counselling/psychotherapy/gender/womens' studies

C@Murte, TeMY2M
intersections between fém inisrn
and the person-centred approach
edited by glilian proctor and mary beth napier RC ©iinftJO ÊUU
For many decades, two powerful alternatives to traditional, authoritarian approaches to
psychotherapy and hiiman reiationships have been deveIopin in para[ lei yet separate
spheres. This is the íírst book that brings together Lhe powertul forces of feminist and
person-centred theories to offer a dynamic alternative that is based on principies of
ffi
mutual relationships, gcnuineness and íespect. While Lhe focus of this book is primariiy
psychotherapy, it also covers general theories, politics. education and spiritualitv.
intersections between feminisim
and the
'Til is book is s u re to com fort the afflict ed and afTlíct the com fori-
able as it promotes a bold and spirited dialogue between
person-centred approach
person-centered and ferninist theories. lhe contributors fili
thcse pages with ideas and attitudes that come from hard-won
personal experience and their words speak with the fervor of
authcntic voice. it is guaranteed to stimulate discussion about
lhe ways practitioners hear, and respond to, women and other
rninoríty clientswho are reachingtowardstheir fullcst potential.
Peggy NatieHo

L( )\TRIBUTORS
(.j (Swenscn) E3aííieId. USA: Mararet Bird, UK; Jeffrey HD Cornelius-White. USA: Edna Davis. UK: edited by
Randail D Ehrbar. USA: Phoehe C Godfrey. USA; 1 \Jade Hannon. USA: Monica Hill. UK: Rosernarv I-loplins.
UK; Mary Beth Napier. USA: Maureen OHara, USA: Gillian Proctor, UK; Clare Shaw. UK: Peter 1 5nniid.
Austria: Sophie Srnailes. UK: Deb Steele, UK: Caro] Wolter-Gustafson. USA.
gíllian proctor and mary beth napier
mary beth napler www.pccs-books.co.uk

ISBN 1898059 65 9 fr©ir©irdi J y !W inftflllllo

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encountering femín*ism
intersectIons between
feminism and
the person-centred approach

edítcd by
gililan proctor and mary beth napier

PCCS BOOKS
Ross-on-Wye
 First published in 2004
CONTENTS
PCCS BOOKS Ltd
Foiwoiw
Liangarron
Pegy Natielio 111
Ross-on-Wye
Herefordshire
HR9 6PT
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTIONS
UK
Tel +44 (0)1989 77 07 07
www.pccs-books.co.uk Chapter 1 Introduction to Book
Gillian Proctor and Mary Beth Napier

This coilection: © Gillian Proctor and Mary Beth Napier 2004. Chapter 2 Introduction to Feminist Theory and Therapies
Mary Beth Napier 12
Foreword © P. Natielio, 2004
Chapter 10 G. Proctor and M.B. Napier, 2004; Chapter 2 © M.B. Napier, 2004; Chapter 3 An Introduction to the Person-Centred Approach
Chapter 3 © G. Proctor, 2004;
Giiian Proctor 26
Chapter 4 © 6. (Swenson) Barfieid, 2004; Chapter 5 © M. O'Hara, 2004;
Chapter 6 © R. Hopkins, 2004; Chapter 7 © J. W. Hannon, 2004;
Chapter 8 © D. Steeie, 2004; Chapter 9 © C. Woiter-Gustafson, 2004;
Chapter 10 © M.B. Napier, 2004; Chapter 110 G. Proctor, 2004; SECTION II THE PERSONAL is STILL PoLITICAi. AND HEALING.
-

Chapter 12 © C. Shaw, 2004; Chapter 13 © R.D. Ehrbar, 2004; PERSONAL REFLECTIONS OF USING PERSON-CENTRED
Chapter 14 © J. Cornelius-"te and P. Godfrey, 2004; AND FEMINIST THEORY IN Woiu
Chapter 15 © P.F. Schmid, 2004; Chapter 16 © E. Davis and M. Bird, 2004;
Chapter 17 © S. Smailes, 2004; Chapter 18 © M. Hill, 2004.
Chapter 4 A Personai Odyssey: Shaping political and
Ali rights reserved. feminist principies in the Person-Centered Approach
No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievai system, Gay (Swenson) Bafield 39
transmitted or utilised m any form by any means, e!ectronic, mechanicai,
photocopying or recording or otherwise without permission in writing from the Chapter 5 An Interview with Dr Maureen O'Hara: A pioneer
pubiishers. person-centred therapist and feminist reflects on
The authors have asserted thefr rights to be identified as the authors ofthis work in
30 years of process and progress
aceordance with the Copyright, Designa and Patents Act 1988.
Interviewed by Gillian Proctor 59

