materials

Article
Performance Analysis of Three Side Roughened Solar Air
Heater: A Preliminary Investigation
Aruna Kumar Behura 1 , Chinmaya Prasad Mohanty 1 , Manas Ranjan Singh 2 , Ashwini Kumar 3 ,
Emanoil Linul 4, * and Dipen Kumar Rajak 5, *

1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, TN, India;
akbehura.nit@gmail.com (A.K.B.); chinmaymohantymech@gmail.com (C.P.M.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Silicon Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar 751024, OD, India;
manasranjan.singh@gmail.com
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University,
Gurugram 122505, HR, India; aknitjsr08@gmail.com
4 Department of Mechanics and Strength of Materials, Politehnica University Timisoara,
300222 Timisoara, Romania
5 Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. H. Raisoni Institute of Business Management,
Jalgaon 425002, MH, India
* Correspondence: emanoil.linul@upt.ro (E.L.); dipen.pukar@gmail.com (D.K.R.)

Abstract: In recent years, sunlight has been used in several fields such as photovoltaic cells, flat
plate collectors, solar cookers, green buildings, and agricultural applications. Improved thermal
performance has been seen which comes of three sides absorber plate with glass cover compared to
the traditional one. This paper presents the Nusselt (Nu) number, collector efficiency factor (CEF),
and collector heat removal factor (CHRF) for the optimal solution of three sides artificially roughened



solar air heater. Five input variables such as Reynolds (Re) number, relative roughness pitch, relative


roughness height, mass flow rate, and air temperature of the duct are taken into account for improved
Citation: Behura, A.K.; Mohanty, C.P.; efficiency optimization of collector, collector heat removal factor, and Nu number. Technique for
Singh, M.R.; Kumar, A.; Linul, E.;
order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) technique is used to identify the best
Rajak, D.K. Performance Analysis of
alternative amongst a number of performance measures by converting them into an equivalent single
Three Side Roughened Solar Air
variable. Moreover, the results revealed the high accuracy of the CEF, CHRF, and Nu number of
Heater: A Preliminary Investigation.
75–80%, 74–78%, and 63–71%, respectively. Meanwhile, it has been also observed that roughness Re
Materials 2022, 15, 2541. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma15072541
number varies between 12,500 and 13,500, and height of relative roughness is 0.0245, including pitch
of relative roughness 10 along with the rate of mass flow is 0.041 kg/s.
Academic Editor:
Edward Bormashenko
Keywords: collector efficiency factor; collector heat removal factor; Reynolds number; pitch of
Received: 7 February 2022 relative roughness; height of relative roughness; mass flow rate
Accepted: 27 March 2022
Published: 30 March 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

1. Introduction
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil- Sunlight is the major source of renewable energy which provides heat energy without
iations. any pollution. Solar Air Heaters (SAHs) play a vital role in the conversion of sunlight into
heat energy or thermal energy, which can be utilized for many thermal applications in
day-to-day life. Utilization of additional roughness in the collector plate of a solar collector
provides better efficiency as compared to the smooth one reported by many researchers.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Collector heat removal factor is defined as the quantity that relates the actual useful heat
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. gain of a collector to the useful heat gain, if the whole collector surface were experienced to
This article is an open access article
air inlet temperature, while, Collector Efficiency Factor is the ratio of actual useful energy
distributed under the terms and
gain to the useful energy gain of the absorber plate [1]. The addition of roughness in the
conditions of the Creative Commons
collector of a solar channel provides increment in collector heat removal factor (CHRF)
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
and Collector Efficiency Factor (CEF), which plays a vital role in enhancing the thermal
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
efficiency of a SAH. It has been reported that better thermal efficiency can be achieved using
4.0/).

Materials 2022, 15, 2541. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072541 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2022, 15, 2541 2 of 17

unevenness in the collector of a single side SAH [2]. The utilization of optimized artificial
roughness in SAH to improve thermo-hydraulic performance (THP) has been illustrated
by Prasad and Saini [3]. A unique design for counter flow curved double pass solar
collector has been proposed by Kumar et al. [4] to show its performance characteristics
and to be compared with various parallel designs under different flow and geometric
conditions. The impact of artificial roughness on the performance of SAHs has been studied
in [5] to provide comprehensive information about the different cross-sectional roughness
elements, and the effect of these roughness elements on the performance of SAHs has
been discussed. The different directions and arrangements have been studied by Saurav
and Sahu [6] for artificial roughness in SAHs. Furthermore, the utilization of various
artificial roughness geometries has been reported in SAHs to enhance the heat transfer rate
and thermal effectiveness [7]. A study of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for the
Y-shaped wire utilized as an unnatural roughness in SAHs for enhancing the heat transfer
rate was conducted by Singh et al. [8]. In addition, the CFD code and interrelation for
rib unevenness of equilateral triangular and square-sectioned transverse utilized on the
collector of solar air collectors have been reported by Yadav and Bhagoria [9,10]. Moreover,
Gawande et al. [11] analyzed the effect of various roughness geometries on heat transfer
enhancement in different solar thermal systems. Experimental studies of heat transfer and
thermal performance with longitudinal fins of SAH have also been reported [12].
The literature studied above mentioned only one side artificial roughness SAHs. A
SAH duct with three artificially roughened sides (the two side walls and the top side) has
been analyzed, investigated, and optimized by Prasad et al. [13,14], for more increase in
THP than in one side only. It has been reported that the use of the inside number of fin array
in SAH enhances the performance variables [15,16]. Using numerical analysis, Singh [17]
evaluated the behavior of a SAH with an arched absorber plate. The author observed a
significant improvement in the THP of the proposed system. The value of transfer of heat is
reported in [18–20] for one side and three sides artificial roughness SAH using the Artificial
Neural Network technique. Abuska [21] performed an analysis on a new SAH with the
conical surface and compared the results with a flat absorber plate. He noted that the conical
elements ensure a smooth flow of air above the absorbent plate, an increased surface area,
relatively less shading, and a decrease in the dead surface of the duct. As a result, there
is a prominent increase in thermal efficiency for the conical type compared to a flat one.
The thermal performance of a double pass SAH with and without turbulators has been
studied experimentally by Abdullah et al. [22]. The authors obtained that the double pass
SAH shows improvements in the daily efficiency of up to 30% compared to a single pass
SAH. Investigating the performance of different SAHs with jet impingement [23], natural
and forced convection modes [24] and landscape fabric [25] has gained major interest in
recent years. Furthermore, the effects of wavelength and amplitude [26], and the different
fins shape [27] on the performance of SAHs were of interest to researchers. The thermal
performance enhancement of SAH with a rugged plane collector was investigated by Ansari
and Bazargan [28]. The authors conducted an optimization study both to obtain higher
efficiency and to guarantee an appropriate temperature difference between inlet-outlet
airflow. Singh and Singh [29,30] studied the effect of various relative height and pitch ratios
of V-groove corrugation and semicircular groove on the dynamic THP of curved SAHs.
Jia et al. [31] investigated the performance (including temperature differences between
inlet and outlet, heat collection efficiency, air volume, and irradiance) of the spiral SAH
for different weather conditions. The authors found that, compared to conventional and
serpentine SAHs, this type of SAH has a higher heat collection efficiency. A v-groove and
flat plate were developed in [32] to be used in SAHs. The authors noted that the heat
transfer coefficient and instantaneous energy efficiency of the SAH were higher in the
case of the v-shaped groove air heater. The THP characteristics of a SAH roughened by
multiple v-shaped ribs were also investigated in detail [33,34]. It was reported that the main
geometrical parameters of the channel and rib affect the optimal span-wise rib number. A
mathematical model established [35] for the coefficient of transfer of heat and friction factor
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 3 of 17

