Daftar Isi

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 3
The Audiovisual Paradigm of Managing ......................................................... 3
Instructional Design Consulting ...................................................................... 4
Integration of AV and School Libraries .......................................................... 4
Recent Diversification .................................................................................... 4
Definitions ....................................................................................................... 4
Management and Leadership ........................................................................... 4
Leadership and change management ............................................................... 5
Performance Management ............................................................................... 5
Project Management ....................................................................................... 6
Marketing As A Driver Of Program Management ........................................... 7
Resource Management ..................................................................................... 7
Personnel Management ................................................................................... 8
Program Management ..................................................................................... 8
Marketing As A Driver Of Program Management ........................................... 8
Managing Change As A Part Of Program Management ................................. 9
Program Evaluation In Program Management ................................................ 9
References ........................................................................................................ 11
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Managing
J. Ana Donaldson
University of Northern Iowa

Sharon Smaldino
Northern Illinois University

Robert Pearson
President, Provinent Corporation, Toronto

Introduction
Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and
improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes
and resources. Management has been a critical function in educational technology since the
field began in the 1920s. By the time of the 1972 definition, management included the
supervision of personnel and the operation of organizations. As systems thinking became more
pervasive, the systems approach became the dominant paradigm for thinking about
management processes in instructional development and technology-based learning systems.
By the time the 1994 definition was published, management meant planning, co-ordinating,
organizing, and supervising resources, information, and delivery systems in the context of
managing instructional design (id) projects.
Educational technologists, whether acting as instructional designers, school media
specialists, or learning consultants, deal with management concerns, much like other
professions do. They work with finite resources to accomplish specified goals in a specified
time, whether they are managing processes, such as id, or resources, such as collections of
instructional materials. Knowing the most relevant id models, having the right tools, and having
a team of skilled people are crucial to success, but so is a repertoire of management skills. One
could say that effective management is an essential ingredient to getting the job done regardless
of what the job might entail.

The Audiovisual Paradigm of Managing

The audiovisual paradigm of managing was central to educational technology in the
days of the audiovisual paradigm. From the emergence of the visual instruction field in the
1920s through the expansion of the audiovisual education field in the 1970s, educational
technology professionals worked predominantly as directors or co-ordinators of media service
agencies. Their primary jobs were to acquire audiovisual materials and equipment, to maintain
the collection, and to help teachers identify and use materials to enhance their teaching.
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Instructional Design Consulting

Instructional design consulting began in the late 1970s and continuing through the
1980s, as the population of the field shifted from employment in schools toward employment
in universities and from administrative duties to id consulting roles. Educational technologists
became more involved with instructional theory and saw their role as collaborating with
instructors to develop learning environments that were more productive for student learning.
Concerns with managing functions tended to shift toward id project management rather than
managing materials and equipment, but the change management lens remained intact and
expanded as the id process came to be seen more and more as a social process as much as a
technical one.

Integration of AV and School Libraries

In the 1970s, the responsibility for audiovisual materials and services in schools shifted
from educational technologists to school librarians, who were already responsible for print-
based instructional materials. Audiovisual centers were consolidated with school libraries, and
the person with library certification tended to take over as the school library media specialist.
However, the multiple administrative functions persisted, evolving incrementally as computer
technology became increasingly pervasive. The major functions included managing personnel,
selecting, acquiring, and deploying equipment, selecting, acquiring, cataloging, and
distributing instructional materials, promoting media center services, developing constructive
client relationships, and carrying out these functions with accountability.

Recent Diversification
Through the 1990s and early 2000s, the demographics of American Educational
Technology (AECT) continued to shift away from media center management. By 2006, only
15% of AECT members worked in media director positions, and in 2006, only 11% worked in
elementary/secondary education. Instructional media services were still being offered in
schools and colleges, but they were likely to be managed by professionals other than AECT
members, and they were increasingly overshadowed by services focusing on computer-based
delivery.

