XII-PHYSICS

ANEES HUSSAIN DHA

ELECTROMAGNETISM
.
Electromagnetic Induction:
The fact that electric current can be produced by a changing magnetic field was discovered
independently by Michael Faraday in England in 1831 and by Joseph Henry in American at about the
same time.
Definition:
“Whenever magnetic flux linked with a conductor changes, an emf is induced in it. This
phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction”
Induced EMF:
Whenever magnetic flux linked with a conductor changes, an emf is induced in it called induced emf.
Induced Current:
Whenever magnetic flux linked with a conductor changes a current starts flowing in the closed loop called
induced current.
Factors on which Magnitude of EMF depends:
Induced emf depends upon following factors:
i) The relative velocity between the conductor & magnet i.e. ‘v’
ii) Strength of the magnetic field
iii) Length of the conductor ‘L’
iv) Rate of change of flux ‘∆𝜙𝑚/∆𝑡’

Flux Linkage:
“The product of number of turns in a coil & magnetic flux through it is called flux linkage”
Flux linkage = 𝑁𝜙
Where N = no of turns, 𝜙 = magnetic flux

Different methods of producing Induced EMF:

Following are some ways of producing induced emf:
i) By relative motion between a loop (or coil) & magnetic: whenever a magnet is moved
towards a coil, or a coil is moved towards the magnet, an emf is induced in the coil.
ii) By changing area of loop of wire in a magnetic field: If a loop of wire is placed in a
magnetic field, an induced emf is induced when its area is changed.
iii) By rotating a coil in a magnetic field: When a coil is rotated between poles of a strong
magnet, an emf is induced in it.
iv) By changing current in a nearby coil. When current in a coil is changed, its associated
magnetic flux changes which induces an emf in a nearby coil.

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 1

 XII-PHYSICS
ANEES HUSSAIN DHA

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

Faraday’s law of induction was discovered through experiments carried out by ‘Michael Faraday’
in 1831 and by Joseph Henry at about the same time.
Statement:
i. An emf is induced in a coil through which the magnetic flux is changing. The emf lasts as long
as the flux is changing.
ii. The induced emf depends on the number of turns and rate of change of flux linked with the
circuit.
Mathematical Form:
If
𝜀 = induced emf
N = number of turns
∆𝜙𝑚 = change in magnitude flux
∆𝑡 = time during which the flux changes.
Then, in mathematical terms, Faradays law is
∆𝜙𝑚
𝜀 = −𝑁
∆𝑡
The minus sign indicates the direction of induced emf, determined by Lenz’ law
Conclusion:
Faraday performed a series of experiments by changing magnitude flux through a circuit & found
following results:
1. When magnitude flux through circuit is changed, an emf is induced.
2. The induced emf lasts as long as the change in magnetic flux through the circuit.
∆𝜙
𝑚
3. The induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux ( ) & number
∆𝑡
of turns (N).

Lenz’ Law:
The rule for determining the direction of induced current was proposed in 1834 by Heinrich Friedrich
Lenz & is known as Lenz’ law
Statement: “The induced current produced in a conductor is always in such a direction that it always
opposes the cause that produces it”
Explanation (Lenz’ law is a law of Conservation of Energy):
When a bar magnet’s pole is pushed into a solenoid, a current is induced in it. This induced current sets up a
magnetic field in solenoid. In terms of Lenz’
law, this “pushing” is the “change” that produces the induced
current, and according to the law, the induced current opposes
the ‘push’. If we pull the magnet away from the coil, the
induced current opposes the ‘pull’. Thus, the agent that causes
the magnet to move has to do work. This work becomes the
electrical energy in coil. This is in accordance with the law of
conservation of energy.

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 2

 XII-PHYSICS
ANEES HUSSAIN DHA

Self-Induction:
“A phenomenon in which a changing current in a conductor induces an emf in itself is called
self-induction”.
According to Lenz’ law “the emf opposes the change that has induced it therefore self-
induction is also known as back emf”.
Direction of self-Induced Current:
The direction of self-induced current is determined by Lenz’ law: If the current in the coil is
increased then to oppose it, self-induced current will flow in opposite direction. If the current
in the coil is decreased then to oppose it, the self-induced current will flow in the same
direction.
Mathematical Expression:
Consider a coil is connected with a battery. A rheostat is also included in the circuit to change
the current. When current is changed for time ∆𝑡, it is found experimentally that the induced
current in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current in it. i.e.
∆𝐼
𝜀 ∝ −( )
∆𝑡
∆𝐼
𝜀 = −𝐿
∆𝑡
Where L is a constant called self-inductance. The
negative sign indicates the direction of induced emf
determined by Lenz’ law.
Self-Inductance:
“The ability of a coil to produce back emf is called
self-inductance.”
𝑂𝑅 “The ratio of emf induced in the coil to the rate of change of current in the coil is
called self-inductance”.
𝜀
𝐿=−
∆𝐼/∆𝑡
Unit of Self Inductance:
𝜀 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
∵𝐿= =
∆𝐼/∆𝑡 𝐴/𝑠𝑒𝑐
= ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 (𝐻)
One henry:
Self-inductance of a coil is one henry if a current change of one ampere per second induces
an emf of one volt in itself.
Factors on which Self-Inductance Depends:
(i) Numbers of turns (N) of the coil. (ii) The cross-sectional area of the coil (iii) Permeability (𝜇)
of the core.

