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Kingship in the
Mycenaean World
and Its Reflections in
the Oral Tradition
Kingship in the Mycenaean World and
Its Reflections in the Oral Tradition
Photograph of George E. Mylonas taken by his daughter at Mycenae, Easter 1975.
PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 13
by
Published by
INSTAP Academic Press
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
2004
Design and Production
INSTAP Academic Press
Printing
Sun Printing House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Binding
Hoster Bindery, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Copyright © 2004
INSTAP Academic Press
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
To my father
George E. Mylonas
Table of Contents
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
FIGURES
List of Figures
Each book has its own beginnings, and the beginning of this book can be
said to have started on the day I excavated my first trench within the citadel
at Mycenae in 1962. From that day, I have continued to maintain an inter-
est in Mycenaean archaeology, even though other interests and pursuits
have from time to time taken me into other fields of research. In more
recent years, I have read the increasingly numerous articles and books on
kingship in the Mycenaean world and the state of the economy within the
kingdoms of that period. These studies, by their emphasis on one particular
facet of the evidence, one particular site, or the latest, newest interpreta-
tion, often contradicted each other. I felt an attempt to combine all aspects
of these studies was needed in order to determine whether a coherent whole
could be evolved which combined all the evidence without contradicting
conclusions drawn from another archaeological site or some other aspect of
the field, hence the writing of this particular book.
In this effort, I owe a great debt of gratitude to Thomas G. Palaima for his
thoughtful and often thought provoking comments on the Linear B evi-
dence which is a necessary component of any current study of Mycenaean
archaeology. He helped me to understand the great mass of this material and
guided me through much of the more recent and often contradictory re-
search. To him I owe my thanks, and I am more than happy to acknowledge
his help in this preface.
As in all of my research, I also owe a debt of gratitude to my husband, T.
Leslie Shear, Jr., whose many years of excavating at Mycenae, beginning
with A.J.B. Wace in the House of Shields and continuing under G.E.
Mylonas in the areas of the palace within the citadel and under the Lion
xii KINGSHIP IN THE MYCENAEAN WORLD
Gate leading into that citadel, gave him a special insight into the interpre-
tation and understanding of the archaeological evidence from Mycenae. It
is an exciting challenge to live with a resident expert with whom new ideas
and conflicting concepts can be discussed, often on a daily basis.
To the INSTAP Academic Press, and especially to Karen Vellucci,
Susan Ferrence, and Philip P. Betancourt, I give thanks for undertaking
the publication of this book. They had the courage and foresight to under-
stand the aims of this book and to encourage me in its publication. Due
to my precarious health, the standard of proof reading of the final page
proof may not be as high as I would have desired under differing circum-
stances. I ask for the reader’s indulgence.
A book on kings needs to be dedicated to a man, and a book on Myce-
naean kings needs to be dedicated to an ancestor, hence the dedication of
this book to my father, George E. Mylonas. From my earliest childhood, he
instilled in me a love of the Greek oral tradition and especially its many
tales of the past associated with Agamemnon and Agamemnon’s citadel at
Mycenae. Later, when I was a graduate student, he trained me in methods
of archaeological research in the field and he helped lay the foundations of
my later scholarship. To him I owe a debt of gratitude and love which I wish
to acknowledge by the dedication of this book.
Introduction
During the last few decades, there has been great interest in the problems
of defining the extent and nature of kingship in the Mycenaean world.
Questions concerning the degree of economic and religious power held by
the king have been given special emphasis. The arguments have clustered
around three separate bodies of evidence, often with little or no reference to
each other.
The archaeological evidence was the first to be uncovered and it has been
repeatedly discussed during the past century.1 Questions concerning the type
of government go back to the earliest days of excavations by Heinrich
Schliemann at Mycenae and Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos. The early conclu-
sions about kingship were drawn from the graves, particularly Grave Circle
A at Mycenae, and from the form and decoration of the palaces, especially
the palace at Knossos. Since that period, subsequent excavations have re-
vealed additional information that can now be used to form a more coher-
ent picture of kingship and its development. In order to understand this
evidence more clearly, a review of some of the archaeological material is
undertaken in the first part of this book.
The second body of evidence comes from the Linear B tablets and their
decipherment, which created a new source of information concerning the
2 KINGSHIP IN THE MYCENAEAN WORLD
later part of the Mycenaean period.2 The tablets revealed that at the end
of the Mycenaean period there existed a king called the wanax, a wide
range of officials (whose presence had not been revealed by the archaeo-
logical record), and numerous skilled craftsmen. Conclusions concerning
the nature of the kingship and the extent of the king’s control of the econ-
omy have varied greatly. Some of the conclusions drawn from the archae-
ological material have been contrary to the evidence from the tablets
themselves.3 The approach used in this section is not that of the special-
ized scholars of Linear B, who often become so enmeshed in the details of
decipherment and interpretation of a specific group of tablets that they
tend to lose sight of the overall picture of the period. The emphasis here
is to survey the conclusions drawn by individual scholars studying the
Linear B tablets, to contrast their theories with our knowledge of this peri-
od derived from the archaeological record, and finally to compare this evi-
dence with possible reflections in the oral tradition. This approach leads
to the suggestion that the king in the Mycenaean period had only limit-
ed power over the society and its economy. Although the king appears to
have controlled a large segment of the economy, it is argued here that
other individuals and family groups within the kingdom also had a certain
degree of economic independence.