Definitions
Management means effectively orchestrating people, processes, physical infrastructure,
and financial resources to achieve predetermined goals. Effective management is important
regardless of the setting, whether it's a media center that bases its products and services within
a school district's financial limitations, a university-based faculty development program that
operates as a cost center, or a privately run e-learning company with daunting profit and return-
on-investment targets for owners and shareholders.

Management and Leadership

Management literature draws a distinction between the practice of managing and the
practice of leading. Management is fundamentally about control, while leading is
fundamentally about setting direction for an organization, driving alignment with stated goals,
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and motivating every level of the organization to achieve these goals. Both functions are critical
and intimately intertwined, but great management without great leadership is impossible.
Leadership and change management.
Leadership and management are two distinctive and complementary systems of action,
each having its own function and characteristic activities. Both are necessary for success in an
increasingly complex and volatile business environment. In the absence of good management,
organizations or projects may descend into chaos.
Leadership and change management are essential components of any organization.
Leadership involves setting a direction, aligning individuals within the organization to achieve
goals, and motivating and inspiring people to keep moving in the right direction even when the
going gets tough. Setting direction involves gathering inputs from various sources, including
employees, peers, customers, and market analysts. Effective leaders are able to communicate
skillfully to all key stakeholders and in language that they understand, where the organization
is and the future state toward which everyone must strive.
Strategic planning is a critical task for management within any organization, as it
prepares for the process of selecting appropriate solutions to challenges and opportunities while
building shared commitment to the organization's future direction. Cost effectiveness analysis
is another essential tool for making informed decisions. Achieving sustained change within an
organization means getting people all moving in the same direction, aligning their activities
with a goal. Aligning is more of a communications challenge than an organizational design
challenge, and effective leaders must be able to paint a picture of the future that is sufficiently
different from the current state but also seen as achievable by most employees.
Empowerment comes from the exercise of leadership throughout the organization, not
just in the boardrooms or corner offices. Effective leaders empower everyone to drive change
that is clearly in keeping with the direction even when this change may be momentarily
destabilizing. Driving change is the function of leadership, and a skilled leader must be able to
generate a high degree of enthusiasm for the direction of the organization.
In summary, effective management can be seen as a complementary combination of six
management and leadership functions: managing, leading, planning, setting direction,
monitoring, aligning, controlling, and motivating. The planning, monitoring, and controlling
functions can be viewed as essential components of management. Once planning is completed,
the project team is involved in monitoring the status of the project, communicating progress to
stakeholders, and managing variances and risks that emerge during the execution of the project.
Performance Management
Performance management is another crucial aspect of effective management, as it
involves evaluating the performance of the organization and ensuring that it is meeting its
objectives. By doing so, organizations can ensure that they are moving in the right direction
and that their employees are motivated to succeed.
Performance management has evolved over time, with one meaning being to monitor
and control the quality of an organization's performance. In the early 1900s, inspection was the
primary method used to ensure a quality product. In the 1940s, quality took on a statistical bent,
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and with the burgeoning of mass production during World War II, it became necessary to apply
a more stringent form of quality control: statistical quality control (sQC).
Today, performance management refers to a perspective that views every facet of an
organization in terms of quality standards. Standards of quality are often viewed from a
customer perspective, focusing on whether the organization's product or service meets or
exceeds customer requirements now and in the future. Performance management is often
pictured in terms of a quality cycle that requires an iterative sequence of steps: define quality
attributes on the basis of customer needs, decide how to measure each attribute, set quality
standards, establish appropriate tests for each standard, find and correct causes of poor quality,
and continue to make improvement.
Total Quality Management (TQM) is closely related to sQC and TQM, a management
philosophy developed by W. Edwards Deming for improving the quality of products and
services by embedding awareness of quality issues among all members of the organization.
Bonstingl identified three TQM principles applicable to schools: a focus on customers and
suppliers, dedication to continuous improvement, viewing the organization as a system, and
the commitment of top management.
Management in educational technology can be best understood through a framework
based on the objects of management. Educational technology program management activities
tend to be directed to one of four objects: managing projects, managing resources, managing
the performance of people, or managing programs. The goal of project management is to ensure
that an appropriate solution to a particular performance problem is developed and implemented
on time, on budget, and to the specifications established at the outset of the project within a
defined time frame. Resource management aims to develop, maintain, and make available a
collection of resources to address the teaching learning needs of instructors and students.
Personality management provides the conditions for people to succeed in playing their roles in
an organization. All of these management functions are included in the larger process of
program management, the overall supervision and control of a set of ongoing related activities
within an organization.