of collector having twisted roughened SAH to improve the restriction of performance. A

v-shape configuration investigated [36] SAH and also developed the mathematical model
for friction factor and Nusselt (Nu) number. Saravanakumar et al. [37] observed that the use
of an arc-shaped rib roughened SAH integrated with fins and baffles improves the efficiency
and effectiveness. The utilization of multi V-rib and prominent component reported [38]
on the solar air collector for the increment of THP and Nu number. The utilization of the
number of gaps analyzed in arc type roughened SAH for enhancement of heat transfer
coefficient [39]. The utilization of w-type roughened SAH developed [40,41] accompanied
by similar distance on the channels for improvement of Nu number with an additional
effect of booster mirrors. Similarly, a number of works have been reported in the most
recent years to show the extensive improvements in exergy, CFD, and THP of solar air
collectors by using different methodologies [42–48].
An extensive study of past literature directs that a good amount of work has been re-
ported to improve the performance of solar air heaters such as one side artificial roughened
solar air heater with various geometries of roughness, three sides artificial roughened solar
air heater with transverse, w-shaped, v-shaped roughened absorber plate, etc. However,
process optimizations of the solar air heaters are not given adequate importance in the area
of solar energy. Selection of optimum process condition is reported [49] to improve the
performance of solar air heaters, the optimization of performance parameters of three side’s
rugged solar air heater. Mostly, researchers have optimized and analyzed the performance
measures such as optimization of process variables such as Nu number, friction factor,
roughened Reynolds (Re) number, and thermal efficiency. Therefore, there exists to propose
an efficient optimization framework for the optimization performance measures such as
collector heat removal factor, collector efficiency factor, Nu number to improve the perfor-
mance of a solar air heater. Therefore, to address the above-discussed literature gap, the
authors have attempted to optimize the process parameters of solar air heater viz. ambient
temperature, Re number, mass flow rate, relative roughness height, relative roughness
pitch for the best performance of three important performance measures such as collector
heat removal factor, collector efficiency factor, and Nu number, while keeping friction
factor minimum with less pumping power. The multiple responses are transformed into an
identical sole performance measure closeness factor identifying the best-ranked solution
from the experiments. Finally, the best-ranked solution is further improved by a hybrid
optimization technique TOPSIS (a technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal
solution) based Cuckoo Search Optimization (CSO) technique. The technique is easy in
concept, easy for execution, and converges rapidly to achieve the optimum solution, which
sets the approach apart from other techniques [50–52]. The experimental investigation
of bioconvection Casson nanofluid flow using the Darcy–Forchheimer 3D technique on a
whirling disc is reported [53]. Recently, researchers have used numerous Multi-Criteria
Decision-Making (MCDM) tools for selecting the best alternative among the available
performance measures by converting them into a corresponding single performance mea-
sure. TOPSIS is one such technique that uses the principle that the selected alternative
certainly be nearest to the positive best solution and must be farthermost from the negative
best solution [54,55]. In comparison to other approaches, the method is easy and requires
fewer statistical calculations. The optimum process condition acquired utilizing this mixed
technique is certified by conducting a supporting trial. This system provides inspiration to
researchers and industrialists to use customized systems for their applications such as crop
drying, fish drying, storage of heat energy, etc.

2. MCDM-TOPSIS Approach
The TOPSIS method is presented stepwise underneath.
 First step: In this study, the responses such as Nusselt number (Nu), collector heat
removal factor, and collector efficiency factor are taken as favorable attributes. So,
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 4 of 17

attempts are made to maximize these parameters. Based on the equation provided
below the response matrix is standardized.

bij
Qij = q (1)
2
∑m
i=1 bij

where i = 1 . . . . m and j = 1 . . . . n., bij represents the actual ith value of jth experiment
and Qij represents the correlated standardized value.
 Second step: Equal and uniform weight is assigned to all three objectives, hence
the weighted normalized matrix, is assigned at 0.33. This weight is multiplied with
the normalized matrix obtained through Equation (1); therefore the relation is given
by Equation (2).
Uij = Wi × Qij (2)
where Uij is the weighted normalized matrix and Wi marks the weight of the jth
attribute.
 Third step: The positive best result (PBR) and negative best result (NBR) are estimated
using Equations (3) and (4).

X+ = (X1 + , X2 + , Xn + ) for all the upper values (3)

X− = (X1 − , X2 − , Xn − ) for all the lower values (4)

 Fourth step: The positive best result (PBR) and negative ideal solution (NIS) are
estimated by utilizing the following equations.
v
um 2
Ti+ = t ∑ xij − xj+
u
(5)
j=1

v
um 2
Ti− = t ∑ xij − xj−
u
(6)
j=1

where i = 1, 2 . . . n.
 Fifth step: The following relation is used to estimate the closeness factor (CF)

Ti−
CF = (7)
Ti+ + Ti−

The closeness factor CF ranks the alternatives from ideal to worst. The alternative
having the highest order of closeness factor is identified as the best alternative among
the alternatives.