This type of economy appears to be inconsistent with the more monolith-
ic economies usually associated with the prehistoric kingdoms of Egypt and
the Hittites, which has made some scholars reluctant to accept the possibil-
ity of a mixed economy for prehistoric Greece.4 A mixed economy, howev-
er, is documented for the Near Eastern, Late Bronze Age kingdom of Ugarit,
which forms the third section of this study. Ugarit can be used as a paradigm
for a similar type of economy only partly controlled by a hereditary king.
Information from Ugarit also sheds light on other aspects of the kingship in
Late Bronze Age Greece, which might otherwise seem troublesome.
Finally, there is the evidence of the epic tradition, the myths and legends
of the past, and, most particularly, the Iliad and Odyssey. After Schliemann’s
dramatic excavations at Troy and Mycenae, it became the generally accept-
ed premise that the old legends reflected the prehistoric period.5 This atti-
tude gradually changed after the publication of M.I. Finley’s The World of
Odysseus, which claimed that the Odyssey reflected the Iron Age, and H.L.
Lorimer’s book entitled Homer and the Monuments, which tried to show that
the objects and buildings described by Homer were based on parallels drawn
from the historic period. Even though a few scholars have questioned the
complete separation of the epic tradition from the prehistoric period,6 the
consensus gradually evolved that the two great epics reflect the eighth cen-
tury B.C.7 or the Dark Age.8 A small group of scholars have now begun to
date the writing down of the epics to the seventh century,9 whereas other
INTRODUCTION 3
scholars are now suggesting that the epic tradition consists of various layers,
which reflect a combination of different periods.10 Questions concerning the
form of government portrayed in these ancient tales usually reflect the par-
ticular scholar’s preconceived notion concerning the date of the epics. It has
been said by scholars who believe in the eighth-century date that the begin-
nings of the historic polis can be seen in the social mores of the Iliad and
Odyssey.11 Others have rejected this view,12 and a variety of opinions con-
cerning the date and the type of society represented in the epics continues
to be published.13
The Iliad and Odyssey, as we have them today, are preserved in a written
alphabetic form. Although the date of the introduction of the alphabet has
been questioned,14 it is now generally accepted that the alphabet was first
introduced into the Greek world in the eighth century.15 The written form
of the epics that we have today cannot be earlier than the introduction of
the alphabet itself, although there is no necessity that the epics were writ-
ten down as soon as the alphabet became available.16 Some of the material
in the epics, however, is much older than the eighth century.17 During the
centuries when writing did not exist in the Greek world, knowledge of the
past was handed down orally, and during this period certain inconsistencies
developed.18 The number and significance of these inconsistencies, in my
view, have been greatly exaggerated.19 In a study of kingship, however, the
pertinent question is not the extent of the inconsistencies, but whether
these inconsistencies affect our understanding of the kingship as portrayed
in the oral tradition. First, there needs to be determined what information
the Iliad and Odyssey contain about kingship, and whether this information
forms a coherent picture.20 If a coherent picture of kingship can be estab-
lished, then it remains to be seen whether any element of this reconstruc-
tion indicates a certain period as opposed to the others that have been
suggested.
I
The first indication of a group of people who were richer and presumably
more powerful than their contemporaries came from the two grave circles
at Mycenae (Figs. 1, 2), and the evidence for the development of kingship
in the Mycenaean period is most clearly illustrated on that site.21 Other
grave circles have been found elsewhere on the Greek mainland, and these
help to support the conclusions drawn from the two circles at Mycenae.22
These grave circles span the closing years of the Middle Helladic and the
beginning of the Late Helladic periods, and it is at that time that evidence
for a ruling elite first emerges in the Mycenaean world. It needs to be
stressed, however, that the impression of the power and wealth of Mycenae
during this period is based primarily on the rich quality of the precious
objects found within the grave circles.23 Architectural remains from this
same period at Mycenae consist of scattered, very fragmentary walls, and
there are no comprehensive plans of any of the buildings.
Nine tholos tombs at Mycenae (Fig. 3) were built subsequent to the grave
circles. These tholoi span the greater part of the Late Helladic period, and
they seem to attest the continuation of a ruling class.24 The tholoi were
found stripped of their grave goods, but their architectural splendor suggests
that the wealth of objects buried within them must have surpassed even the
opulence of the earlier grave circles. Toward the end of the Late Helladic
6 KINGSHIP IN THE MYCENAEAN WORLD
period, palaces for the rulers were constructed within fortified citadels at
Mycenae and various other sites.25 Evidence for some palatial control of the
economy appears in the archaeological record, but the extent of this con-
trol remains uncertain.