Project Management
Project management is a crucial management function in the field of educational
technology, focusing on the design and development of instructional materials and systems. It
is essential for saving organizational resources, increasing productivity, and increasing the
likelihood of projects being successful. The project manager is the final arbiter of disputes
within the project team and acts as the single point of contact with the customer.
Project management ensures that a discrete project, a set of tasks intended to achieve a
specific outcome, is completed on time, on budget, and to the client's specifications. A project
manager works with a client to establish project outcomes, budget, and time lines for
completing the project. As the project progresses, its scope frequently changes, and the project
manager must assess the implications of these changes and set new project outcomes, budget,
and time lines.
Project managers typically begin by working with a client to establish a project
governance structure, formalizing the decision-making structure of the project and making
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clear the key interface points between the project team and the client. Establishing the ground
rules of the project is a critical first step and often neglected.
Marketing As A Driver Of Program Management.
Project management requires breaking the project down into discrete tasks and
subtasks, assigning each task a duration and identifying all important contingencies.
Contingencies dictate the sequence in which the project team can complete the tasks. Client
sign-offs are among the most important kind of contingencies, as they dictate the sequence in
which the project team can complete the tasks. Other types of contingencies include the
availability of skilled associates, access to equipment, and the completion of tasks that are key
inputs to subsequent tasks.
Project management software, such as Microsoft Project, has become an essential aid
for project managers, helping them list all project tasks, contingencies, durations, and
resources. Visual charts produced by the program (called "gantt charts") are invaluable in
effectively communicating with the client.
Project managers must also be vigilant to mitigate the risks of project delays, which can
be caused by the project team or the client. Delays force the project manager to adjust the
project schedule, often leading to higher project costs. Client-induced delays can also impact
the project budget, as resources scheduled for subsequent tasks need to be reallocated to other
tasks. Negotiating an increase in budget due to client delays is one of the most difficult tasks
for a project manager, but client-imposed delays are often the biggest contributor to increased
costs.

Resource Management
The managing of learning resources adds another dimension to the manager's role,
involving multiple tasks related to information and delivery infrastructure. In the previous 1994
definition, the subdomains of delivery system management and information management were
addressed in addition to project and resource management. This current focus considers these
two responsibilities as an integral component of resource management.
Delivery system responsibilities include a combination of medium and method of usage
that is employed to present instructional information to a learner. Information resources look
at how the information for learning is stored, transferred, or processed. The revised
interpretation of resource management looks holistically at the resource systems and services,
the context for delivering the resources, and how the content is managed for effective learning.
Knowledge management is practiced to ensure that only the most useful organizational
knowledge is captured, documented, and made available to the right people within the
organization. Even the simplest modern organization relies on some form of information
technology—whether a computer, a simple network, or mobile phones—and that the
technology infrastructure of an organization is properly matched to the needs of that
organization and kept up to date for a reasonable cost.
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Personnel Management
Personnel management is essential for successful project completion, as it involves
ensuring that there are enough people with the right skills to do the work at the right time and
for the lowest cost with the necessary resources. Balancing capacity to demand is a major
challenge, especially in professional services firms that must deal with customer-imposed
delays. A well-laid out project schedule is only part of the equation, and having the right project
team is just as important. Effective personnel management results in the right people doing the
right tasks.
The costs of poor personel management can be significant, as assigning a less qualified
project team member to a task will result in the task taking longer than it should and quality
may suffer. As a personnel manager, the media specialist must identify qualified individuals,
oversee their performance, assist them in continuous professional development, and provide
them with motivation to engage in quality service.