Chapter 6 On Becoming an Activist

Encountering Feminism: Intersections between feminism
Rosemary Hopkins 70
and the Person-Centred Approach
Chapter 7 On Being a Feminist Male
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library JWadeHannon 80

ISBN 1898059 65 9 Chapter 8 In Our Humanity is Our Divinity: Interconnections

between feminist spirituality and the Person-
Centred Approach
Cover design by OldDog Graphics Deb Steele 87
Printed by Bath Press, Bath, UK
SECTION III AN INTELLECTUAL UNDERSTANDINC. NEW SECTION W PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND SUCCESS STORIES
THEORIES TO GUIDE OUR ACTIONS
Chapter 16 Making Sense ofMonsters: Working therapeutically
Chapter 9 Toward Convergence: Client-centered and feminist with women and children who have experienced
assumptions about epistemology and power sexual violence
Carol Wolter-Gustafson 97 Margaret Bird and Reina Davis 191

Chapter 10 Trusting Our Clients: The Stone Centre model of Chapter 17 Making Connections: Domestic violence, feminism
therapy encounters a non-directive attitude and Person-Centred Therapy
Mary Beth Napier 116 Sophie Smailes 207

Chapter 11 What Can Person-Centred Therapy Learn Chapter 18 Woman-Centred Practice

from Feminism? Monica Hill 221
Gillian Proctor 129
Contributors' biographies 234
Chapter 12 Sexual Abuse: The psychiatric response and the
construction of better alternatives Index 239
Clare Shaw 141

Chapter 13 Taking Context and Culture into Account in the Core

Conditions: A feminist person-centered approach
RandallD Ehrbar 154

Chapter 14 Pedagogical Crossroads: Integrating feminist critica1

pedagogies and the Person-Centered Approach
to education
Jejj+ey HD Cornelius- White and Phoebe C Godey 166

Chapter 15 New Men? A new image of man? Person-centred

-

challenges to gender dialogue

PeterFSchmid 179
 FOREWO 1W

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We believe that the journey of producing this book wou1d not have been possible if
there were not many women before us who forged a path for us to follow. These
include unknown women who have suffered at the hands of the mental health PEGGY NATIELLO
system and sexist societies and who have fought back and offered akernatives to
'power over' structures. li includes women who have lovingly and persistentiy kept
the ideas of feminism alive in the person-centred community. Some of these women
we have never met. Some of these women are contributors to this book. We have During the 1970s 1 decided to go back to schoo!. 1 was an impassioned feminist,
personally been touched by the strong and powerful voices of Caro! Wolter- raising four sons and a daughter, and inspired by my person-centered work with
Gustafson, Gay (Swenson) Barfie!d, Maureen O'Hara, Peggy Natiello, Natalie Rogers groups that included Cari Rogers. 1 considered a doctoral degree in Psychology,
and Marge Witty. We have also been supported by those closest to us, Mary Beth is but, when 1 reviewed the curriculums of traditional programs, it became clear that
biessed to share her life and love with her partner Joanne Davis who provides con- none of them addressed issues of gender or the impact of sexism on psychological
stant encouragement for her ideas and projects. Gillian has been supported to get development. In addition, each one relied heavi!y on the expert, medical model for
to this point by her parents, who gave her the confidence and education to have the diagnosis and treatment. The field was pervaded with male-dominated va!ues. A
ability and privilege to be involved in this project; by Sheila. Youngson, with whom doctorate in Human Deveiopment, an interdisciplinary degree, with a specialization
she was first able to explore these ideas and who has been a continual support, in the Person-Centered Approach and feminism, seemed more appropriate.
mentor and friend and by her partner Bernadette Tuohy, who provides support, Today, with manyyears ofexperience coupled with that doctorate, 1 introduce
encouragement and stimulating discussions of ideas. We dedicate this book to ali of myse!f as afeministperson-centeredpractitioner. And now, in this bold coilection of
these individuais and thank them for lighting our path and waiking with us on this writings, 1 have come face-to-face with the complexities of that identity
journey. Between these covers, the reader will find person-centered and feminist theory
articulated, crystallized, defended, and challenged. Has Rogers' approach sufficiendy
accounted for self-in-relationship as well as the organismic, essential self? How much
are conditions of worth socially constructed, and how does gender and sexism
contribute to them? Do person-centered therapists who consciously abdicate power
over the client unwirtingly ignore the structural power they have over a client and
the consequences of that power? Is the commitment of most feminists to teach and
engage in social action in conflict with the non-directiveness of the Person-Centered
Approach? Does feminist theory enhance or intrude upon person-centered therapy
with women? Can person-centered work with women be effective without ir? Where
does client and clinician's spirituality fit into the therapy relationship? These
questions, and others that we are not accustomed to considering, are guaranteed to
engage the reader and expand the mmd.
In addition to raising such questions, there is an insider's look at feminist
struggles in the 70s and 80s that rattled the foundations ofThe Center for the
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM

Studies of the Person and some staif persons inciuding Rogers himself. There are INTRODUCTION
contributions by men who acknowledge the changes in society perpetuated by
feminist theory, and find possibilities for their creative, expanded selves in the new
order of things. Several contributors investigate other approaches to human
development compatible with the Person-Centered Approach and feminist theory.
They argue for convergence rather than competition in order to strengthen the
chailenge to authoritarian power. The feminist exposure of the disempowerment
and 'blaming the victim' that often occur for women who have been abused in a
sexist culture, is fierce and articulate in this book! The writers of these stories are
often survivors themselves, and their voices reveal the intimate world of personai
experience that best informs ali theory and practice.
GILLIAN PROCTOR AND MARY BETH NAPIER
1 recommend this book to ali students and practitioners of person-centered
and feminist theory—actually for ali heiping professionals. It expands the discussion
ofperson-centered theory by its in-depth look at the wounds suffered under sexism,
and, thus, illuminates some aspects of the wounding of ail victims/survivors of
oppression in any form. li revitalizes the cruciai importance of seeing clients in THE JOURNEY OF CREATING THIS BOOK
their wholeness, and being able to conriect empathically with the reality of their
The idea for this book did not originate from one moment in time but from a
experiences around race, gender, culture, reiigion, sexual preference, class, and other
process, or journey. We (the editors) first met in 2000 during the time of the 5v"
identities that social forces demean and penalize. It reminds us that we need to
Internationai Conference for C!ient-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy
iearn from those with whom we work by iistening curiousiy and carefuliy to things
(ICCCEP) conference in Chicago. On meeting, we irnmediate!y found several points
we may not fully understand rather than trying to 'fix' them. It opens out the
of connection in the doctorai theses that we were invo!ved in. Gillian had just
possibiiities of enhancing our pedagogy and practice by dialogue with others on
comp!eted hers on the dynamics of power in therapy and Mary Beth was midway
similar paths, working together for a more responsive and inclusive world.
through hers on an analysis of the Stone Center modei of therapy and how the
This is a theoreticaliy powerful, thought-provoking book that brims over with
client-centred concepts of genuineness, rnutuality and non-directivity couid be
compassion, integrity, original thinking, and courage. Prepare yourself to feel
incoporated into the Stone Center's theory. We soon rea!ised that we shared not
stin-iuiated and drawn into the discussion. Gillian Proctor and Mary Beth Napier
only a foundation and firm politicai and ethicai belief in Person-Centred/Client-
have brought to fruition a long overdue conversation about feminism and the Person-
Centred Therapy but also in the theory and political practice of feminism. Early
Centered Approach. Thanks to them and to each of the contributors for their
discussions focused on issues of power and mutuaiity in therapy and how Person-
eniightened participation.
Centred Therapy and feminism informed our ethical dilemmas. Our connections
and discussions continued over email afrer these first meetings.
Peggy Natielio, PhD
- At the sarne time, there were several presentations at the ICCCEP conference
Sedona, Arizona
around the theme of ferninism and Client-Centred Therapy (CCT) and a group of
delegates created an email list to try to continue discussions. The presentations
inc!uded Gillian Proctor's 'Power in Person-Centred Therapy', Sarah Hawtin's 'The
Organismic Valuing Process and Ethics in Person-Centred Theory', and Ann
Lovering's 'Person-Centered and Feminisa Theories: How we connect them in our
work with groups of Mexican women' (ali pub!ished in Watson, Go!dman and
Warner, 2002) and Caro! Wolter-Gustafson's 'The Power of the Premise:
Reconstructing gender and human deve!opment with Rogers' theory (published in
Fairhurst, 1999). The foliowing year Gillian and Beth met again at Warm Springs
encounter group in February. Here we had five days to continue our discussions