Each of these shifts seems to reflect the growing power of the ruling elite
and the development of kingship within the Mycenaean world. In each of
these phases, problems in the interpretation of the archaeological evidence
remain, and a variety of questions concerning their importance to the
development of Mycenaean kingship have been asked. In order to under-
stand the archaeological evidence for kingship, each of these shifts needs
to be examined, and an attempt to answer the questions raised needs to be
made. How some of these questions are answered affects our understanding
of kingship as it is reflected in the tablets and in the oral tradition.
The fourteen shaft graves of Grave Circle B are merely larger, better con-
structed, and deeper than the cist graves. The most distinguishing feature of
the shaft graves is the added richness of the grave goods. In addition to the
normal Middle Helladic pottery found in the graves, they originally con-
tained gold and silver objects, bronze weapons, and elegant jewelry. In the
earlier graves of this group, the pottery is simply greater in quantity and bet-
ter in quality.28 The silver cup found amid the collected bones in Grave
Iota,29 although different in form from its terracotta cousins,30 represents a
more elegant addition to the grave goods found in the other tombs, but not
a new tradition. Bronze swords also make their appearance in this earlier
group of graves. Grave Zeta contained a single sword, whereas the slightly
later Grave Iota contained both a sword and a knife.31 The swords, elegant
in design, are of a type known from Crete, and thus they do not signify a
new idea or tradition but merely mark the deceased as a warrior. The num-
ber of weapons increased in the second group of graves, and metal decora-
tion on the shrouds was introduced.32 Only a single long sword was found
with the male burial in the earlier Grave Zeta; in the later Grave Lambda,
the sword was accompanied by two daggers, a spear head, two knives, and a
group of arrow heads.33 In the later shaft graves, more gold was used to dec-
orate the shrouds,34 the number of swords and weapons increased,35 metal
vessels became more numerous,36 and exotic objects were added.37 These
objects have parallels from other parts of the culture; their unique qualities
seem to be the result of recently accumulated wealth and the newly creat-
ed opportunities that this wealth provided.38
The increased value of the objects found in the shaft graves indicates an
economic isolation of a small group of people. They were presumably relat-
ed to each other since they were buried within the same grave circle and
their skeletal remains show certain resemblances.39 The use of a single grave
for more than one person helps to reinforce the concept that the graves
belonged to a related family group. The size of the graves, furthermore, sug-
gests that multiple burials were anticipated at the time the grave was first
constructed, since their size is much larger than that needed for a single
internment. All members of this group, however, did not share the wealth
equally. This is indicated by the unequal distribution of grave goods and the
continued use of cist graves within the circle.
The foreign objects included in the grave goods indicate that these peo-
ple were in contact with other cultures and that they valued exotic goods,
presumably as symbols of luxury and status. These are the signs of a rising
elite, a group who stood out from their contemporaries. The wealth of this
group, which appears to have continued for three generations, would have
inevitably influenced the politics of the time and transformed this group
into the leaders of their society.40 Whether we wish to call them rulers,
8 KINGSHIP IN THE MYCENAEAN WORLD
III, which appears to have followed shortly after Grave IV.49 The skeletons in
Grave III literally were covered with gold ornaments, but these were thinner
than the gold in Circle B and in the earlier graves of Circle A. These orna-
ments appear to have been produced specifically for the burial, and thus they
represent the products of ostentatious expenditure by the ruling family. This
display of wealth included the women as well as the men, the individual who
headed the family group, and his male relatives, whose support he needed to
maintain his position.
Since the two grave circles partially overlap in time, the shift in power
from one group to another was probably gradual and not one of sudden rise
or decline of different families. The shift from one grave circle to another
also suggests that the power and wealth of these families were not simply
inherited, but that some other factors influenced the political and econom-
ic situation. As in Grave Circle B, no single individual in Grave Circle A
stood out from the others in wealth, which suggests that the family contin-
ued to be important. The numerous weapons of the second grave circle once
again indicate a warrior society, which we would naturally assume to have
been led by the men. The great wealth buried with the women, however,
implies that the women continued to be honored.
A dependance on family seems indicated by the location of Grave Circle
A. The presence of ordinary cist graves, both within the circle and in the
area surrounding it, indicates that the circle occupied only one part of a
much larger cemetery. The area within the circle was separated from the rest
of the cemetery by a circular wall.50 The rise in bedrock from one side of
Grave Circle A to the other is approximately eight meters. This great differ-
ence in level makes this a peculiar location for a grave circle. Part of the
original circular wall, however, remains, and its existence cannot be de-
nied.51 If a circular enclosing wall had been anticipated when the first graves
were dug, then a flat terrain for the entire circle would have been the logi-
cal choice. The uneven terrain of the area suggests that a circular enclosure
wall had not been foreseen when the first burials occurred. The location of
the graves close together in the western portion of the circle and the absence
of graves to the east on the higher terrain support this suggestion. As part of
the much larger prehistoric cemetery, the location of the first burials of the
grave circle was probably chosen because of its proximity to the graves of the
earlier ancestors of the family. Later, when these family members became
conspicuous because of their wealth and resulting power, their graves were
isolated by the construction of a circular wall.52 The location, inappropriate
for a circle, however, was retained. It suggests that strong family associations
were important to the people of that period. An association of family
members within groups or clusters of tombs in cemeteries has also been sug-
gested for the Middle Helladic tombs at Prosymna and the Late Helladic
10 KINGSHIP IN THE MYCENAEAN WORLD
the women;58 yet in the latest group of graves, the women received grave
goods of far greater value than the men.59 This discrepancy suggests a decline
in the wealth and thus the power of the male members of the group and an
increased wealth of the women, who came to represent the matriarchs of the
society. If we assume that the wives were buried with or near their husbands,
then the dearth of female burials suggests that many of these men did not
marry. As a result, a lack of suitable, legitimate male heirs within the family
group may have developed. The absence of such an heir may have been one
of the factors that eventually led to the shift of power from one group to
another.