3. Experimental Strategy
As per the literature survey, mass flow rate, height of relative roughness, pitch of
relative roughness, Re number, and atmospheric temperature are picked as the major
process variables [56]. The collector efficiency factor, collector heat removal factor, and
Nusselt number are scrutinized as principal performance quantities in the current research.
The process parameters and their codes are provided in Table 1.
In this work, experiments are planned as per Box–Behnken design of response surface
methodology (RSM) as the process executes non-sequential experiments having less number
of design points. It works in a safe operating zone as it does not have any axial point.
However, central composite designs possess axial points outside the cube which does not
operate properly and falls beyond the safe operating area. [57,58]. Table 2 represents the
Box–Behnken design along with obtained responses. The parameters are identified based
upon a literature survey and hence decided to study their outcomes on process measures
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 5 of 17

viz. collector efficiency factor, collector heat removal factor, and Nusselt number by using
response surface methodology (RSM) Box–Behnken design.

Table 1. Process parameters and their levels.

Process Parameters Unit Symbols −1 Levels 1

Mass flow rate Kg/s A 0.011 0.0175 0.0248
Pitch of relative roughness mm B 10 15 20
Height of relative roughness mm C 0.0135 0.0225 0.0247
Re number D 5000 10,000 13,000
Atmospheric temperature ◦C E 27 30 32

Table 2. RSM Box–Behnken experimental design along with obtained responses.

Collector Heat Collector Closeness Factor

Sl. No A B C D E Nusselt Number
Removal Factor EfficiencyFactor (CF)
1 −1 −1 0 0 0 0.698 0.692 50.9 0.730813
2 1 −1 0 0 0 0.745 0.755 55.8 0.514159
3 −1 1 0 0 0 0.631 0.639 43.7 0.919987
4 1 1 0 0 0 0.685 0.699 48.8 0.776373
5 0 0 −1 −1 0 0.705 0.695 50.2 0.669547
6 0 0 1 −1 0 0.74 0.73 54.9 0.498939
7 0 0 −1 1 0 0.749 0.789 57.4 0.371548
8 0 0 1 1 0 0.805 0.755 60.2 0.338904
9 0 −1 0 0 −1 0.749 0.744 59.1 0.454069
10 0 1 0 0 −1 0.669 0.665 45.1 0.911269
11 0 −1 0 0 1 0.791 0.799 58.3 0.37341
12 0 1 0 0 1 0.729 0.725 51.9 0.648318
13 −1 0 −1 0 0 0.689 0.679 45.9 0.796169
14 1 0 −1 0 0 0.748 0.741 54.9 0.486216
15 −1 0 1 0 0 0.754 0.714 50.4 0.600135
16 1 0 1 0 0 0.779 0.799 53.2 0.433297
17 0 0 0 −1 −1 0.77 0.76 46.8 0.604707
18 0 0 0 1 −1 0.795 0.785 54.1 0.416158
19 0 0 0 −1 1 0.791 0.781 47.9 0.546663
20 0 0 0 1 1 0.819 0.869 57.1 0.274772
21 0 −1 −1 0 0 0.741 0.747 56.5 0.50565
22 0 1 −1 0 0 0.699 0.649 44.1 0.875914
23 0 −1 1 0 0 0.759 0.779 57.1 0.448278
24 0 1 1 0 0 0.702 0.722 54.1 0.624424
25 −1 0 0 −1 0 0.696 0.686 52.1 0.641054
26 1 0 0 −1 0 0.741 0.748 49.1 0.601537
27 −1 0 0 1 0 0.748 0.738 50.9 0.570786
28 1 0 0 1 0 0.788 0.828 66.3 0.114451
29 0 0 −1 0 −1 0.717 0.707 53.9 0.563956
30 0 0 1 0 −1 0.755 0.765 52.1 0.510247
31 0 0 −1 0 1 0.759 0.799 57.2 0.380239
32 0 0 1 0 1 0.783 0.793 60.3 0.275463
33 −1 0 0 0 −1 0.709 0.699 43.1 0.783184
34 1 0 0 0 −1 0.741 0.745 58.5 0.404511
35 −1 0 0 0 1 0.719 0.749 57.2 0.446054
36 1 0 0 0 1 0.791 0.799 53.1 0.427346
37 0 −1 0 −1 0 0.778 0.723 50.1 0.628746
38 0 1 0 −1 0 0.648 0.641 55.1 0.69826
39 0 −1 0 1 0 0.748 0.743 70.5 0.272485
40 0 1 0 1 0 0.741 0.697 48.6 0.72102
41 0 0 0 0 0 0.755 0.745 57.5 0.413875
42 0 0 0 0 0 0.769 0.759 54.5 0.372734
43 0 0 0 0 0 0.745 0.735 57.3 0.447615
44 0 0 0 0 0 0.768 0.758 54.3 0.378996
45 0 0 0 0 0 0.743 0.733 55.4 0.442263
46 0 0 0 0 0 0.768 0.758 54.5 0.379459

Table 2 shows the RSM Box–Behnken design of forty-six trial runs accompanied by the
performance estimations viz; CHRF, CEF, and Nu number. The multiple responses (CHRF,
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 6 of 17

CEF, and Nu number) are transferred to its identical response and factor of closeness
utilizing the TOPSIS technique. Table 2 also represents the finest ranked experimental
outcomes out of the 46 trial runs secured after the application of the TOPSIS technique.
The investigational trial (3 times) executes the elevated order of 0.919987 out of all the
execution quantities.

4. Results and Discussions

In this work, the Box–Behnken design of response surface methodology (RSM) is
adopted to plan the experiments as it conducts non-sequential trials and possesses lesser
design points. The technique is proficient enough to draw out maximum information from
the study by operating in the safe zones with no axial points [57,58]. Forty-six trial runs
were performed based on Box–Behnken design to evaluate the effect of mass flow rate,
relative roughness pitch, ambient temperature, Re number, and relative roughness height
on responses. ANOVA stands for Analysis of Variance, the technique is proficient enough to
identify and quantify the most influential parameter amongst number of variables. [57,58].
Table 3 shows the ANOVA table for collector efficiency factor, it can be seen that at the
significance level of 0.5, all the parameters are having a significant effect on the collector
efficiency factor. Similarly, from Table 4 it can be seen that mass flow rate, relative roughness
pitch, Re number, and ambient temperature are the important process parameters for the
collector efficiency factor. Again, from Table 5 it can be seen that all the process parameters
have a significant effect on the Nu number. Table 6 shows the ANOVA for the closeness
factor. From the table, it can be seen that mass flow rate, relative roughness height, relative
roughness pitch, ambient temperature, Re number are having significant effects on the
variation of closeness factor. Apart from this interaction of mass flow rate × Re number,
mass flow rate × Ambient temperature, relative roughness pitch × Re number, and square
terms of mass flow rate, relative roughness pitch are found to be the important process
parameters for closeness factor.

Table 3. ANOVA for collector efficiency factor.