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 3

 XII-PHYSICS
ANEES HUSSAIN DHA

Mutual Induction:
“A phenomenon in which a changing current in one coil induces an emf in other is known as
mutual induction”.
The coil in which current is changed is called primary coil & the other one is called secondary
coil.
Mathematical Expression:
Consider two coils placed near each other such that one is connected with a battery known
as primary coil & the other having galvanometer called secondary coil.
Let the current flowing through primary is changed by ∆𝐼𝑝 in time ∆𝑡. Experiments show
that the induced emf in the secondary is
directly proportional to the rate of
change of current in primary. i.e.
∆𝐼
𝜀𝑠 ∝ ( )
∆𝑡 𝑝
∆𝐼
𝜀𝑠 = −𝑀 ( )
∆𝑡 𝑝
Where M is a constant called mutual
inductance. The negative sign indicates the direction of induced emf, determined by Lenz’
law.
Mutual Inductance:
“The ability of a pair of coil to induce an emf in one of the coils by changing current in the
other is called mutual inductance”
OR “The ratio of induced emf in the secondary coil to the rate of change of current in the
primary coil, is called mutual inductance”
𝜀𝑠
𝑀=−
∆𝐼
(∆𝑡) 𝑝

Unit:
𝜀𝑠
∵ 𝑀=
∆𝐼
(∆𝑡)
𝑝
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
=
𝐴/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀 = ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 (𝐻)
One Henry:
The mutual inductance of a pair of coil is one henry is a current change of one ampere per
second in primary induces an emf of one volt in secondary.
Factors Affecting Mutual Inductance:
(i) Number of turns (N) of the coil (ii) Area of cross-section (A) of the coils.
(iii) Permeability (𝜇) of the core. (iv) Distance between the coils.

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 4

 XII-PHYSICS
ANEES HUSSAIN DHA

Transformer:
A transformer is a device used to raise or lower the alternating voltage in a circuit.
Principle:
It works on the principle of mutual induction i.e. a changing current in one coil induces an
emf in the other.
Circuit Symbol:
In electrical circuits, a transformer is represented by symbol
Construction:
A transformer consists of following parts.
1. Core:
A rectangular core of soft iron or special alloy in the
form of laminated sheets.
2. Two Coils:
Two coils of insulated copper wire are wound
one over the top of the other. There is no electrical
connection between coils, they are only linked
magnetically. The coil in which an alternating emf is
applied is called primary & the other which supplies current to an external circuit is called
secondary coil.

Theory:
Suppose an alternating emf is applied to the primary coil that produces a varying flux in iron
core. If Np is number of turns in primary coil & ∆𝜙𝑚/∆𝑡 is rate of change of flux through it
then the varying flux induces a back emf 𝜀𝑝, given by faraday’s law
∆𝜙𝑚
𝜀𝑝 = −𝑁𝑝 ( ) − − − −(1)
∆𝑡

Because all the magnetic flux produced by primary coil also passes through the secondary,
therefore an emf 𝜀𝑠 is induced in the secondary given by
∆𝜙𝑚
𝜀𝑠 = −𝑁𝑠 ( ) − − − −(2)
∆𝑡

Where 𝑁𝑠 is number of turns in secondary coil

Dividing eq. (2) by eq. (1)

∆𝜙𝑚
𝜀𝑠 −𝑁𝑠 ( ∆𝑡 )
=
𝜀𝑝 −𝑁𝑝 (∆𝜙𝑚)
∆𝑡
𝜀𝑠 𝑁𝑠
= − − − −(3)
𝜀𝑝 𝑁𝑝

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 5

 XII-PHYSICS
ANEES HUSSAIN DHA
Types of Transformer:
1. Step – up:
If 𝑁𝑠 > 𝑁𝑝 then 𝜀𝑠 > 𝜀𝑝 i.e. secondary emf is larger than primary. This is called step-up
transformer.
2. Step – down:
If 𝑁𝑠 < 𝑁𝑝 then 𝜀𝑠 < 𝜀𝑝 i.e. secondary emf is less than primary. This is called step-
down transformer.
Efficiency of Transformer:
Efficiency of a transformer is given by
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Where
Power input, 𝑃𝑖 = 𝐼𝑝𝜀𝑝
& Power output, 𝑃𝑜 = 𝐼𝑠𝜀𝑠
If transformer is 100% efficient, then
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑝𝜀𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠𝜀𝑆
𝐼𝑝 𝜀𝑠
𝐼𝑠
= 𝜀𝑝
Thus currents are inversely proportional to the respective emfs.