The same pattern of richer female burials in the latest graves was also true
for Grave Circle A,60 suggesting that the lack of suitable male heirs may
have led to a shift of power away from the family buried there. The contin-
ued respect for Grave Circle A, however, seems to indicate that the later
rulers of Mycenae saw themselves as related in some way to the earlier lead-
ers of the city. It need not indicate that ancestor worship had been part of
this society,61 since even today respect is paid to cemeteries, and ancestor
worship is not part of our modern culture.
Another unexpected characteristic of the men buried in Grave Circle B
is their short life span. Although they were apparently better fed and con-
sequently in better health than the average person of this period, their aver-
age life span was thirty-six years, the same as that of other men of their
time.62 In the first group of graves from Grave Circle B, four male skeletons
were examined.63 Three were over the age of thirty-six when they died: one
was thirty-seven, the second forty-nine, and the third fifty-five. The fourth
died at twenty-eight.64 In the second group of graves, five male skeletons
were examined; three men again lived beyond thirty-six: the oldest lived to
be forty-five and the other two lived to be forty-two and thirty-eight. The
last two in this middle group died at thirty and at twenty-five.65 In the final
group of graves, only one man lived beyond the age of thirty-six, and he
reached the age of forty-five.66 The remaining six male skeletons examined
all died before the age of thirty-six. The youngest died at twenty-three, two
died at twenty-eight, and three died at thirty-three.67
The implications of such a short life span for the passage of wealth and
power have not been considered in discussions concerning kingship. If
these men married when they were roughly twenty years of age, they need-
ed to have been at least forty when they died in order to produce a male
heir of the proper age to inherit. If the first-born child were female, then
the father would have needed an even longer life span in order to produce
a male heir of the appropriate age. Infant mortality would also have been
another important factor contributing to the difficulties of producing a
suitable male heir.68
12 KINGSHIP IN THE MYCENAEAN WORLD
objects of value into the Mycenae grave circles seems too sudden and too
great to reflect a gradual increase of wealth accumulated through agricul-
tural pursuits and the resulting trade. A notable feature of the gold work is
that it was solid gold. It was not gold leaf covering another substance, such
as stone, which is the way gold was primarily used on Crete.74 In the grave
circles at Mycenae and later on the Greek mainland in general, gold was
used to produce solid gold objects such as drinking vessels and signet rings.75
The Vapheio cups are often said to be Minoan, and perhaps they were made
by Minoan craftsmen working on the Greek mainland.76 The cups, howev-
er, were made of solid gold, unlike the normal practice of Crete, and they
were found on the Greek mainland. Thus, they reflect the economy of the
mainland and not that of Crete.77 The discrepancy in the use of gold
between the mainland and Crete suggests that the mainland had a source
of wealth not shared with Crete. Trade appears to have been one source of
wealth. Resin may have been one of the commodities traded with Egypt.78
Olive oil79 and cloth80 may also have been exported. The central position
of the mainland between Europe and the Aegean helped to make Greece
an important member of the commercial world at that time.81 In the Shaft
Grave period, Crete also traded extensively with foreign centers, but she
did not possess the quantity of gold found on the mainland. The introduc-
tion of gold in the grave circles at Mycenae has the appearance of a newly
discovered source of metal. It has a striking parallel in the sudden increase
in gold buried in the tombs of the Macedonians centuries later, when gold
mines were discovered in that area.82 The discovery of gold in an area con-
trolled by Mycenae83 could explain her sudden rise to power and her con-
tinuing wealth throughout the rest of the prehistoric period.84
found at Mycenae,86 only nine were tholoi; this number alone indicates that
the tholoi were a separate phenomenon from the rest of the Mycenaean
graves. These tholoi stand apart from the other tombs in their grander struc-
ture, larger size, and elegance of form. They differ from the other tombs of
their period in the same way that the shaft graves differ from the cist tombs
in the earlier period.
The existence of the nine tholoi at Mycenae as a separate group of tombs
suggests the singling out of one group of people who were more powerful and
wealthy than their fellow inhabitants. Their greater wealth suggests that
they formed the ruling power of their time. They alone could command the
work force needed for the construction of a tholos.87 The time needed for the
construction of these tombs, furthermore, suggests that they were built in
anticipation of the death of the individual who had ordered the tomb.