Sum of Mean F p-Value

Source Squares Df Square Value Prob > F
Model 0.068 17 4.00 × 10−3 17.45 <0.0001 Significant
A-Mass flow rate 8.74 × 10−3 1 8.74 × 10−3 38.18 <0.0001
B-Relative
0.016 1 0.016 69.61 <0.0001
roughness pitch
C-Relative
4.56 × 10−3 1 4.56 × 10−3 19.9 0.0001
roughness height
D- Re number 6.56 × 10−3 1 6.56 × 10−3 28.65 <0.0001
E-Ambient
4.80 × 10−3 1 4.80 × 10−3 20.94 <0.0001
temperature
AC 2.89 ×10−4 1 2.89 ×10−4 1.26 0.2708
AE 4.00 × 10−4 1 4.00 × 10−4 1.75 0.197
BC 5.63 × 10−5 1 5.63 × 10−5 0.25 0.624
BD 3.78 × 10−3 1 3.78 × 10−3 16.52 0.0004
BE 8.10 × 10−5 1 8.10 × 10−5 0.35 0.5568
CD 1.10 × 10−4 1 1.10 × 10−4 0.48 0.4935
CE 4.90 × 10−5 1 4.90 × 10−5 0.21 0.6472
A2 4.99 × 10−3 1 4.99 × 10−3 21.8 <0.0001
B2 0.012 1 0.012 50.32 <0.0001
C2 2.56 × 10−4 1 2.56 × 10−4 1.12 0.2993
D2 7.74 × 10−4 1 7.74 × 10−4 3.38 0.0766
E2 1.15 × 10−3 1 1.15 × 10−3 5.04 0.0328
Residual 6.41 × 10−3 28 2.29 × 10−4
Lack of Fit 5.69 × 10−3 23 2.47 × 10−4 1.71 0.2892 not significant
Pure Error 7.24 × 10−4 5 1.45 × 10−4
Cor Total 0.074 45
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 7 of 17

Table 4. ANOVA for collector efficiency factor.

Sum of Mean F p-Value

Source Squares Df Square Value Prob > F
Model 0.096 17 5.63 × 10−3 18.35 <0.0001 Significant
A-Mass flow rate 0.017 1 0.017 54.64 <0.0001
B-Relative
0.019 1 0.019 60.49 <0.0001
roughness pitch
C-Relative
3.94 × 10−3 1 3.94 × 10−3 12.83 0.0013
roughness height
D-Re number 0.012 1 0.012 39.42 <0.0001
E-Ambient
0.012 1 0.012 40.14 <0.0001
temperature
AC 1.32 × 10−4 1 1.32 × 10−4 0.43 0.5169
AD 1.96 × 10−4 1 1.96 × 10−4 0.64 0.4309
BC 4.20 × 10−4 1 4.20 × 10−4 1.37 0.2518
BD 3.24 × 10−4 1 3.24 × 10−4 1.06 0.313
CD 1.19 × 10−3 1 1.19 × 10−3 3.88 0.0589
CE 1.02 × 10−3 1 1.02 × 10−3 3.34 0.0784
DE 9.92 × 10−4 1 9.92 × 10−4 3.23 0.083
A2 1.77 × 10−3 1 1.77 × 10−3 5.77 0.0231
B2 0.013 1 0.013 42.15 <0.0001
C2 1.96 × 10−5 1 1.96 × 10−5 0.064 0.8022
D2 4.59 × 10−4 1 4.59 × 10−4 1.49 0.2317
E2 5.56 × 10−3 1 5.56 × 10−3 18.13 0.0002
Residual 8.59 × 10−3 28 3.07 × 10−4
Lack of Fit 7.87 × 10−3 23 3.42 × 10−4 2.36 0.1723 not significant
Pure Error 7.24 × 10−4 5 1.45 × 10−4
Cor Total 0.1 45

Table 5. ANOVA for Nusselt number.

Sum of Mean F p-Value

Source Squares Df Square Value Prob > F
Model 1217.58 17 71.62 13.76 <0.0001 Significant
A-Mass flow rate 129.39 1 129.39 24.85 <0.0001
B-Relative
279.73 1 279.73 53.73 <0.0001
roughness pitch
C-Relative
30.8 1 30.8 5.92 0.0216
roughness height
D-Re number 216.83 1 216.83 41.65 <0.0001
E-Ambient
57.38 1 57.38 11.02 0.0025
temperature
AC 9.61 1 9.61 1.85 0.1851
AD 84.64 1 84.64 16.26 0.0004
AE 95.06 1 95.06 18.26 0.0002
BC 22.09 1 22.09 4.24 0.0488
BD 180.9 1 180.9 34.75 <0.0001
BE 14.44 1 14.44 2.77 0.107
CE 6 1 6 1.15 0.2921
A2 68.93 1 68.93 13.24 0.0011
B2 19.47 1 19.47 3.74 0.0633
C2 1.65 1 1.65 0.32 0.5774
D2 0.82 1 0.82 0.16 0.6947
E2 8.62 1 8.62 1.66 0.2088
Residual 145.78 28 5.21
Lack of Fit 135.13 23 5.88 2.76 0.1312 not significant
Pure Error 10.65 5 2.13
Cor Total 1363.36 45
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 8 of 17

Table 6. ANOVA for Closeness factor.

Sum of Mean F p-Value

Source Squares Df Square Value Prob > F
Model 1.46 20 0.073 29.37 <0.0001 Significant
A-Mass flow rate 0.2 1 0.2 82.65 <0.0001
B-Relative
0.34 1 0.34 136.68 <0.0001
roughness pitch
C-Relative
0.053 1 0.053 21.33 0.0001
roughness height
D-Re number 0.2 1 0.2 82.56 <0.0001
E-Ambient
0.1 1 0.1 41.05 <0.0001
temperature
AB 1.21 × 10−5 1 1.21 × 10−5 4.89 × 10−3 0.9448
AC 5.12 × 10−3 1 5.12 × 10−3 2.07 0.163
AD 0.043 1 0.043 17.53 0.0003
AE 0.032 1 0.032 13.07 0.0013
BC 9.42 × 10−3 1 9.42 × 10−3 3.8 0.0625
BD 0.036 1 0.036 14.49 0.0008
BE 8.31 × 10−3 1 8.31 × 10−3 3.35 0.0791
CD 4.76 × 10−3 1 4.76 × 10−3 1.92 0.1781
CE 6.52 × 10−4 1 6.52 × 10−4 0.26 0.6125
DE 1.74 × 10−3 1 1.74 × 10−3 0.7 0.4105
A2 0.12 1 0.12 48.37 <0.0001
B2 0.31 1 0.31 125.3 <0.0001
C2 0.013 1 0.013 5.16 0.032
D2 1.51 × 10−4 1 1.51 × 10−4 0.061 0.8072
E2 6.14 × 10−4 1 6.14 × 10−4 0.25 0.623
Residual 0.062 25 2.48 × 10−3
Lack of Fit 0.056 20 2.82 × 10−3 2.49 0.1579 not significant
Pure Error 5.65 × 10−3 5 1.13 × 10−3
Cor Total 1.52 45

