INTRODUCTION

With the development of technology, man has learnt to use very reliable and accurate systems that require least man
power. Automatic control systems are one such development.

Control is defined as the science of regulation of parameter by comparing it with a standard value. this is the aim of
automatic control system. They constantly monitor the output of a system and if this output is found to deviate from
the desired value, it produces a control signal that servers to bring down the change by providing a driving energy to
the component that is responsible for the deviation.

A system is said to be made of a number of components are connected in a sequence to perform a specific function.
Suppose in a system the output quantity is controlled by altering the input quantity, then such a system is called a
control system.

The output quantity is called the control variable {response} and the input quantity is called the input signal.
Automatic control have become an integral part of modern manufacturing and industrial processes.

Modern hydraulic control systems are making increasing use of servo and proportional control valves.
These devices are inherently at the critical stage of controlling the manufacturing process and quality of
the end product. Proportional valves are also found in ancillary functions for materials handling where
time is of the essence. Failure of control valves will cause very expensive loss of production many times more than
the cost of prevention

When closed-loop electro hydraulic control systems first began to appear in industry, the applications were generally
those in which very high performance was required. While electro hydraulic servos are still heavily used in high-
performance applications such as the machine-tool industry, they are beginning to gain wide acceptance in a variety
of industries. Examples are plastics, oil exploration, mining, automotive testing, materials handling, and mobile
equipment. In some cases the customer has need for performance which simply cannot be achieved with open-loop
hydraulic controls or with other types of closed-loop controls. In other cases, complicated hydraulic circuitry can be
replaced by electronic logic, resulting in improved reliability and lower cost. In any case it is often difficult for the
potential user to assess what performance he can expect from closed-loop electro hydraulic controls, or indeed
whether he should even consider using them

Our purpose is to provide the potential user <with the means to make rough performance estimates for the most
basic types of servos. Of course, there are endless variations of the basic types, and detailed performance prediction
can often be a complex business.

Because of this, the estimation techniques offered should not be considered a substitute for the services of a
competent servo engineer.>
 CONTROLS OR CONTROL MODES OF CONTROL OR CONTROL ACTION

In any feed back control system, the output is sensed ay every instant of time, feed back and compared with the
desired input, resulting in an error or actual signal. The control element will manipulate the actuating signal into a
manipulated variable to do the necessary corrective action .the control action refers to the manner in which the
control elements manipulate the error signal into a manipulate variable to do the necessary corrective action. Given
below are the types of modes of control or control action:

1. PROPOTIONAL VALVE
2. INTEGRAL CONTROL
3. DERIVATIVE CONTROL
4. TWO POSITION CONTROL
5. MULTIPOSITION{FLOATING CONTROL}

TEXT SCAN
 REQUIREMENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

TEXT SCAN
TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS:

There are two types of control systems namely,

1. open loop control systems {feed back control systems}

2. closed loop control systems{non-feed back control systems}<AFTER THE ABOVE THINGS EXPLANATION
FROM TEXT , THE FOWLLOWING..
3. Open Loop Proportional Control
To control a proportional valve the maximum electrical power required is about .125 watt, which can be
supplied through a potentiometer from a 12 volt battery. These valves can also be fully controlled by a
similar arrangement from a 4 volt miner’s cap battery. The valve can be made intrinsically safe by adding
Zener diodes across the torque motor coils.

The circuit is a Wheatstone bridge with the potentiometer forming two adjacent arms of the bridge.

Valves can be stacked. The stack is connected with a single pressure and a single return hose. When the load
demand regulator is used, one additional small line per stack is necessary to connect to the pump pressure regulator.

The single lever control stations can also be stacked in a family in-line arrangement. Two-axis joy stick controllers
are also available as are up to six multi-axis hand held controllers.

Open Loop Versus Closed Loop

Before proceeding to describe various control circuits for systems, another ambiguous set of nomenclature must be
identified. This is open-loop versus closed-loop.

For years practitioners of hydrostatic controls have used the phrases open-loop or closed-loop systems to describe
whether or not a second hydraulic control line is connected between the pump and the motor. Unfortunately, in the
broader world of automatic controls (of which hydrostatic controls are only a small corner), the phrases open and
closed-loop describe whether or not feedback is used to sense the controlled variable. For our purposes here we will
use these more broadly accepted definitions.

Open Loop Hydrostatic Control

Simple connection of a potentiometer and battery to a hydraulic pump containing an electric controller gives remote
velocity control for a hydraulic motor. Control is open-loop. If the engine slows down, or if the load builds up, then
the load velocity will change. Of course the operator may “close the loop” by observing the output velocity and
moving the control lever to compensate, but this is not automatic feedback control.

Closed Loop Hydrostatic Control

If a tachometer is attached to measure the speed of the hydraulic motor, then the tachometer signal can be fed back
and compared with (subtracted from) the command signal. The resultant error signal is amplified and used to drive
the pump controller. Best performance will be achieved if the amplifier has integral control. In this case the
amplifier supplies a continuously increasing amount of current to the controller whenever a steady velocity error
exists. This system is called a velocity servo.

The other common type of servo is the position servo. In a position servo the signal from a potentiometer, or other
source, sets the desired position of the load driven by a hydraulic motor (or cylinder and piston if preferred).
Another potentiometer or other position measuring transducer (like an LVDT or DCDT) is attached to measure the
load position. Again, this output signal is fed back, compared to the command signal, and the difference signal is
amplified to drive the controller.