Whether these tholoi can be interpreted as evidence for a ruling family,88
however, or whether they were built by a larger, dominating group of sever-
al different families, depends on their chronology.
The date of the tholoi at Mycenae has become a vexing problem that af-
fects any interpretation of them as royal burials. Their restored sequence was
based on the increasingly elaborate construction of tholoi over time. They
fall into three groups of three: the Cyclopean Tomb, the Epano Phournos
Tomb, and the Tomb of Aigisthos in the first group; the Panagia, Kato
Phournos, and the Lion Tombs in the second group; the Tomb of the Genii,
the Treasury of Atreus, and the Tomb of Clytemnestra in the third group.89
A.J.B. Wace, as modified by G.E. Mylonas, suggested that the tholoi spanned
the period between the end of Grave Circle A and the collapse of Mycenae-
an power.90 This dating has not been generally accepted because Palace Style
sherds were found in the first two groups of tholoi, and it has been said that
all six of these tholoi are Late Helladic II in date.91 It seems unlikely that six
different royal tombs were built during the hundred years usually assigned to
the Late Helladic II period and only three were constructed during the next
period, which was at least twice as long. If the first six tholoi are to be dated
to the Late Helladic II period, then the identification of these tombs as royal
must be reconsidered.92 Before the ramifications of such a chronology are ex-
plored, however, the Late Helladic II date of the first six tholoi needs to be
examined and their chronological relationship to the last three tholoi clari-
fied.
The date of the Treasury of Atreus has also been questioned. Wace orig-
inally called it Late Helladic III, possibly mid-fourteenth century, on the
basis of a sherd with a triglyph pattern93 found under the threshold.94 This
sherd was dated at a time when Late Helladic III pottery had not yet been
subdivided into A, B, and C, and the various phases and dates of Late
Helladic III pottery were being debated. Wace noted the similarities in
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 15
construction between the Treasury of Atreus and the Lion Gate of the
citadel itself.95 In both structures, conglomerate stone, ashlar masonry, and
similarly constructed thresholds were used. Under the threshold of the
Lion Gate, sherds of Late Helladic IIIB date were found that were similar
in style to the sherd found by Wace under the threshold of the Treasury of
Atreus.96 Thus, both structures should be dated to the same period in the
middle of Late Helladic IIIB after the earthquake,97 and Wace’s original
date of the mid-fourteenth century should be changed to the mid-thir-
teenth century.
Some scholars believe that the sherd found under the threshold of the
Treasury of Atreus was an intrusion introduced during a later refurbishing.98
Those who accept this suggestion place the date of its construction at the be-
ginning of Late Helladic IIIA:2. This earlier date is based on the date of the
so-called Atreus Bothros, which was bisected by the dromos of the Treasury.99
The Atreus Bothros, however, only forms a terminus post quem for the Trea-
sury. It does not tell us whether the Treasury was built immediately after the
Bothros went out of use at the beginning of Late Helladic IIIA:2, or whether
it was built many years later. A Late Helladic IIIA:2 date for the original con-
struction of the Treasury ignores its architectural similarities with the Lion
Gate, originally noted by Wace. It also implies that this tholos had been used
for roughly a century before it was refurbished and the threshold moved.
After a century of use any refurbishing which required the reinstallation of
the threshold should have left other traces of such activity. Although Wace
appears to have been aware of the possibility that the Treasury might have
been remodeled, he stated firmly that no signs of such a reconstruction were
found.100 Until new evidence is uncovered, the date of the Treasury of Atreus
must remain in the middle of the Late Helladic IIIB period.101
The Tomb of Clytemnestra is dated after the Treasury of Atreus. If the
first six tholoi are dated to the Late Helladic II period, then the Tomb of the
Genii alone spans the period between the end of Late Helladic II and the
middle of Late Helladic IIIB. Such a chronology would make the use of the
Tomb of the Genii extend as long as, or even longer than, the use of the last
two tholoi combined. Before such a conclusion is drawn, it is necessary to
determine if the Palace Style sherds found in the first six tholoi represent
grave goods buried within the tomb and therefore date the use of the tomb,
or whether these sherds had some other origin.
Wace made a catalog of the sherds found in the tholoi, and his catalog
indicates that all the deposits were mixed.102 The Cyclopean Tomb, usual-
ly considered the earliest of the tholoi, contained Late Helladic III sherds
along with earlier pottery. The Epano Phournos Tomb, the second in the
series, had a hundred Late Helladic III sherds, but it also had over a hun-
dred Geometric and Hellenistic sherds, which are clearly intrusive. The
16 KINGSHIP IN THE MYCENAEAN WORLD
Tomb of Aigisthos, the third in the series, had at least a hundred Late
Helladic III sherds, but it also had ten Orientalizing sherds and twenty-
three Geometric sherds, plus many, large fragments of at least seven Palace
Style jars. The Panagia Tomb, the fourth in the series, had two hundred
Late Helladic III sherds, in contrast to twenty-eight Late Helladic II
sherds. The Kato Phournos Tomb had fragments of Palace Style amphorae
plus four other Late Helladic II sherds, but it also contained another fifty
Late Helladic sherds. The Lion Tomb, the last of the first six tholoi said to
be Late Helladic II, had approximately 150 Late Helladic III sherds, in
contrast to seventy-six Late Helladic II sherds, but it also had sixty-five
sherds which were Geometric or later.