Figure 1 shows the increase of collector efficiency factor (CEF) accompanied by Re

number and rate of mass flow. This can be seen from the diagram that enhancement of CEF
with increasing values of both Re number and mass flow rate for solar collector of 3 sides
absorbing capacity. The diagram also shows that the highest value of CEF is attained at the
mass flow rate of 0.04 m/s and Re number of 13,000. The purpose of attributes used in this
study creating a fully developed turbulent flow inner part of the absorber plate or inside
the duct which results in an increase in the CEF in terms of rate of heat transfer and also
collector leading to enhancement in Nu number [10].
Figure 2a represents the enhancement of CEF with respect to the increasing value
of height of relative roughness and decreasing amount of pitch of relative roughness.
The diagram shows that the collector effectiveness factor enhances accompanied by the
increasing amount of relative roughness height and decreasing value of relative roughness
pitch. This can be noticed that the maximum functionality of CEF is attained accompanied
by the maximum value of relative roughness height as 0.0245 and the least functionality
of relative roughness pitch as 10. With the increasing value of relative roughness pitch
from 10 to 20, the turbulence at the inner part of the collector reduces which results in
a decrease in temperature at the exit. As a result, the CEF reduces with enhancement in
relative roughness pitch. The value of CEF enhances accompanied by improvement of Re
number and decreasing amount of pitch of relative roughness shown in Figure 2b. The
highest amount of CEF attained from the diagram at the value of Re number as 13,000 and
relative roughness pitch as 10.
 sides absorbing capacity. The diagram also shows that the highest value of CEF is att
at the mass flow rate of 0.04 m/s and Re number of 13,000. The purpose of attributes
in this study creating a fully developed turbulent flow inner part of the absorber pla
inside the duct which results in an increase in the CEF in terms of rate of heat transfe
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 9 of 17
also collector leading to enhancement in Nu number [10].

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Variation ofofcollector
Figure1.1.Variation
Figure collectorefficiency factorfactor
efficiency (Re number and massand
(Re number flowmass
rate). flow rate).

Figure 2a represents the enhancement of CEF with respect to the increasing val
height of relative roughness and decreasing amount of pitch of relative roughness
diagram shows that the collector effectiveness factor enhances accompanied by th
creasing amount of relative roughness height and decreasing value of relative rough
pitch. This can be noticed that the maximum functionality of CEF is attained accomp
by the maximum value of relative roughness height as 0.0245 and the least function
of relative roughness pitch as 10. With the increasing value of relative roughness
from 10 to 20, the turbulence at the inner part of the collector reduces which result
decrease in temperature at the exit. As a result, the CEF reduces with enhanceme
(a)
relative roughness pitch. The value of CEF enhances (b) accompanied by improvement
number
Figure 2.and decreasing
Figure 2. Variation
Variation amount
of collector
of collector efficiencyof pitch
efficiency factor
factor of relative
(Relative
(Relative roughness
roughness
roughness shown
pitch and relative
pitch and relative in Figure 2b
roughness
roughness
height) (a); variation of collector efficiency factor (Re number and relative roughness pitch) (b).
highest
height) amount of ofCEF
(a); variation attained
collector from
efficiency the
factor (Rediagram
number andatrelative
the value of Re
roughness number
pitch) (b). as 13,00
relativeFigure
roughness
3a shows pitch as 10. of CEF increases with the enhancing amount of both
the amount
Figure 3a shows the amount of CEF increases with the enhancing amount of both
height of
height of relative roughness and
relative roughness and Re
Re number. The maximum
number. The amount of
maximum amount of CEF
CEF achieved
achieved from
from
the diagram at the amount 13,000 for Re number and 0.0245 for height of relative
the diagram at the amount 13,000 for Re number and 0.0245 for height of relative roughness. rough-
ness. Figure
Figure 3b represents
3b represents the of
the value value
CEFof CEF enhancement
enhancement accompanied
accompanied by the improving
by the improving amount
amount
of heightofofheight ofroughness
relative relative roughness and temperature.
and ambient ambient temperature. The parameters
The parameters are codedare
in
coded in 3 levels such as −1 is the lower level, +1 is the highest level and 0 is the
3 levels such as −1 is the lower level, +1 is the highest level and 0 is the medium level. medium
level.Figure 4a shows the increase of collector heat removal factor (CHRF) with Re number
and mass flow rate. This can be noticed from the diagram that increment of CHRF accom-
panied by increasing values of both Re number and mass flow rate for solar collector of 3
sides absorbing capacity. The diagram also shows that highest value of CHRF is achieved
at the mass flow rate of 0.041 m/s and Re number of 13,000. The purpose of attributes used
in this study creating a fully developed turbulent flow inner part of the absorber plate or
inside the duct which results in increases in the CHRF in terms of rate of heat transfer and
also collector directing to increase in Nu number. Figure 4b represents the enhancement
of CHRF with respect to the increasing value of both relative roughness height and rate
of mass flow. The figure represents that CHRF enhances accompanied by improving the
amount of both mass flow rate and height of relative roughness. It can be observed that the
maximum functionality of CHRF is attained with the highest amount of relative roughness
height as 0.0245 and mass flow rate as 0.04 m/s. With the increasing value of relative
roughness height from 0.0135 to 0.0245, the turbulence at the inner part of the collector
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Variation of collector efficiency factor (Re number and relative roughness height) (a); var-
iation of collector efficiency factor (ambient temperature and relative roughness height) (b).

Figure 4a shows the increase of collector heat removal factor (CHRF) with Re number
and mass flow rate. This can be noticed from the diagram that increment of CHRF accom-
 Figure 2. Variation of collector efficiency factor (Relative roughness pitch and relative roughness
height) (a); variation of collector efficiency factor (Re number and relative roughness pitch) (b).