The primary advantage of closed-loop control is improved accuracy. Any drifts in the controller, or losses in the
hydraulic pump or motor, or loading down of the drive, are automatically detected and the controller current is
adjusted to offset the change.
 HYDRAULIC CONTROL VALVES

Hydraulic control valves are hydraulic-operated devices that are used to modify fluid flow or pressure rate in a
process system. Hydraulic control valves are used to control and direct the oil or fluid from the time it leaves the
pump until it starts on its return to the reservoir in a hydraulic circuit. The control valve is almost always the first
one encountered by the oil or fluid after it leaves the pump. From that point on throughout the circuit, the type of
valve employed depends upon the design of the circuit. In a very simple circuit, the only other valve used will
probably be the master control valve. In a complex circuit the oil may flow through a sequence valve, master control
valve, reducing valve, flow control valve, check valve and several others before it finally returns to the reservoir.

Hydraulic valves as used in industrial applications are built in several pressure ranges. The majority of present
applications are in the range of 0 to 1500 lb per sq in., but the trend is toward higher pressures. Various types of
valves are used in hydraulic
systems to control or regulate
the flow medium. Basically
valves are expected to control:
» Blocking or stopping of
flow
» Direction of flow
» Pressure of flow media
» Flow quantity
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC CONTROL VALVES

Types of Hydraulic Control Valves

Closed Control Valve:

This valve has a blocked "open-center" flow passage. When the control valve is in neutral position, it stops the pump
flow from going to the tank.

Open Center Valve:

This has an open center flow passage provided by the spool land openings. Also known as tandem-center, this type
of valve connects the pump flow to the tank when the control valve spool is in its neutral position.

Parallel Valve:

This is a multiple spool valve whereby all spools control different functions simultaneously . The oil flow will be
divided equally considering that the operating pressure requirements are same for all functions. The function
requiring the lowest pressure will operate first. When the first function is fully operated, the next function will
operate.

Four Way Valve:

This is also known as double-acting valve. This type of valve has four functional port connections. Here either a
reversible hydraulic motor or double-acting cylinder can be operated. Ports usually consist of two work ports, a
"inlet" or "pump" port and a "return" or "tank" port.

Three Way Valve:

This is also known as single-acting valve. This type of valve has three functional flow port connections. Here either
a undirectional motor or a single-acting cylinder can be operated with such a valve. Ports usually consist of one
"work" port, a "pump" port and a "tank" port.

Motor Spool or Free Flow Valve:

This type of valve is designed to provide flow from "work" ports to "tank" when it is in neutral position.

Servo valve:

a servo (more properly, a “servomechanism”) is a control system which measures its own output and forces the
output to quickly and accurately follow a command signal. The servovalve controls the oil flow to the actuator in
proportion to the drive current from the amplifier

Propotional valve:

Four-way directional valves which have an electrically operated pilot stage, and give valve spool position
proportional in magnitude and polarity to the electrical input, are called proportional valves.

Solenoidal valves:

Human operators often achieve quasi-proportional control using solenoid valves by turning the valves rapidly on and
off, or by jogging the valves when trying to improve feathering or resolution
 ELECTROHYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

When closed-loop electro hydraulic control systems first began to appear in industry, the applications were generally
those in which very high performance was required. While electro hydraulic servos are still heavily used in high-
performance applications such as the machine-tool industry, they are beginning to gain wide acceptance in a variety
of industries. Examples are plastics, oil exploration, mining, automotive testing, materials handling, and mobile
equipment. In some cases the customer has need for performance which simply cannot be achieved with open-loop
hydraulic controls or with other types of closed-loop controls. In other cases, complicated hydraulic circuitry can be
replaced by electronic logic, resulting in improved reliability and lower cost. In any case it is often difficult for the
potential user to assess what performance he can expect from closed-loop electro hydraulic controls, or indeed
whether he should even consider using them.

Our purpose is to provide the potential user with the means to make rough performance estimates for the most basic
types of servos. Of course, there are endless variations of the basic types, and detailed performance prediction can
often be a complex business.

Because of this, the estimation techniques offered should not be considered a substitute for the services of a
competent servo engineer.

FIGURE
 SERVO VALVE

What is a Servo?
In its simplest form, a servo (more properly, a “servomechanism”) is a control system which measures its own
output and forces the output to quickly and accurately follow a command signal. In this way, the effects of
anomalies in the control device itself and in the load can be minimized, as can the influence of external disturbances.
Servos can be designed to control almost any physical quantity, e.g. motion, force, pressure, temperature, electrical
voltage or current.

These control systems are servos designed to control mechanical loads. When rapid, precise control of sizable loads
is required, an electrohydraulic servo is often the best approach to the problem. The basic elements of such a
servocontrol system are the input command signal, servoamplifier, actuator, external disturbances, load, feedback
transducer and the feedback signal.

The output of the servo is measured with a transducing device to convert it to an electrical signal. This feedback
signal is compared with the command signal, and the resulting error signal is then amplified and used to drive the
servovalve. The servovalve controls the oil flow to the actuator in proportion to the drive current from the amplifier.
The actuator then forces the load to move. Thus, a change in the command signal generates an error signal which
causes the load to move in an attempt to zero the error signal. If the amplifier gain is high, the output will very
rapidly and accurately follow the command, even in the presence of such annoyances as servovalve null shift and
load friction.

External disturbances can cause the load to move without any change in the command signal. To offset the
disturbance input, an actuator output is needed in the opposite direction. To provide this opposing output, a finite
error signal is required. The magnitude of the required error signal is minimized if the amplifier gain is high.

Ideally, the amplifier gain would be set high enough that the accuracy of the servo becomes dependent only upon the
accuracy of the transducer itself. In practice, however, the amplifier gain is limited by stability considerations. In
some applications, stability may be critical enough that the desired performance is not possible, even with closed-
loop control. That is, closed-loop control is not a remedy for all difficulties. Performance estimates are usually made
for the three most common types of electrohydraulic servos:

 Position (linear or angular)

 Velocity (linear or angular)
 Force (or torque)

Click on images
for larger views.