Program Management
Program management is sometimes confused between the terms project and program
management. Projects are mission-driven, have greater duration, and usually contain multiple
projects. Projects are driven by specifications, have finite time limits, and result in a product,
package, or service. Project output examples include computer-based education systems,
textbooks, and evaluation reports.
Modern approaches to program management were best epitomized by the work of
Crosby (1979), who suggested that the cost of finding and fixing errors is much greater than
the cost of preventing errors from occurring in the first place. Quality performance is achieved
through sound processes, well-understood product and service offerings, and leveraging
common components as much as possible.

Marketing As A Driver Of Program Management.

Marketing plays a crucial role in program management, as it is essential for continuous
improvement and ensuring the success of an instructional process. Effective communication
among key stakeholders, such as supervisors, line workers, school administrators, and teachers,
is crucial for measuring results. In most businesses, sales and marketing activities are as vital
to success as delivering goods on time, on budget, and at the expected quality level. Marketing
and sales are about understanding customer needs and aligning the value of the organization's
service or product offering to the customer.
The "4 ps" concept in marketing is one of the most classic concepts in marketing. It
defines the major preoccupations of the marketing function within management. The product
is the most basic marketing-mix tool, representing the organization's tangible offer to the
market. It must be concerned with shaping the offering in ways that resonate with the client,
translating these needs into a product design, product features, and product quality that satisfy
the customer. Price is another critical marketing-mix tool that all service providers must be
concerned with, regardless of the service provider's positioning as a cost or profit center. Price
must be commensurate with the offer's perceived value.
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Place includes the various kinds of activities an organization undertakes to make its
service or product available to its target customers. For internal service organizations, the issue
of place is key, especially as the workplace becomes more distributed. In some cases,
organizations choose to work through intermediaries (channel partners). Promotion speaks
directly to positioning value for the customer, entails a set of activities that communicate the
offering to the customer in a clear and compelling way.
Contemporary marketing theory suggests that there is value in looking at the 4 ps not
from the seller's perspective but from the customer's perspective. In this view, the four ps
become four Cs: product, customer needs and wants, price, cost to the customer, place,
convenience, and promotion.

Managing Change As A Part Of Program Management

Built into quality management and leadership. Change is an inevitable part of any
organization, especially in today's dynamic business environment. Change management is
practiced to ensure an organized and predicable transition from one organizational state to
another, often involving organizational, job, and task redesign, training, coaching, and
performance support.
A manager serves as the change agent within the organization, with characteristics such
as visionary, guide, planner, and evaluator. Performance management is a kind of human
performance technology that ensures members of an organization receive timely and corrective
feedback on their work performances and that exemplary performance is suitably rewarded.

Program Evaluation In Program Management.

Program evaluation is a crucial function within program management, ensuring that a
specific program, service, or product line delivers the intended value and uncovers any
unintended results. It can be formative, diagnosing problems and recommending changes
during development and testing phases. In media specialization, evaluation of product and
process is essential, with the media specialist responsible for continuous assessment of the
quality of the center's resources and the process of client interaction.
The role of a manager can cover four levels, but multiple themes reoccur within each
area of responsibility. The role of being a change agent is critical, as it requires innovative
leadership skills to guide individuals towards innovative approaches. Personal and budget
issues are also constant companions of any type of manager. The emphasis on the client is also
necessary for all managers.
Evaluation is an ongoing process that must be integrated into every phase of educational
technology, with the current emphasis on alignment to standards and legislative guidelines
making this process even more critical than in the past. Effective management and leadership
are keys to the practice of an educational technologist, who must effectively interact with
customers and community stakeholders, translating customer needs into products and services
that resonate in the marketplace. This involves positioning the value of the product and services
so that customers are willing to pay for them.
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In conclusion, effective management and leadership are key components of educational

technology, as they help solve real-world problems and ensure that educational technology
products and services meet the needs of their clients.
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