Figure 3a shows the amount of CEF increases with the enhancing amount of both
height of relative roughness and Re number. The maximum amount of CEF achieved from
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 10 of 17
the diagram at the amount 13,000 for Re number and 0.0245 for height of relative rough-
ness. Figure 3b represents the value of CEF enhancement accompanied by the improving
amount of height of relative roughness and ambient temperature. The parameters are
reduces
coded in 3which
levelsresults
such asin −1
theisdecrease of level,
the lower temperature
+1 is theathighest
the exit.level
As aand
result,
0 isCHRF reduces
the medium
accompanied by enhancing the pitch of relative roughness.
level.

(a) (b)

Materials Figure 3. Variation of collector efficiency factor (Re number and relative roughness height) (a); var-
Materials 2022,
2022, 15,
15, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
Figure 3. Variation of collector efficiency factor (Re number and relative roughness height)11
11 of 18
of (a);
18
iation of collector efficiency factor (ambient temperature and relative roughness height) (b).
variation of collector efficiency factor (ambient temperature and relative roughness height) (b).
Figure 4a shows the increase of collector heat removal factor (CHRF) with Re number
and mass flow rate. This can be noticed from the diagram that increment of CHRF accom-
panied by increasing values of both Re number and mass flow rate for solar collector of 3
sides absorbing capacity. The diagram also shows that highest value of CHRF is achieved
at the mass flow rate of 0.041 m/s and Re number of 13,000. The purpose of attributes used
in this study creating a fully developed turbulent flow inner part of the absorber plate or
inside the duct which results in increases in the CHRF in terms of rate of heat transfer and
also collector directing to increase in Nu number. Figure 4b represents the enhancement
of CHRF with respect to the increasing value of both relative roughness height and rate
of mass flow. The figure represents that CHRF enhances accompanied by improving the
amount of both mass flow rate and height of relative roughness. It can be observed that
the maximum functionality of CHRF is attained with the highest amount of relative
roughness height as 0.0245 and mass flow rate as 0.04 m/s. With the increasing value of
(a)
relative roughness height from 0.0135 to 0.0245, the turbulence (b) at the inner part of the
collector reduces which results in the decrease of temperature at
Figure 4. Variation of collector heat removal factor (Re number and mass flow the rate)
exit.(a);
Asvariation
a result,of
4. Variation
Figurereduces
CHRF of collector by
accompanied heatenhancing
removal factor
the (Re number
pitch of and mass
relative flow rate) (a); variation of
roughness.
collector heat removal factor (relative roughness height and mass flow rate) (b).
collector heat removal factor (relative roughness height and mass flow rate) (b).
Figure
Figure 55 represents the amount
represents the amountof ofCHRF
CHRFincreases
increasesaccompanied
accompaniedbyby thethe increase
increase of
of Re
Re number and reducing the value of relative roughness pitch. The highest
number and reducing the value of relative roughness pitch. The highest amount of CHRF amount of
CHRF was attained
was attained from
from the the diagram
diagram at the amount
at the amount of for
of 13,000 13,000 for Re number
Re number andpitch
and 10 for 10 for
of
pitch of relative
relative roughness.roughness.

Variation of
Figure5.5.Variation
Figure of collector
collector heat
heat removal
removal factor
factor (Re
(Re number
number and
and relative
relative roughness
roughness pitch).

Figure 6a shows that the value of CHRF improving accompanied by enhancing the
amount of both height of relative roughness and Re number. The maximum amount of
CHRF achieved from the diagram at the amount of 13,000 for Re number and 0.0245 for
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 11 of 17

Figure 6a shows that the value of CHRF improving accompanied by enhancing the
amount of both height of relative roughness and Re number. The maximum amount of
CHRF achieved from the diagram at the amount of 13,000 for Re number and 0.0245 for the
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18
height of relative roughness. Figure 6b represents the value of CHRF enhancement accom-
panied by improving the amount of height of relative roughness and ambient temperature.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Variation of collector heat removal factor (Re number and relative roughness height) (a);
Figure 6. Variation of collector heat removal factor (Re number and relative roughness height) (a);
variation of collector heat removal factor (ambient temperature and relative roughness height) (b).
variation of collector heat removal factor (ambient temperature and relative roughness height) (b).

Figure
Figure 7a 7a shows
shows thethe increase
increase of of Nu
Nu number
number with
with relative
relative roughness
roughness height
height andand mass
mass
flow rate. It can be seen from the figure that enhancement of Nu
flow rate. It can be seen from the figure that enhancement of Nu number with an increasing number with an increas-
ing amount
amount of height
of height of relative
of relative roughness
roughness and and
massmass
flowflow ratethe
rate for forsolar
the solar collector
collector of 3
of 3 sides
sides absorbing capacity. The diagram also represents the
absorbing capacity. The diagram also represents the maximum amount of Nu number is maximum amount of Nu num-
ber is achieved
achieved at theat the mass
mass flow rateflowof rate
0.04 ofm/s
0.04 and
m/s and
heightheight of relative
of relative roughness
roughness of 0.0245.
of 0.0245. The
The
purpose purpose of attributes
of attributes usedused in thisin study
this study creating
creating a fullya fully developed
developed turbulent
turbulent flow
flow inner
inner
part ofpartthe of the absorber
absorber plate or plate
insideor the
inside
ductthe duct results
which which increase
results increase the Nu number
the Nu number in terms
in
of rate of heat transfer and also the collector leading to an increase in CHRF.in CHRF.
terms of rate of heat transfer and also the collector leading to an increase
Figure
Figure 7b 7b represents
represents the the enhancement
enhancement of of Nu
Nu number
number withwith respect
respect toto the
the increasing
increasing
value
value of of Re
Re number
number and and decreasing
decreasing value value ofof relative
relative roughness
roughness pitch.
pitch. The
The diagram
diagram shows
shows
the
the NuNu number
number enhances
enhances with with improving
improving value value ofof Re
Re number
number andand reducing
reducing thethe amount
amount
of
of pitch
pitchof ofrelative
relativeroughness.
roughness.This Thiscan bebe
can observed
observed thatthat
thethe
maximum
maximum functionality
functionality of Nu
of
number
Nu number is attained withwith
is attained the maximum
the maximum amount of Re of
amount number as 13,000
Re number and the
as 13,000 andleast
thefunc-
least
tionality
functionalityof pitch of relative
of pitch roughness
of relative as 10. With
roughness as 10.the increasing
With value ofvalue
the increasing pitch of relative
pitch of
roughness from 10 from
relative roughness to 20,10 thetoturbulence at the inner
20, the turbulence at thepart of the
inner partcollector reducesreduces
of the collector which
which results
results in a decrease
in a decrease of temperature
of temperature at the
at the exit. exit. Figure
Figure 7c represents
7c represents the of
the value value of Nu
Nu num-
number
ber improves
improves accompanied
accompanied by enhancement
by enhancement of of ambient
ambient temperatureand
temperature andreducing
reducing thethe
value of
value of relative
relative roughness pitch.
In the current work, five process parameters are considered for the study, i.e., mass flow
rate, height of relative roughness, Re number, ambient temperature, and pitch of relative
roughness. Shortly, after experimentation the three performance measures considered
in the study such as factor of collector efficiency, factor of collector heat removal and
Nu number are transformed into a similar closeness factor (CF) by means of the TOPSIS
approach. Further, the five process parameters as Re number, relative roughness pitch,
relative roughness height, mass flow rate, and air temperature are related to the closeness
factor by means of non-linear regression analysis. Furthermore effort is made to maximize
the value of the closeness factor by using the Cuckoo Search (CS) algorithm. Hence, the
target purpose of CF is composed as given by Equation (8).