Linear System Rotary System

Estimates are first made for the linear cases, and conversions are later given for the corresponding angular
quantities. See your account specialist for details on how we can help you develop your system
 PROPOTIONAL ELECTRO HYDRAULIC VALVE

Proportional Electrohydraulic Control Valves

A more common bidirectional, proportional interface device is the torque motor. The term torque motor is
misleading in that the armature of the motor moves (rotates) only a few minutes of an arc, but the torque created on
the armature is proportional in amplitude and direction to the value of current in the coils. Torque motors are
generally compact, have high torque-per-unit current, and have dynamic response that is more than adequate for
most hydraulic applications (usually to several hundred hertz).

Other interface devices include moving voice coils and rotary electrical motors. Voice coil devices are larger than
torque motors (for the same force output) and are sensitive to acceleration. Rotary electric motors are more complex
and inherently have friction which reduces their performance and life.

Pilot Stages
Most electrohydraulic remote controls include a pilot stage between the electromechanical interface device and the
hydraulic component being controlled. The pilot stage is sometimes called a hydraulic amplifier as it is supplied
with hydraulic power (pressure P and return R), and this power is modulated, or controlled, by the mechanical
output of the electromechanical device. The result is rather large hydraulic pressures which can develop high force
to control the hydraulic equipment.

A typical pilot stage is a double nozzle and flapper. Two fixed orifices and two variable orifices are arranged in a
Wheatstone bridge circuit. Flapper motion causes the output port pressures to swing one way or the other.

Other types of pilots include jet-type (where the momentum of a jet of fluid that falls on a receiver is controlled) and
small sliding spools. Generally jet-type pilot stages do not work well at low temperatures (<0°F). Sliding spool
valves are not preferred for direct control by a torque motor or other electromechanical devices as spool friction
(which can become severe with fluid contamination) can represent a sizeable portion of the maximum driving force.

Incidentally, a 4-way pilot stage or valve has 4 ports: P pressure, R return, and two control ports. A 3-way pilot has
only one control port. So a single nozzle, flapper, and one fixed orifice form a 3-way pilot stage. Likewise, a valve
spool with pressure, return, and one control port is called a 3-way valve.
 SOLENOID VALVE

The most common components used for hydraulic control are listed below. On/off valves are generally solenoid
controlled, often through a poppet-type, 3-way pilot. Because of the inherent full-on or closed-off nature of these
valves, their use is generally restricted to open loop control. Examples include positioning booms in small utility
trucks and material loaders; operating accessories such as outriggers and winches; and switching hydraulic circuits
(controlling blocking valves, bypass valves, etc.).

Solenoid valves are available for both AC and DC operation at a number of different voltages. Most solenoid valves
require several watts of electrical power, so require the use of a relay for control.

Human operators often achieve quasi-proportional control using solenoid valves by turning the valves rapidly on and
off, or by jogging the valves when trying to improve feathering or resolution. Dual solenoids on a single directional
valve are necessary for forward/off/reverse control
 PROPOTIONAL VALVE

PROPOTIONAL VALVES: Four-way directional valves which have an electrically operated pilot stage, and give
valve spool position proportional in magnitude and polarity to the electrical input, are called proportional valves.
These valves differ in the type of pilot used, the spool configuration used, and the mechanism employed to give
proportionality.

Different types of pilot stages were discussed previously. In proportional valves the pilot stage may be separately
pressurized by a pilot pressure supply (generally 1000 psi or higher for best performance), or it may be supplied
from the normal valve supply pressure. The pilot stage requires good filtration so a separately pressurized pilot
allows use of a low capacity, fine filter, rather than filtering full flow on the pressure side.

Spools for proportional valves may have most any configuration. Tandem center spools are used with constant flow
hydraulic supplies. These spools have a bypass from pressure to return when the spool is centered in order to unload
the hydraulic supply. As the spool moves to either side of center, the bypass closes-off and this builds up pump
pressure throughout the hydraulic system upstream of the valve.

Open Center and Closed Center Valves

Spool configurations for proportional valves operating on constant pressure systems are either open center or closed
center. Unfortunately this nomenclature is often confused with the same terms used to describe two types of
hydraulic supply.

An open center spool has both control ports open to return when the spool is centered. The pressure lands are usually
overlapped so that 10% to 20% of spool travel is necessary to open a cylinder port to pressure. This spool
configuration is always used to operate a man lift as the open center insures operation of load holding valves at the
lift cylinders (which are required by OSHA/ANSI).

Open center spools usually have shaped control slots so that flow from the valve builds up more gradually when the
valve is near its center position. Closed center spools give very linear flow versus spool position. This linearity does
not give very normal “feel” for a human operator, but it does produce good closed-loop servocontrol.

Constant Flow Versus Constant Pressure Hydraulic Systems

The majority of mobile hydraulic systems in use today have tandem center directional valves with constant flow
hydraulic supplies. Why, then, have some manufacturers introduced electrically controlled proportional valves for
constant pressure systems? The reason is better performance. Also, remote controlled tandem center valves require a
separate pilot pressure which usually means a separate pump.

A constant pressure supply can be obtained by a pressure compensated pump, or by an accumulator unloading
scheme, or by bypassing full pump flow over a pressure relief valve. The first two pumping schemes are usually
more expensive than a simple fixed displacement pump system, and the third scheme produces needless power loss
(together with noise, heat, and wear).

Another alternative that provides the best of both worlds is provided by a load demand pressure regulator on a
constant flow hydraulic supply. The result is a “constant” pressure hydraulic system (all valves have the same
supply pressure), where the actual pressure changes to accommodate the maximum load. Standby pressure is
essentially the same as the losses in a tandem center valve system (200-300 psi). Pump pressure builds up as
required by the load, but the performance of all control valves is immediate and non-interactive as with a true
constant pressure supply.
Proportional Operation
Proportional valves have either of two different mechanizations: (a) spring centered spools, or (b) “free floating”
spools with mechanical feedback. Spring centered spools merely move to a position corresponding to the pressure
produced by the pilot stage (presuming there is negligible spool friction). This valve configuration requires good
linearity and repeatability from the pilot, which can be a problem over wide ranges of temperatures and pressures.

