commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in open fields, disturbed
areas, and along roadsides.
Medicinal Importance
● Wound healing: The leaves exhibit antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties, promoting
wound closure (Verma et al., 2010).
● Anti-diabetic: Research suggests T. procumbens may help regulate blood sugar levels.
● Antimicrobial: The plant shows activity against bacteria and fungi, potentially aiding in
infections.

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30. Euphorbia hirta (Annexure 1.30):

Botanical Importance
- Common Name: Asthma weed , Garden Spurge
- Habit: Annual herbaceous plant
- Stem: Prostrate or ascending, hairy, often reddish in color
- Leaves: Opposite, oval to lanceolate, with toothed margins, and covered in fine hairs
- Flowers: Small, greenish-yellow, inconspicuous, arranged in clusters called cyanthia
- Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary clusters of cyanthia
- Fruit: Small, three-lobed capsules containing seeds
- Habitat: Commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions, often in open fields, disturbed
areas, and along roadsides.
Medicinal Importance
● Antimicrobial activity: Studies suggest its effectiveness against bacteria, fungi, and viruses
(Bhatt et al., 2014).
● Antimalarial properties: The plant shows promise in combating malaria, a serious public
health concern.
● Anti-cancer potential: Research indicates its ability to inhibit the growth of various cancer
cells.

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 DISCUSSION

The survey of weeds conducted within Department of Botany campus revealed diversity of
weed species belonging to various plant families, predominantly Asteraceae and
Amaranthaceae. Weeds from the family Asteraceae and Amaranthaceae are predominant due
to their adaptability, rapid growth, prolific seed production, and ability to thrive in various
environmental conditions. Additionally, they often have mechanisms for dispersing seeds
widely, aiding in their spread and colonization of new areas. The family Asteraceae is second
largest family with more than 230000 currently accepted species and includes only herbaceous
plants. Hence this family has more weeds than other families.
Comparison with previous surveys
Comparing the present findings with previous surveys in Lucknow (Chander et al., 2015)
reveals interesting differences and similarities. While the overall dominance of Asteraceae
remains consistent. Many species reported in earlier surveys were not observed in the current
study (belongs to family Acanthaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Convolvulaceae, Polygonaceae,
Phrymaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae). This could indicate a shift in weed composition over time,
potentially due to factors such as changing land use patterns and climatic variability and the
previous survey was conducted in winter. Conversely, the presence of species like Ageratum
conyzoides, Tridax procumbens, Ageratum haustonianum, Chenopodium album, Melilotus
indica, Anagallis arvensis and Solanum nigrum in both surveys and historical records suggests
their persistence within Lucknows urban environment. These species may possess higher
adaptability to understand the conditions of an urban landscape.

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 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study offers a snapshot of the current weed diversity within the Department of Botany
campus. Understanding weed composition in urban green spaces has ecological and
management implications:
● Ecological Indicators: The presence of certain weed species like Chenopodium album can
act as indicators of soil quality it grows in low phosphorus and high potassium soils (Sandborn,
2016). Further investigation into the relationship between weed species composition and
environmental factors within Lucknow could provide valuable insights.
● Invasive Species Management: The identification of highly invasive species, such as
Parthenium hysterophorus, underscores the need for management strategies to prevent their
spread and mitigate their impact on native biodiversity and agricultural systems within
Lucknow.
Limitations and Future Research
The current study was limited in its spatial scope, focusing solely on the Department of Botany
campus. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of weed diversity across Lucknow,
future surveys should extend to include various urban habitats such as parks, residential areas,
and roadsides. Furthermore, the absence of quantitative data on weed abundance limits the
ability to draw inferences about the relative dominance of different species.
Future studies could incorporate quantitative measures, such as quadrat sampling, to provide a
deeper understanding of weed community structure and potential ecological drivers influencing
their distribution within Lucknow. Additionally, comparing weed composition across different
seasons could reveal important temporal variations in weed flora dynamics.

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