(a) (b)
 of pitch of relative roughness. This can be observed that the maximum functionality of Nu
number is attained with the maximum amount of Re number as 13,000 and the least func-
tionality of pitch of relative roughness as 10. With the increasing value of pitch of relative
roughness from 10 to 20, the turbulence at the inner part of the collector reduces which
results in a decrease of temperature at the exit. Figure 7c represents the value of Nu num-
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 12 of 17
ber improves accompanied by enhancement of ambient temperature and reducing the
value of relative roughness pitch.

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure7.7.Variation
Variation of
of Nu
Nu number (relative roughness
number (relative roughnessheight
heightand
andmass
massflow
flowrate)
rate)
(a);(a); variation
variation of
of Nu
Nu number (Re number and relative roughness pitch (b); variation of Nu number (ambient temper-
number (Re number and relative roughness pitch (b); variation of Nu number (ambient temperature
ature and relative roughness pitch) (c).
and relative roughness pitch) (c).
In the current work, five process parameters are considered for the study, i.e., mass
Closeness factor = +0.41 flow
− 0.11rate,
× A height
+ 0.15 ×of B−relative
0.057 ×roughness,
C − 0.11 × D Re− number,
0.080 × E ambient 10−3 × A × B +and
− 1.740 ×temperature, pitch of
0.036
× A × C − 0.10 × A × D + 0.090 × A × E − 0.049 × B × C+ 0.095 × B × D − 0.046
relative roughness. Shortly, after experimentation the three performance × B × E + 0.034 × C ×measures
D−0.013 con- (8)
× C × E − 0.021 × D × E + 0.12 × A 2 + 0.19 × B2 + 0.038 × C2 + 4.156 × 10−3 × D2 + 8.388 ×10−3 × E2
sidered in the study such as factor of collector efficiency, factor of collector heat removal
and Nu number are transformed into a similar closeness factor (CF) by means of the TOP-
4.1.approach.
SIS Proposed Cuckoo
Further,Search
the five process parameters as Re number, relative roughness pitch,
A hybrid optimization
relative roughness height, mass model
flowhas been
rate, andproposed to enhance
air temperature arethe performance
related by using
to the closeness
the TOPSIS multi-criteria algorithm and Cuckoo Search Optimization
factor by means of non-linear regression analysis. Furthermore effort is made to maximize (CSO) Algorithm.
CSO
the algorithm
value is widelyfactor
of the closeness used in byvarious
using the fields of engineering
Cuckoo Search (CS)problems
algorithm. [50,51,57] due
Hence, the
to its purpose
target explorationof CF andis exploitation
composed asability.
given by In Equation
this work,(8).TOPSIS-CSO is used to optimize
the critical parameters to test the effectiveness of three side roughened solar air heater
Closeness factor = +0.41 − 0.11 × A + 0.15 × B − 0.057 × C − 0.11 × D − 0.080 × E − 1.740 × 10−3 × A × B + 0.036
performance.
× A × C − 0.10 × A × D + 0.090 Yang× Aand
× EDeb
− 0.049 × B ×[50]
in 2009 C+ developed
0.095 × B × aDmeta-heuristic
− 0.046 × B × Ealgorithm
+ 0.034 × C × D−0.013
based on the×natural
(8)
C × E − 0.021 ×behaviors
D × E + 0.12 × Acuckoo
of the 2 + 0.19 bird
× B +on0.038
2 × C + 4.156
2
the concept × 10 their
of laying −3 × D +eggs
2 8.388in ×10 −3 ×E 2
a communal bird’s nest.
Cuckoos generally lay their fertilized eggs in other cuckoos’ nests with the hope of their
off-springs
4.1. Proposedbeing
Cuckoo raised
Search by proxy parents. The cuckoos have to take a decision to throw the
foreign eggs out of the nests or the whole nests to abandon and build a new nest elsewhere
when A they
hybrid optimization
discover that themodel
eggs inhas been
their proposed
nests to enhance
do not belong to them.the The
performance by us-
possible solution
ing the problem
to the TOPSIS multi-criteria
is the bird nestalgorithm
having each andeggCuckoo Search and
suggestions Optimization
a new better(CSO) Algo-is
solution
rithm. CSO algorithm
indicated by the cuckoo’s egg.is widely used in various fields of engineering problems [50,51,57]
due to its exploration and exploitation ability. In this work, TOPSIS-CSO is used to opti-

mize Thecritical
the cuckooparameters
search optimization
to test thealgorithm depends
effectiveness on three
of three sideconditions.
roughened solar air
 Every cuckoo
heater performance. lays a single egg at a time and throws its egg in a random nest.
Yang and Deb in 2009 [50] developed a meta-heuristic algorithm based on the natural
behaviors of the cuckoo bird on the concept of laying their eggs in a communal bird’s nest.
Cuckoos generally lay their fertilized eggs in other cuckoos’ nests with the hope of their
off-springs being raised by proxy parents. The cuckoos have to take a decision to throw
the foreign eggs out of the nests or the whole nests to abandon and build a new nest else-
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 13 of 17

 The high quality of eggs which is considered as the best solution in the best nest will
carry forward to the next generation.
 The host bird is exposed to the alien egg with a probability (Pa ∈ (0, 1)).
A new random walk search technique was substituted by Levy flight to obtain a better
solution [48].
The new solution (Xt+1 ) is obtained by the use of Levy flight for the cuckoo bird by
Equation (9):
Xi(t+1) = Xi(t) + ∝ ⊕λ (9)
where t signifies the happening iteration, ∝ is the fixed step size as per the problem
dimension (∝ > 0), ⊕ denotes the entry-wise operation of multiplication, and the Levy fight
parameter is denoted as λ.
Levy fight is based on levy distribution for the step length of a random walk. In an
uncertain environment, Levy fights are capable to achieve maximum efficiency [49]. The
Levy distribution is expressed as
 q h i
ϑ ϑ 1
2π exp − 2(s−γ) 3 0 < γ < s < 0

L (s, ϑ, γ) = (s−γ) 2 (10)
0 Otherwise


where γ > 0 a minimum is step and mostly it is considered as 1 and ϑ is a scale parameter.
The step length s can be calculated with Equation (11):
u
s= (11)
|v| /∅
1

here ∅ is an index, ranging between 1 ≤ ∅ ≤ 2.