The preferred technique is to allow the spool to move freely (small detent centering springs are usually included to
insure centered spool with pressure off). Only small pilot pressures are normally necessary to move the spool.
Movement of the spool creates a feedback torque on the torque motor that counteracts the electrical input torque, so
the spool stops at a position proportional to the value of input current.

This valve configuration has the advantage of being able to build up large pressures on the spool if necessary to
move it. Also the performance of the pilot stage is not critical.

Proportional Pumps and Motors

Hydrostatic controls using variable displacement pumps, or motors, or both, are another type of hydraulic
component for which remote control is becoming increasingly popular. Conventional hydrostatic pump and motor
controls use one or two pistons to move the variable stroking mechanism, a valve to control the pistons, and a
mechanical linkage to position the valve.

Electrical remote controls for hydrostatic pumps and motors are provided by a proportional valve mechanism like
that previously described. In this case, however, it is necessary to have the position of the pump stroking mechanism
proportional to the electrical input, so a lever and spring connect from the stroking mechanism to the torque motor.
When an electrical signal is applied, the valve will act. This causes the stroking mechanism to move until it reaches
a displacement where the feedback spring just counteracts the electrical input torque. At this point the valve has
moved back to near its centered position
 ACTUATORS
Hydraulic Actuators, as used in industrial process control, employ hydraulic pressure to drive an output member.
These are used where high speed and large forces are required. The fluid used in hydraulic actuator is highly
incompressible so that pressure applied can be transmitted instantaneously to the member attached to it.
th
It was not, however, until the 17 century that the branch of hydraulics with which we are to be concerned first
came into use. Based upon a principle discovered by the French scientist Pascal, it relates to the use of confined
fluids in transmitting power, multiplying force and modifying motions.
Then, in the early stages of the industrial revolution, a British mechanic named Joseph Bramah utilized Pascal’s
discovery in developing a hydraulic press. Bramah decided that, if a small force on a small area would create a
proportionally larger force on a larger area, the only limit to the force a machine can exert is the area to which the
pressure

Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator System:

Pascal’s Law :
Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished and equally throughout
the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right angles to its interior
surfaces.
Amplification of Force :
Since pressure P applied on an area A gives rise to a force F, given as,
F = P×A
Thus, if a force is applied over a small area to cause a pressure P in a confined fluid, the force
generated on a larger area can be made many times larger than the applied force that crated the
pressure. This principle is used in various hydraulic devices to such hydraulic press to generate very
high forces. is applied.

Advantages of Hydraulic Actuation Systems:

Hydraulics refers to the means and mechanisms of transmitting power through liquids. The original power source for
the hydraulic system is a prime mover such as an electric motor or an engine which drives the pump. However, the
mechanical equipment cannot be coupled directly to the prime mover because the required control over the motion,
necessary for industrial operations cannot be achieved. In terms of these Hydraulic Actuation Systems offer unique
advantages, as given below.
Variable Speed and Direction: Most large electric motors run at adjustable, but constant speeds. It is also the case
for engines. The actuator (linear or rotary) of a hydraulic system, however, can be driven at speeds that vary by large
amounts and fast, by varying the pump delivery or using a flow control valve. In addition, a hydraulic actuator can
be reversed instantly while in full motion without damage. This is not possible for most other prime movers.

Power-to-weight ratio: Hydraulic components, because of their high speed and pressure capabilities, can provide
high power output with vary small weight and size, say, in comparison to electric system components. Note that in
electric components, the size of equipment is mostly limited by the magnetic saturation limit of the iron. It is one of
the reasons that hydraulic equipment finds wide usage in aircrafts, where dead-weight must be reduced to a
minimum.
Stall Condition and Overload Protection: A hydraulic actuator can be stalled without damage when overloaded,
and will start up immediately when the load is reduced. The pressure relief valve in a hydraulic system protects it
from overload damage. During stall, or when the load pressure exceeds the valve setting, pump delivery is directed
to tank with definite limits to torque or force output. The only loss encountered is in terms of pump energy. On the
contrary, stalling an electric motor is likely to cause damage. Likewise, engines cannot be stalled without the
necessity for restarting.

Components of Hydraulic Actuation Systems:

Hydraulic Fluid:
Hydraulic fluid must be essentially non-compressible to be able to transmit power instantaneously
from one part of the system to another. At the same time, it should lubricate the moving parts to
reduce friction loss and cool the components so that the heat generated does not lead to fire hazards.
It also helps in removing the contaminants to filter. The most common liquid used in hydraulic
systems is petroleum oil because it is only very slightly compressible. The other desirable property of
oil is its lubricating ability. Finally, often, the fluid also acts as a seal against leakage inside a
hydraulic component. The degree of closeness of the mechanical fit and the oil viscosity determines
leakage rate. Figure 26.2 below shows the role played by hydraulic fluid films in lubrication and
sealing.

The Fluid Delivery Subsystem

It consists of the components that hold and carry the fluid from the pump to the actuator. It is made up of the
following components.
Reservoir :
It holds the hydraulic fluid to be circulated and allows air entrapped in the fluid to escape. This is an important
feature as the bulk modulus of the oil, which determines the stiffness of hydraulic system, deteriorates considerably
in the presence of entrapped air bubbles. It also helps in dissipating heat.
Filter
The hydraulic fluid is kept clean in the system with the help of filters and strainers. It removes minute particles from
the fluid, which can cause blocking of the orifices of servo-valves or cause jamming of spools.