The wide range of dates represented by these sherds indicates that the
tholoi were opened repeatedly both in the historic and the prehistoric peri-
ods. In my opinion, the sherds in only two of the tholoi are meaningful. The
unusually large number and size of the Late Helladic II sherds found in the
Tomb of Aigisthos suggest that some of these sherds represent grave goods,
and thus they should date the use of the tomb. In the Treasury of Atreus,
the Late Helladic IIIB sherd found under the threshold by Wace and the
similarity of its building technique to the Lion Gate date the construction
of that structure. A late date is also suggested, but not proven, by the sherds
found in the Tomb of the Genii, where there were 133 Late Helladic III
sherds in contrast to four pieces of Palace Style pottery,103 and the Tomb of
Clytemnestra, where the Late Helladic III sherds far outnumbered the
sherds from other periods.104
The first six tholoi excavated at Mycenae had already partially col-
lapsed by the time archaeologists began their initial explorations. The
tholoi were originally covered by corbelled vaults and an earthen fill.
When they collapsed, the stones from the vaults fell inwards, and the
earthen fill, which originally covered these stones, must also have fallen
into the tombs. Some of the Palace Style sherds found in these tholoi may
have originally come from the earth fill covering their vaults. During the
excavations of the Panagia Houses, sherds of the Late Helladic IIIA peri-
od were found directly on top of the floors. On these same floors were
found a variety of whole or almost whole vases of Late Helladic IIIB date.
These vases dated the destruction of the houses, and it was eventually
realized that the Late Helladic IIIA sherds found immediately on the
floors had been originally incorporated into the mudbricks forming the
upper parts of the walls.105 The use of Late Helladic IIIA sherds in mud-
bricks made for Late Helladic IIIB houses suggests that the Palace Style
sherds in the tholoi may represent earlier sherds used in the construction
of later structures. The tholoi, furthermore, were built in areas where
there had previously been tombs and other buildings. The displacement
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 17
of these structures could account for some of the earlier sherds. Other frag-
ments may have come from heirlooms placed within the tholoi.106
The date of the sherds alone does not require a Late Helladic II date for
the first six tholoi. The original sequence, suggested by Wace and Mylo-
nas, which spans a longer period, seems preferable because of the clear
architectural development within the sequence of tholoi. If each tholos
represented one generation, with three or four generations spanning each
century, then the nine tholoi would represent a period of approximately
225–300 years. This suggested length of time covers the years between the
end of Grave Circle A and the collapse of the Mycenaean kingdom. The
ongoing use of this type of grave, which was built in anticipation of death,
suggests a continuum in the kingship of Mycenae throughout this period.
A date in the second half of the Late Helladic IIIB period for the Treasury
of Atreus places the Tomb of Clytemnestra a generation later. This date
for the later tholos suggests that it was in use during part of the Late Hel-
ladic IIIC period.107
The date of the final collapse of the palace system in the Argolid, in my
opinion, is not certain. The numerous construction projects undertaken
during the second half of the Late Helladic IIIB period at Mycenae suggest
a continuation in the power and the wealth of the royal family.108 Had the
grave goods placed in either the Treasury of Atreus or the Tomb of Clytem-
nestra been preserved, the prevailing concept of the wealth of this period
may have been different, just as our concept of wealth during the Shaft
Grave period has been shaped by the objects found in the shaft graves at
Mycenae. Even without the grave goods, the very structure and grandeur of
these two tombs with their elaborately decorated facades bespeaks contin-
ued power and wealth. Some of this power and wealth might well have con-
tinued, possibly only in reduced form, into the Late Helladic IIIC period.109
circle to tholos tomb might seem to be one of the logical candidates. The
other obvious archaeological phenomenon marking a significant change is
the construction of the first fortification walls on the site in Late Helladic
IIIA.111 During this same period in the rest of the Argolid, tholoi gradually
ceased to be built, and the earlier wealth buried with the dead also dimin-
ished.112 Both the new tomb type and the construction of fortification walls
seem to indicate the increasing power of the ruling elite at Mycenae, but
whether they indicate the rule of a single, powerful wanax is not clear.