From normal distribution u and v are obtained as follows:
 
u ∼ N 0, σ2u (12)
 
v ∼ N 0, σ2v (13)

Normal distribution (N), σu and σv are as follows:

1/∅
Γ(1 + ∅) sin(π∅/2)

σu = , σv = 1 (14)
Γ[(1 + ∅)/2]∅ 2(1 + ∅)/2

Here the gamma function (Γ) is:

Z ∞
Γ (z) = tz−1 e−t dt (15)
0

4.2. Proposed Cuckoo Search with Levy Flights Approach

The algorithm is coded in Matlab in core i7 processor to evaluate the potential of
the algorithm. This resulted in the convergence of the optimum solution. To validate
the proposed CSO algorithm we have compared the obtained results with another pop-
ular algorithm such as PSO. Figure 8 is distinguished that the CSO algorithm results are
better than PSO as the best solution is converged rapidly. After 120 iterations, it can be
observed that the value of the closeness factor is obtained by CSO and PSO is 1.46 and
1.41, respectively.
 end
A probability (pa) of worse nests are unrestrained and a new nest is constructed;
The best solutions are stored, i.e., the nests having the quality solution
Solutions to be ranked and find the current best;
end while
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 14 of 17
end
Result

Figure 8. Convergence
Figure curve
8. Convergence for for
curve CSO andand
CSO PSOPSO
algorithms. CSO
algorithms. = 1.4605
CSO (−1,(1,
= 1.4605 −1,−1,1,1,−−1)
1, 1, −1)

Table 7. To
Optimum solutions
check the and confirmative
predicted testsolutions
results of the results obtained
acquiredthrough CSOthe
through algorithm.
hybrid optimiza-
tion (TOPSIS based CSO) approach, yet again a test is conducted on the optimum results.
TOSIS
Process
Immediately after the test the performance measuresTOSIS Expt
viz. heat removal % collector
factor,
A B C D E Based
efficiency factor, and Nu number are measured. Then, theCF
Variables closenessCF
factorImprovement
(CF) is estimated
CSO
and it is perceived that the value of CF is improved by 8.58% when compared with the
Optimum
previous best obtained from the TOPSIS approach
1.46 (Table 2). The confirmative
0.919987 0.99898 test
8.58%outcomes
ofResult
CF along with the optimum process parameters and the improved value of the CF are
given in Table 7. The Algorithm 1 shows the CSO algorithm.
5. Conclusions
A considerable
Algorithm investigation
1: Cuckoo and multi-criteria
Search Optimization (CSO). growth of operational variables of
threeStart
side rugged solar air heater (SAH) utilizing a novel multi-criteria decision-making
methods (MCDM)
Objective algorithm
function f(x) have been represented in this research. TOPSIS (technique
for order of preference by similarity to ideal
Random generation of initial population of n solution)
host nests technique
xi (i = 1, 2, .is
. . used
, n) in this work that
provides
Whileaccurate values, which help solar engineers for designing the better collector
(t < Max Generation);
Get a cuckoo randomly by Levy flights;
Evaluate its fitness F(i);
Choose a nest among n (Let the nest, j) randomly;
if ( Fi > Fj
The new solution is to replace j;
end
A probability (pa) of worse nests are unrestrained and a new nest is constructed;
The best solutions are stored, i.e., the nests having the quality solution
Solutions to be ranked and find the current best;
end while
end
Result

Table 7. Optimum solutions and confirmative test results obtained through CSO algorithm.

Process TOSIS Based TOSIS Expt %

A B C D E
Variables CSO CF CF Improvement
Optimum
1.46 0.919987 0.99898 8.58%
Result
Materials 2022, 15, 2541 15 of 17

5. Conclusions
A considerable investigation and multi-criteria growth of operational variables of
three side rugged solar air heater (SAH) utilizing a novel multi-criteria decision-making
methods (MCDM) algorithm have been represented in this research. TOPSIS (technique
for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution) technique is used in this work that
provides accurate values, which help solar engineers for designing the better collector
without simulation. Additionally, the better result is recognized through the MCDM
approach is certified through regulating an approving examination forecasting outcome of
approximately 8.58% of improvement as compared to the existing one. The conclusions
that can be drawn from the investigational analysis are as follows:
Pitch of relative roughness and Reynolds (Re) number have played a vital role for
all the output parameters, while, collector efficiency factor (CEF), collector heat removal
factor (CHRF), and Nusselt number, relative roughness height has a minimum role for the
variation of results. The maximum value of collector efficiency factor (CEF), is found to be
75–81 when the value of relative roughness height is 0.0245, relative roughness pitch is 10,
Reynolds number is about 12,500–13,000, and the mass flow rate is 0.041 kg/s. When the
value of the outlet temperature, the Reynolds number, and the ambient air temperature
are increased and the relative roughness pitch decreases, the value of thermal efficiency
improves. The maximum range of collector heat removal factor is noted to be 74–78%,
while the scale of Re number is approximately 12,500–13,000, the amount of pitch of relative
roughness is 10, range of height of relative roughness is approximately 0.0245 and the value
of mass flow rate is 0.041 kg/s. The maximum range of Nu number are noted to be 63–71%,
while the value of Re number is about 12,500–13,000, the value of relative roughness height
approximately 0.0245, relative roughness pitch of 10, and the mass flow rate is 0.041 kg/s.
This system inspires the use of custom systems for applications such as heat storage, crop
drying, fish drying, etc.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K.B. and C.P.M.; methodology, M.R.S.; software, A.K.;
validation, A.K.B. and C.P.M.; formal analysis, M.R.S. and A.K.; investigation, C.P.M. and D.K.R.;
resources, M.R.S. and E.L.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.B., C.P.M., M.R.S., A.K., E.L. and
D.K.R.; writing—review and editing, A.K.B., C.P.M., M.R.S., A.K., E.L. and D.K.R. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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