Line
Pipe, tubes and hoses, along with the fittings or connectors, constitute the conducting lines that carry hydraulic fluid
between components. Lines are one of the disadvantages of hydraulic system that we need to pay in return of higher
power to weight ratio. Lines convey the fluid and also dissipate heat. In contrast, for Pneumatic Systems, no return
path for the fluid, which is air, is needed, since it can be directly released into the atmosphere. There are various
kinds of lines in a hydraulic system. The working lines carry the fluid that delivers the main pump power to the load.
The pilot lines carry fluid that transmit controlling pressures to various directional and relief valves for remote
operation or safety. Lastly there are drain lines that carry the fluid that inevitably leaks out, to the tank.
CONVENTIONAL SPOOLS
 CONTAMINATION
Preventing hydraulic system problems begins by addressing fluid contamination.
Contaminated oil is the primary threat to today’s hydraulic systems. Understanding what
contamination is , why it’s harmful, how it gets in and how to control it can go a long way
in improving machine performance, extending component life and lowering your costs.
Contamination is anything foreign in the hydraulic system. There are two types of contaminants: particulate and
chemical

The principal means of prevention is the maintenance of the hydraulic fluid with regard to cleanliness and
chemical composition. Cleanliness is a function of selection of the appropriate filters for the valve and
application environment. Chemical properties relate to factors such as water content and various forms of
.
break down that can occur due to chemical contamination, excessive heat or working of the fluid.
These factors can be monitored effectively at a relative low cost by laboratory tests offered by filter
companies and suppliers of hydraulic fluids.
Design of the filtration requires a careful understanding of the effects on valves, valve design, circuit
layout and operating environment. If these factors are carefully considered it is possible to achieve high
reliability and long life in some of the most difficult environments.
It is important that there be a close evaluation of components and circuit layout to achieve the optimum
solution. The key system elements are:
[1] Servo valves and proportional valves are usually the most important area for filtration design.
Inherently they perform critical control functions for the machine; requiring consistent operation
and high reliability.
[2] Pumps and motors can vary from rugged fixed displacement gear or vane pumps to
sophisticated variable displacement piston equipment with fine clearances [Table 1] and high
capital cost. In many instances the pump may be the crucial factor for planning filtration.
[3] Ancillary valves and components that comprise the balance of the hydraulic circuit are
generally satisfied if groups [1] and [2] above are suitably protected. There may be some
considerations with regard to type of component for example in safety circuits where the choice of
a seated [poppet] valve is mandatory to avoid lock up due to silting.
From practical experience, the focus has been on the design issues for servo valves and proportional
valves with secondary consideration for pumps, motors and other devices. Clearly there are cases where
the pumps or motors will be of major importance; however although outside the scope of this paper, the
principles as applied to valves can be similarly applied to any hydraulic components
.
EFFECTS OF CONTAMINATION:

The results of contamination can be simply divided into two problems which in turn become the goals of
our design:
Short term failures
These are the random and often unpredictable failures due to jamming of a spool or plugging of
an orifice. This is the most costly form of failure since it will lead to an unplanned shut down of manufacture and
can cause machine damage as a result of uncontrolled actuator movements.
Typical mechanisms are:

Particle jamming - where contamination becomes lodged in the fine clearances between the spool and body [or
bushing ]; particles may also block control orifices to cause a ‘hard over’ condition or loss of control pressure. It is
important to understand the size of clearances and driving forces to overcome particles, when deciding on the
filtration to solve this type of problem. It is not so easy to quantify the magnitude of forces on spools for example
but there is some empirical data available that can help to estimate the order of magnitude of forces that need to be
overcome [Figure 1]. Particles that can cause this failure often cause more than the functional failure. Since
they can become wedged in the spool, it is common that permanent damage is done to the control lands of the valve
that also means an expensive repair or a new valve is needed.
This is usually resolved with a non - by pass high pressure filter with a Beta rating selected to remove particles of
the size that can block the function of the valve.

Silting - this phenomenon occurs with any spool type valve. If we hold a spool in a fixed position with high pressure
across the lands, there is a gradual build up of fine ‘silt’ particles that can lock the spool within 5-10 minutes. This is
the reason why poppet type solenoid valves are used in safety circuits where long stand times can be involved. A
conventional solenoid (or the return spring) will not move the spool after 3-5 minutes[Figure 2].
Silting is proportional to pressure differential, poor filtration, rest time and valve design.
2.2 Long Term Failures
All valves will ultimately wear in any system no matter how good the filtration. Our goal is to maximise that period
to ensure that we achieve long life of the valves and reliable product quality.It is not easy to provide a simple
statement of valve life as this depends on: filtration, operating environment, valve design [eg: spool travel ], control
system performance requirements, operating fluid, frequency of operation and operating pressure.
We can quote some examples of what can happen with identical valves. Example [a] plastics blow moulding
machine using a long stroke servo valve for control of ‘parison’ thickness - we have many cases where good filter
maintenance has been applied such that the time between overhaul has been up to 10 years. The same application
where the system has not been correctly maintained can suffer from catastrophic failures within months or weeks
[usually particle jamming due to heavy contamination]. Example [b] in the steel industry there are documented cases
of fluid incompatibility [chemical erosion] causing failures in weeks; poor flushing of pipework modifications
leading to failure in hours or days. In this latter case the system was cleaned and filtration upgraded such that we are
now seeing a life of years in a very severe operating environment. So what are the longer term effects?
Apart from stopping the valve from working there can be a gradual build up of other ‘varnish’ or silt type
contaminant that degrades the control qualities of the valve such as threshold and hysteresis. This will directly
impact on system accuracy and repeatability. The second problem is the erosion of valve parts that lead to loss of
control system performance.
Typical wear areas are:
a) Feedback ball connection in mechanical feedback servovalves. A flat spot will develop on the feedback ball
causing loss of fine control and actuator oscillation.
b) Control lands will wear to increase null leakage and some loss of pressure gain
performance.
Wear is a combination of high flow velocity and contamination. This can be minimised by removal of the fine silt
level particles, either through return line filtration or an off-line filter system. Finally it is common to provide a ‘last
chance’ filter to protect the internal parts of a valve in the event of catastrophic system failure. These filters are
typically made of wire mesh and built into the body of the valve in the pilot stage supply line [Figure 3]. Although
they are quite coarse [servo valve 35-70 microns, proportional valves 200 microns] there will be a gradual
accumulation of contamination over an extended period of valve operation. This may result in a loss of valve
response and can also cause a valve offset which in turn will affect positioning accuracy of the controlled actuator.
As a general rule the main system filters should be protecting the ‘last chance’ filter. There have been instances
where this filter has needed frequent service and blamed for being too small! This is clearly the symptom and the
real cause is inadequate contamination control in the overall system.