The concept of kingship, in my opinion, probably evolved more slowly
with each generation of kings gradually gaining increasing power. It may
be that there are no visible signs in the archaeological record to mark the
transformation from the leader or chief of the most prominent family to
the powerful monarch of the people. The grave circles can be seen as the
beginning of the concept of kingship, starting with a larger family group in
Circle B which gradually diminished in numbers in Circle A. The con-
struction of the first tholos tomb may perhaps be seen as the domination
of a single family within this group. The construction of the first fortifica-
tion wall on the citadel and the increasingly elaborate construction of the
tholos tombs suggest that the power of the royal family expanded in Late
Helladic IIIA. Their growing power and greater domination of their neigh-
bors seems to have increased in Late Helladic IIIB as indicated by the
expanding fortifications at Mycenae, the decline of the nearby site of
Berbati,113 and the decreased wealth of the burial goods in neighboring
areas.114 This gradually increasing power of the rulers of Mycenae suggests
that the kingly power was ultimately based on accumulated wealth. The
final evolution of a powerful monarchy, both at Mycenae and at the other
major palatial centers, can be seen in the existence of the palaces with
their throne rooms and extensive archives (as indicated by Pylos), sur-
rounded by massive fortifications (at least at Tiryns and Mycenae). The
extensions and elaborations of the fortifications that followed the initial
construction at both Mycenae and Tiryns can be seen as indicative of the
continuing power of the royal family. The existence of nine tholoi at
Mycenae, however, seems to indicate that the beginning of the kingship
started at Mycenae in the Late Helladic II period with construction of the
first tholos115 and that this kingship continued to the end of the
Mycenaean era at which time the tholoi ceased to be built.
Although the evidence of the tombs clearly indicates that there was an
elite, it has been argued that kingship did not exist in the earlier part of the
Mycenaean period because remains of early palaces have not been found.116
It is true that palaces of this earlier period have not been uncovered at
Mycenae or elsewhere on the Greek mainland, but it is equally true that
houses of this same period at Mycenae have not been found and they are
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 19
rare on other sites. In the lowest strata below the later palace at Mycenae,
scattered walls and assorted deposits of Middle Helladic sherds clearly indi-
cate that Mycenae was inhabited in that period.117 Early strata have also
been found under the palaces of Pylos and Tiryns.118 The excavations of the
Panagia Houses, the West House, and the Plakes House at Mycenae have
shown that the central core of these houses consisted of a main room with
a central hearth, a room which is sometimes called a megaron.119 In front
of the main room, there was a porch or vestibule opening onto an open
area or courtyard. This same central core is also found in the palaces,
which differ from the houses only in their complexity, grandeur, and size.120
On the Greek mainland, this architectural form began in the Middle
Helladic period and continued, without sudden breaks or shifts, until the
end of the Late Helladic III period. Whether some of the earlier scattered
walls found within the citadel at Mycenae or under the other palace sites
represent early palaces remains unknown.121 Because of the fragmentary
nature of the archaeological evidence, the existence or absence of a build-
ing which can be identified as a palace does not necessarily prove or dis-
prove the existence of kingship in the earlier periods.122
The identification of a building as a palace, furthermore, can be prob-
lematical even in the later periods, if a site is badly preserved or if only a
few buildings have been partially uncovered. Mouriatada is a good exam-
ple of this problem. The excavator, S. Marinatos, identified a building on
the top of the hill as a palace.123 Compared to the great palaces at Mycenae,
Tiryns, and Pylos, this dwelling seems insignificant. Compared to the pri-
vate houses at Mycenae and elsewhere, however, it is a large, substantial
structure which could have served as a modest palace of the local chief offi-
cial. Since only two buildings were uncovered on the site and the second
building was identified as a temple, it remains uncertain whether the
whole site was unusually wealthy or whether the hilltop structure was in
fact a modest palace. The main room of the dwelling at Mouriatada is 6.75
m by 8.75 m. These dimensions seem small when compared to the 11.50
m by 12.96 m of the main room in the palace of Pylos. Nevertheless, the
dimensions seem sizable when compared to the main rooms in the West
House (3.50 m by 5.40 m, Fig. 4), the Tsountas House (3.55 m by 4.00 m),
Panagia House I (4.50 m by 5.40 m, Fig. 5), and Panagia House II (4.75 m
by 5.50 m, Fig. 5).124
In later periods, palaces at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos give clear evidence
for the existence of a monarch. Although the graves outside the Argolid do
not illustrate so graphically the rise of a ruling family as they do at Mycenae,
the very existence of the palaces is a clear indication that kingship in the
Mycenaean period did develop in various areas of the Greek mainland. The
palaces, at least at Mycenae and Tiryns, but possibly also at Pylos,125 were
20 KINGSHIP IN THE MYCENAEAN WORLD
cited as evidence for the primacy of cultic functions.139 This argument em-
phasizes the symbolic value of the hearth and the columns as elements of
cult. The position of the throne facing the hearth is considered suggestive
of the king’s guardianship of the hearth, hence the family and the future
of both his household and the kingdom over which he ruled.140 Except for
the throne, however, all these features on a smaller scale are reflected both
in domestic architecture and in some of the cult buildings. The architec-
tural form of all three types of buildings, moreover, can be traced back to
the Middle Helladic apsidal house, and it is only the grandeur and larger
scale of the palaces which set them apart from the other buildings.141 The
cult buildings, themselves, are differentiated by the presence of large ter-
racotta idols, religious installations such as built benches, hearths appar-
ently built for sacrifices in the courtyards, and wall paintings of complex
religious nature.142 The archaeological evidence by itself,143 in my opinion,
does not support the supposition that the palaces served a predominantly
religious function.144 On the other hand, the numerous tablets with their
bureaucratic emphasis on economic concerns and the many storerooms in
the Mycenaean palaces suggest that their public function was predomi-
nantly economic rather than religious.145
Paintings from the mainland do lack the royal iconography and religious
dedicatory inscriptions found in Egyptian and Hittite art, which was one of
the arguments used to support the idea of a ruling priestess.146 In the king-
dom of Ugarit, where the tablets make clear that a hereditary, male monarch
ruled, obvious depictions of royalty and royal inscriptions were also absent.147
This parallel makes it clear that the absence of royal art need not necessar-
ily reflect the absence of a ruling family.148
The two grave circles at Mycenae seem to indicate that the family of the
ruler was important, and it may be that this familial importance continued
in the later periods and for that reason no individual ruler is shown as
greater or more important than the others of his class. The absence of royal
art in the Mycenaean world may also be understood to indicate that the
semi-divine status of the Eastern kings and their overwhelming control of
their society were simply not part of Greek Bronze Age culture.