Sources of Power Loss in Transformer:

The efficiencies of commercial transformers are very high in the range of 95 to 99%. The four
most important sources of power loss are
1. Copper Loss:
Heat is produced in primary & secondary coils
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼2𝑅
This is reduced by using thick conducting wires.
2. Eddy Current Loss:
Eddy currents are induced on the
surface of iron core, due to changing
magnetic flux. They produce heating
effect. To reduce Eddy current, iron is
laminated & insulated.
3. Flux Leakage:
Some of the flux produced by primary coil fails to pass through the secondary. To reduce this,
a magnetic core of good design is used.
4. Hysteresis Loss:
Each time the direction of magnetization of core is reversed, some energy is wasted in
overcoming the internal friction. This is called hysteresis loss. This is reduced by using special
alloy (perm alloy) as core.

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 6

 XII-PHYSICS
ANEES HUSSAIN DHA
Uses of Transformer:
Transformers are used in radio transmitters & receivers, televisions, telecommunication
system & for transmission of electrical power over long distances.
Principle of Power Transmission:
In transmission of electrical energy from generating plant to the consumer, lowest
possible current is sent at a very high voltage so as to minimize 𝐼2𝑅 energy dissipation in
transmission line. The current & potential difference can be changed to desired values only in AC
transmission system by using transformer. This is the reason that AC transmission system is
preferred over DC.
MOTIONAL EMF
When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, a potential
difference appears across its ends. This potential difference is
known as motional emf.
Formula:
Consider a conductor moving in a magnetic field as shown.
Let L = length of conductor.
B = magnetic induction.
v = velocity of conductor.
The conductor has free charges that can move in response to magnetic field. The charges feel a force

⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵

Its magnitude is: 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

This force deflects the charges to one end of the conductor. This builds up an electric field
which exerts a force ′𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸′ opposite to the direction of magnetic force. The charges
continue to be deflected until the forces balance, and we have

𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Assuming the electric field is uniform over the length of the conductor, the potential
difference (motional emf) between the ends of conductor is

∆𝑉
𝑉 = −𝐸𝐿 ∵𝐸=− ⇒ ∆𝑉 = −𝐸𝑑
𝑑
𝑉 = −(𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝐿

Or Motional emf = −𝑣𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 7

 XII-PHYSICS
ANEES HUSSAIN DHA
AC GENERATOR
A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called AC generator.

Circuit Symbol:
In a circuit, the symbol for a source of alternating emf (AC generator) is .

Principle:
It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. An emf is induced in a coil when it is
rotated in a magnetic field.

Construction:
Following are the essential parts of AC generator:

1. Field Magnet:
It is a permanent strong magnet with
curved poles to produce a radial magnetic
field.
2. Armature:
A coil of N turns is wound on a soft iron,
cylindrical core. The coil and its core are
collectively called the armature.
3. Slip Rings:
The ends of the coil are joined to two separate copper rings fixed on the axel.
4. Collecting Brushes:
Two carbon brushes remain pressed against each of the rings to conduct current to external
circuit.
Theory:
Let,

𝑙 = length of rectangular coil.

𝑏 = breadth of rectangular coil.
𝑙𝑏 = area (A) of rectangular coil.
𝜔 = uniform angular velocity of coil.
𝐵 = magnetic field of induction.
𝑁 = number of turns in the coil.
𝑣 = linear velocity.
Now,
Motional emf in 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 sin 𝜃
Motional emf in 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 sin 𝜃
Total emf induced in the coil is the sum of these emfs.
Thus, 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 2𝐵𝑣𝑙 sin 𝜃

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 8

 XII-PHYSICS
ANEES HUSSAIN DHA
For 𝑁 turns, the emf will be
ℰ = 2𝐵𝑣𝑁𝑙 sin 𝜃 − − − (1)
But
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
𝑏 𝑏
𝑣=𝜔 ∵𝑟=
2 2
Substituting in equation (1), we get
𝑏
ℰ = 2𝐵𝜔 𝑁𝑙 sin 𝜔𝑡
2
ℰ = 𝐵𝑁𝜔𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∵ 𝑙𝑏 = 𝐴
Where, 𝐵𝑁𝜔𝐴 = ℰ0 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑓.
𝑠𝑜, ℰ = ℰ0 sin 𝜔𝑡
In terms of frequency it can be written as,
ℰ = ℰ̥ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ∵ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
Working:
1. When coil rotates from positions 1 and 3, coil is rotating almost parallel to the lines of
induction and the rate of change of flux is zero and hence the induce emf is zero.
2. The emf is maximum at positions 2 and 4 of the coil, where the rate of change of flux is
maximum.
3. During each half rotation of the coil the emf reverses its direction, thus an alternating emf
is generated.

PREPARED BY: SIR AZEEM UDDIN ZIA 9