CONTAMINATION CONTROL:

The purpose of hydraulic filtration is to improve system reliability by removing "damage causing" particles from the
fluid.No system is free of contamination and sources of contaminate fall into four major areas-

· built into the components and subsystems

· generated during assembly of the system
· generated by maintenance
· ingression, eg. cylinders are dirt pumps, via reservoir breather

Oil in a typical hydraulic system can best be described as ‘a concentrated abrasive slurry using oil as a
carrier." Traditional filters have done little to control the concentration of abrasive wear-causing particles.
As 95% of the particles in most systems are below 10 microns, it is necessary to utilise filtration which can
effectively control "silt" particles.
Particles in the silt range have been proven to be the primary cause of equipment downtime caused by
abrasive wear, valve sticking and oil degradation. The prevention of silt circulation and build up can
increase component life 10 to 100 fold.

Therefore effective filtration for high performance hydraulic systems means :

· understanding the valve design
· setting and maintaining cleanliness objectives
· appropriate filtration for the environment
· no short cuts with filter quality or replacement elements
· regular monitoring and service
Good filtration will always give the lowest machine running cost and greatest reliability for the end
user of hydraulic systems.
 MAINTAINANCE

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS WHEN LAYING OUT ELECTROHYDRAULIC

CONTROL SYSTEMS:
1.Power Units
Pumps:
Constant supply pressure is preferred with minimum
variation. Use accumulators with variable displacement pressure compensated pumps. Fixed displacement pump:
constant pressure with use of accumulator is an option.
– If more than one critical system is fed from one pump,
isolate each system with check valves and accumulators
(avoids cross-talk).
– Reservoir breather: 3 to 5 micron air filter preferred
with capacity appropriate to fluid displacement.
– Temperature and pressure should be closely controlled
if good long term control accuracy is critical.
– Fluid flowing over a relief valve represents wasted energy

2.Piping and Fittings

Do not use pipe dope. (It contains fine, hard to filter, particulate.)
Use TFE tape when necessary. Do not use pipe or pipe fittings.
– Use only correct tube cutting tools, no hacksaw.
Deburr if necessary.
– Cold bending preferred.
– Descale after hot bending and welding.
Rotating joints can generate contamination.
– Flexible lines: if unavoidable use teflon, nylon or
thermoplastic lined hoses rather than rubber (neoprene)
which eventually shed particles. Place flex lines before filter,
not after.
– Use O-ring fittings rather than tapered pipe type. If pipe
fittings cannot be avoided, use Teflon tape.

3. Filtration
The Moog filtration philosophy is summarized as follows:
– Use a 10 to 15 micron absolute non-bypass high pressure
filter just before the Servo or Proportional Valve.
– Use a 3 micron low pressure filter in the return line,
if possible.
– Use a 3 to 5 micron low pressure filter in an off-line
filtration loop.
– Recirculate oil in reservoir more than 5 times per hour.
This is justified on the bias that:
(i) The Servo or Proportional Valve can accept the odd
particle up to 25 microns.
(ii) It is neither practical nor economical to try to clean
the oil with a small, relatively expensive, high pressure
element.The cheaper, low pressure element is many
times larger and has the potential to filter continually
and under more ideal conditions. (Steady flow and
lower velocities increase filtration efficiency.) – In the case where large changes of oil volume in the
reservoir occur, as with a single ended hydraulic cylinder,
it is suggested that a 3 micron low pressure element be
used as an air breather.
– Always use dirt alarms/pressure switches to enable
changing of elements at correct intervals.
– Use cheaper low-pressure flushing elements to flush the
system on start-up – remember that new oil is “dirty oil,”
having picked up contaminant in transit and packaging.
– The tank volume should be flushed through the filter at
least 50 times, changing the element when indicated by the
pressure switch (contaminate alarm), or until the system
has operated 6 to 8 hours without the need for a flushing
element change.

4. Servo and Proportional Valve –

Characteristics of Major Importance:
– Frequency response (time constant)
– Threshold (resolution)/hysteresis
4.1 Placement:
– Mount as near as possible to the actuator to reduce
the entrapped oil volume. Oil is compressible and can
often limit servo response.
– Flexible lines between valve and actuator can be
rarely justified. As a rule of thumb they decrease
stiffness to one-third of the volume that they contain.
Additionally, they produce contamination which must
pass through the valve. Use only nylon, teflon or
thermoplastic lined hose.
4.2 Sizing:
– Select the valve size to obtain between 1/4 and
1/3 system pressure (PS) drop across the valve at
maximum velocity. If the drop across the valve is too
small, then a flow change will not take place until the
valve is nearly closed.
– Remember: to control flow the valve must drop
pressure across itself.Too large a valve is a waste, or
worse than that, it lowers system resolution.