— Isä, kuulkaahan.
— Menivät.
— Minä epäilen.
— Epäilet? Mitä?
— En tiedä.
— Tyhjäntoimittajaksiko?
— Minulle äsken sanoi Juhani Aho, että pappi voi olla yhtä
vapaamielinen kuin kuka tahansa, ja minä rupesin uudestaan
ajattelemaan, että ehkä se sittenkin alkaisi syksyllä luistaa.
— Juhani Ahoko?
— Niin.
— Puhuttiin vain.
— On.
— Hm. Enhän minä niistä papeista niin paljoa… Mutta kun on sitä
meinattu.
— Sekö leuhka?
— Saarimäki.
— Se.
— Mistä hän kirjoittaa?
— Mi-itkä elämänarvot?
— Mitkä?
Mutta täällä, täällä säätytalon katon alla, täällä onkin koko talven
vallinnut eräänlainen säätyarvontunnon selvä noususuunta. Kun
valtiopäivät talvella kokoontuivat ja säädyt saivat Suomen
monivaiheisessa historiassa ensi kerran kokoontua oman katon alle,
tuntui siltä kuin valtiollinen vapaus olisi sillä hetkellä vakiintunut. Se
tunnelma kuitenkin häiriytyi kohta, sillä suhteet venäläiseen kotkaan
olivat kiristymistään kiristyneet. Idän kotka tuntui vimmatusti lyövän
siipiään ja uhkaavan. Oliko kyseessä vain peloittelu, vai lopullinen
hyökkäysaikomus? Siitä oltiin kiivaastikin eri mieltä. Tämän taistelun
ensi laukausten pamahteleminen sai kuitenkin aikaan, että uutta
säätytaloa katsottiin kansallisilla silmillä kansalliseksi varustukseksi,
jossa venäläisen kotkan hyökkäykset otetaan vastaan ja lyödään
takaisin. Joskus tuntuikin siltä kuin säätyjen yhdessä olo tämän
katon alla, tässä suomalaisen valtion pyhäkössä, oikeuden ja lain
linnoituksessa, olisi kasvattanut sisällistä turvallisuuden ja
varmuuden tunnetta, aivan kuin taloa olisi ympäröinyt vahva maan
valtiollisten oikeuksien puolustusarmeija. Tälle mielikuvalle antoi
eetillisesti ylevän luonteen juuri se tosiasia, ettei mitään kanuunoita
eikä suojamuureja ollut. Oli vain laki ja oikeus ja keisarinsana. Usko
niiden kestävyyteen ja varmuuteen lujittui koko maassa, kun
tiedettiin, että säädyt olivat koossa tässä säätytalossa ja sanoivat
epuuttamattoman sanansa lain ja oikeuden tehostamiseksi, joiden
viimeisenä takauksena oli keisarinsana. Kansan tajunnassa kehittyi
usko ja luottamus keisarinsanan pätevyyteen uskonkappaleeksi, joka
riidattomasti sijoittui kirkollisen uskontunnustuksen rinnalle.
— Tässä on tuoli.
Castrén istui.
— Pitäisikö puhua?
— Pitäisi.
— No minä en puhu.
— Miksi et?
— Tottahan nyt toki. Älä sinä ole niin epäluuloinen, Koetapa panna
kuulustelu toimeen. Kaikki tunnen.
— Kuinka niin?
— Kuule sinä, Pekka. Enkö minä ole taistellut suomen kielen ja sen
oikeuksien puolesta ruotsalaisia vastaan?
Meurman ennätti:
Kaikki nauramaan.
Castrénilla oli suu hymyssä. Hän aikoi sanoa jotain. Mutta samalla
soi säädyn kello. Istunto alkoi. Valtiopäivämiehet nousivat pöydistä ja
alkoivat puoli kiireesti liikkua istuntosalia kohti.
*****
He ovat etuvartijoita.
*****
Kaikki on järjestyksessä.
"Teidän ylhäisyytenne!
"Herra Kreivi!
"Herra Kreivi!
Se oli tällainen:
ALEKSANDER."