5.Actuator (cylinder/motor)
– Size the area for dynamic and static forces (remembering
the 1/4 to 1/3 PS requirement of the Servo or Proportional
Valve in the dynamic case).
– Calculate the resonant frequency and adjust the actuator
areas and valve size, if necessary, to optimize accuracy.
(Increased area plus increased natural frequency improves
accuracy.)
– Recognize the 2% to 20% breakout friction of different
seals and their effect on position resolution.
– Manifolds should not contain air pockets. If they do,
you cannot flush the air out of the manifold, leading to
a “soft” system.
– Keep the cylinder full area/rod end area ratio ² 2:1 to avoid
greatly differing extend and retract velocities.
Actuator Connection to Load and Frame:
– There should be no free play (a practical limit in a
position loop would be 3 to 10 times less than the
required position accuracy).
– The mechanical stiffness should normally be 3 to 10
times higher than hydraulic stiffness to avoid degrading
performance.
– Gearing down decreases inertia felt at actuator and hence
increases natural frequency (and with it system response
and accuracy). However, gearing down could lower stiffness
and introduce play/backlash due to the gears.

6.Feedback Transducer
Closes the loop and its characteristics are of paramount
importance, e.g.:
– Linearity
– Threshold (resolution) and hysteresis
– Drift with temperature or time
– Frequency response (it must be 3 to10 times faster than
the slowest element in the system).
6.1 Transducer Placement:
– Placing at the actuator output eliminates many control
problems (by excluding secondary spring-mass systems and
play), but may not provide accuracy at the point required

7.Servoamplifier
– The dynamics of the analog electronics are always better
than the Servovalve and spring-mass system.Therefore, they
can be neglected.
– Some digital systems, however, lack the level of dynamics
that are needed. In order to see if this is a problem, check
the following:
(i) That the update rate of the PLC is a maximum of 20
times faster than the frequency of the valve.
(ii) That the update rate of a digital-to-analog converter,
which is required for Electric Feedback Servovalves,
is faster than the valve. A rule of thumb is that the
converter should be a minimum of 20 times faster,
and preferably 100 times faster than the 90° frequency
of the valve.
(iii) Use of 12 and 16 bit digital-to-analog converters.
Anything slower could compromise the valves
resolution.
(iv) The last stage to the Servovalve is a current output.
– Use of compensation techniques (Proportional, Integral
or Derivative) can be reviewed when selecting the
Servoamplifier. (Note that 90% of position loops can be
handled by a straight ‘P’ controller, and the simplicity of
set up and troubleshooting a ‘P’ controller is invaluable).
– Avoid placing the amplifier close to electric motor
controllers or other components that generate high
electromagnetic fields – consider shielding if necessary.
– Interconnection to the command signal and feedback transducer
should use shielded cables to minimize interference.
(Ground only the chassis end to prevent ground loops.)
8.Conclusion
To lay out a design for a propotional system means taking care of
minimizing lags in the control chain. (In addition to the usual
design requirements of strength, fatigue life, ease of maintenance,
ease/cost of manufacture, etc.)
Lags may be caused by:
1. Free-play/backlash/stick-slip
2. Free-time constants of components
The time constant of the valve can be selected. However, the
time constant of the actuator-mass system is dependent upon
the control of hydraulic and structural stiffness and the mass
of moving parts.
extend velocity full area
retract velocity rod end area

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE FOR SERVO AND PROPORTIONAL VALVES:

1. As a general rule, hydraulic components should not be disturbed while they are operating normally.
– This rule particularly applies to Servo or Proportional
Valves.
– They should not be removed unless trouble-shooting has shown that they are malfunctioning.
– If the system must be “opened” (for example, adding new pipework, hoses, valves or actuators), then the valve
should be removed, replaced by a flushing plate and the new system start-up procedure followed.
2. If the valve must be removed, the area around the subplate should be thoroughly cleansed using non lint
producing materials before raising the valve from the surface.
– If the valve function is critical, a spare Servo or Proportional Valve should always be held in stock.The
spare should be fitted in place of the removed valve and the shipping plate placed on the removed valve.The valve
should be returned to Moog Inc. for service. A newly installed valve may develop a fault soon after fitting if care
is not taken with cleanliness.
– Where no spare valve exists the surface should then be covered by a clean plastic sheet so as to limit the
possibility of contaminants entering the system.The valve should
be returned to Moog Inc. for service.
3. Some valves are fitted with manual override operators. Most have null adjust screws. No other adjustments are
possible in the field, apart from the null adjustment.The style of this
adjustment varies with different valves. Consult individual valve series data sheets for details.
4. The torque motor is a precision device. Do not attempt to remove or dismantle. Permanent and expensive damage
can result. Likewise, do not try to remove the spool in the main stage. Return the valve to Moog Inc. for service.
5. Moog Inc. will not partially repair a valve. Our policy is to always return the valve to its original specification. In
so doing it will always be returned with a 24 month new valve warranty.
6. Moog Inc. Servo and Proportional Valves are used when precision control is required.The Servovalve is a
precision instrument and consistency in performance is not possible
with “dirty oil.
7. There are two considerations in filtration for Servo and
Proportional Valves.
7.1 Particle Contamination:
Larger particles from approximately 40 microns and upwards can lodge in the Servovalves’ pilot stage filter
screen. Particles smaller will generally pass through. This is a last chance filter and is not intended as a
system filter..
7.2 Silt Contamination:
This can, under certain circumstances, lead to seizure of the main spool in the bushing. However, this is rare
due to the very high spool positioning forces employed. Silt does affect valve life by eroding the sharp metering
edges on the valve spool and bushing.
8. Contamination Control
Contamination enters the fluid at many points:
8.1 New oil supplied from refineries contains noticeable residue in the bottom of empty drums. Particles of 100
micron and larger are quite usual in new oil.
8.2 Filling Methods:
Contamination can enter via dirty funnels or other unhygienic filling methods. Moog Inc. recommends a
transfer pump upstream of the 3 micron low pressure filter.When in doubt, remove the valve, fit a flushing
block and flush the system out before refitting the valve.
8.3 Airborne Contaminants:
Many factories have very dusty air in the vicinity of the hydraulic power unit. Sometimes the dust is corrosive. In
systems with large air flows in and out of the reservoir, Moog Inc. recommends a 3 micron breather filter.
8.4 Airborne contaminants are also collected on the rod
end of hydraulic cylinders and are drawn into the cylinder in varying amounts, depending on rod wiper
efficiency.These are normally collected in the 3 micron low pressure filter.
8.5 Contaminants from rubber hose, teflon tape, metal silt
particles from wearing valves, pumps, etc. all contribute
to fluid contamination.

METHODS OF PREVENTION:

Keep floors and work

areas clean:
Sweeping floors daily and maintaining uncluttered work benches with surfaces that won’t mar parts or add
contaminants are good ways to jump-start contamination control efforts.

Manage spills correctly

Oil spills should be cleaned up promptlyand properly. Absorbent pads, mops and scrubbers are recommended over
granular methods that tend to pollute the air with contaminants.

Protect work “in progress”

When possible and at the end of each shift, make sure in-process
repairs are protected from airborne contaminants. Ask us about other
repair processes that can be implemented to control contamination

Select the right oil:

Cat Hydraulic Oil contains the needed additives, like oxidation and foam inhibitors, to help prevent contamination.
It also has more
than twice as much zinc as standard industrial oils to provide maximum protection to pumps, motors, cylinders and
valves. Be familiar with
the additives in your oil, and don’t compromise quality to save a small amount of money.

Use tight-fitting barrel covers:Tight-fitting covers, such as our 1U6156, can help prevent dirt, water, airborne
particles and
other contaminants from entering oil barrels.It’s also wise to store barrels inside.

Change oil regularly and always filter oil

stored in bulk:
Caterpillar has extended the oil change interval for hydraulic systems to 4,000 hours, providing certain conditions
for monitoring the
oil are met. We also recommend changing oil when it’s warm and agitated, and always filtering new oil from barrels
or other bulk
systems before installation.

Besides maintaining a clean facility, paying attention to the hydraulic oil is important.
The oil you select and how you store and transfer it all have an impact on
contamination and component life. Filter and fluid changes also present contamination
control opportunities. Here are a few tips:
Change filters regularly
and carefully:
Hydraulic filters should be changed at least every 500 hours. It’s also important to keep new filters and other parts
packaged until they’re ready to install and to remove old filters carefully.

Use High Efficiency Filters after

maintenance and service:
Contaminants invade the hydraulic system any time it’s open for maintenance or repair. We recommend Cat High
Efficiency Filters at 250
service meter hours following any system invasion. Be sure to change High Efficiency Filters before 250 hours if the
bypass indicator
goes on.

Use quality filters between

system invasions:Using inadequate filters can compromise performance. To maintain the highest levels of
cleanliness and performance, we recommend installing genuine Cat Fluid Filters.

Clean hoses properly during assembly:

The cutting and assembly of hoses introduce many contaminants that need to be removed before installation. We
recommend use of the Cat Hose Cleaner Group, which fires a foam projectile through hoses, tubes and couplings.
This air-powered tool takes only seconds to strip out metal and rubber contaminants traditional cleaning methods
leave behind.

Protect stored hose and assemblies:

Bulk hose in storage and assemblies that have been properly cleaned should be protected from airborne
contaminants. Installation of caps and plugs is a low-cost means of delivering this protection.

Control contamination
during general maintenance:

Perform daily inspections:

When performing the daily inspections, check for leaks and promptly fix any you find. Look especially for worn
cylinder
wiper seals and pitted rods that may be giving dirt and other contaminants a free pass into the system.

Keep hydraulic tanks filled:

Always keep the hydraulic tank between “Full” and “Add.” Insufficient fluid levels are the leading cause of pump
cavitation, leading to pump failure and contamination of the entire system. Low fluid levels can also result in high
oil temperatures, causing oil to degrade.

Maintain valves:
Maintain oil cooler and relief valves properly. Relief valve settings should be adjusted only by our trained
technicians.
If a pressure loss is detected, it’s important to find its source and repair it.

Replace worn fan belts:

Inspect fan belts, radiators and oil coolers regularly. Maintaining fan speed
and cleaning debris from radiators and oil coolers will help keep the system
operating at acceptable temperatures
contamination during equipment operation

A variety of contaminants can be introduced into your hydraulic system

on the job site. Here are a few ways to guard against contamination:

Monitor hydraulic system temperatures

Excessive heat in hydraulic systems thins the oil, increases fluid oxidation, bakes seals and blisters hoses. It is
important to monitor system temperatures and, if equipped, watch temperature gauges and sensor lights.

Use rod protectors

In extremely dry applications and others where banked rock, corrosive material and debris are common, we
recommend protective covers for the exposed portions of hydraulic cylinder rods.

Use care when changing work tools

With today’s machines, operators frequently change work tools that are hydraulically driven. If not maintained,
these tools can contaminate each machine they’re attached to. Always inspect quick couplers and wipe off dirt from
flush-face disconnects before coupling. Protect nipples and couplers with caps and plugs.

Listen to your operators

An often-overlooked opportunity for contamination control is listening to your operators. Day in and day out, these
individuals live with your machines and can alert you to excessive drift, noises and other signs of possible
contamination

PREVENTION BY INSPECTION:

10-hour or daily inspection:

• Check hydraulic fluid level
• Check hydraulic cylinders and pumps
for leaks
• Check hoses, lines and hydraulic tank
area for leaks or damage

250-hour or monthly inspection:

• Perform 10-hour preventive
maintenance checks
• Check hydraulic oil cooler
for leaks or plugging
• Check all hydraulic lines for damaged,
missing or loose connections

500-hour or quarterly inspection

• Perform 10- and 250-hour preventive
maintenance checks
• Perform S·O·S Services of hydraulic oil
• Change hydraulic filter
• Check hydraulic pumps and mountings
for loose or missing hardware

2,000-hour or annual inspection

• Perform 10-, 250-, 500- and 1,000-hour
preventive maintenance checks•Check hydraulic system cycle times and drift rates