11 1
1

4-
 ENCOUNTERJNG FEMINTSM GILLIAN PROCTOR AND ~Y BETH NAPIER

and apply them in the real situation of interactions within a group. Our discussions INTERSECTIONS OF FEMINISM AND THE PERSON-
at this stage were that these interactions in a person-centred group of 'equal' people CENTRED APPROACH
were informed by the inequalities of gender expectations and sexism. We were
surprised how discussions about gender differences did not take place within the Both femiuism and the Person-Centred Approach are responses to societies that
encounter group and we experienced at times not only a lack of understanding, but structure personal and institutional relationships so that one group or individual
a resistance to understanding from some participants when we tried to bring up has power over another. They are reactions against authorities and hierarchies of
issues of gender and sexism. There were varying responses from men. Some men power which give some people the power to tell others what to do. Instead oftrusting
had educated themselves about gender expectations and dynamics and were open in outside authority; the Person-Centred Approach believes in the trustworthiness
and supportive to our discussions. Others were dismissive and hostile. and potential for growth of each individual, relying on an individuai's own internal
In 2002, Gillian spent seven months in the US, mostly in Chicago. Mary Beth sense of what is right for them (see Proctor, Chapter 3). The Person-Centred
and Gillian met early during this period to discuss what modules of teaching we Approach chalienges us to develop facilitative and connecting relationships where
wanted to offer jointly to the Doctorate in Clinical Psychology program at Illinois each individual is respected and valued. Feminism arose as a response to the systemic
School of Professional Psychology (ISPP, now Argosy University), and decided to and systematic oppression ofwomen in society. Feminism questioned the notion of
offer two modules as part of the Client-Centered stream. One of these was on women as second-class citizens and of the 'natural right' of meu to have power over
trauma and CCT and the second on feminism and CCT. The amount of material women. Feminism (originally cailed the Women's Liberation Movement) aims to
we covered and the interest generated by this 11 -hour course was the final catalyst liberate women from their opjressed status and to release women's real potential to
to inspire us to co-edit this book. Later that summer (of 2002) we facilitated make choices about their own lives rather than accept dependence on men. Feminism
workshops on feminism and CCT at the Carl Rogers Centenary Conference in La prioritises connections and relationships as the starting point, rather than the
Jolla and at the Association for the Development of the Person-Centered Approach traditionally masculine goals of individual autonomy and independence. Already,
(ADPCA) conference in Cleveland. On returning to the UK at the end of the the connections between these two theories and approaches are evident in the
summer, Gillian facilitated a workshop in Durham at the British Association for questioning oftaken-for-granted authority and what, for centuries, was seen as the
the Person-Centred Approach (BAPCA) conference, Much enthusiasm and interest 'natural order' of society.
in the subject at both of these conferences confirmed our feelings that this book
would be of interest to many. At Cleveland, a larger group of us who had met due Each approach discusses how control of an individual within society affects each
to a common interest in this subject at previous conferences met again to discuss individual internally. The Person-Centred Approach focuses on how 'conditions of
how to take these issues forward. Caro! Wolter-Gustafson, who had been trying to worth' are internalised by people, so that we change ourseives to please others and
put feminism ou the agenda in the client-centred world for decades, wanted to 'do the right thing' whether or not it is our 'real self. Feminism concentrates ou
concentrate on organising a stream on feminism at the next ICCCEP conference in how oppression is internalised and how assumptions and stereotypes affect those
Holland, in 2003. Wade Hannon and Jeff Cornelius-White expressed interest in who they are supposed to describe. We believe that feminism's notion of internalised
contributing chapters, and ali were pleased to hear that Gillian and Mary Beth oppression is the concept of conditions ofworth at a societal levei. They are messages
committed to begin the process of editing a book about the intersections of these from society about who we are and how we should behave. Within both theories,
two bodies ofknowiedge. / these messages within individual relationships (as in person-centred conditions of
Before Gillian left the US at the end ofAugust 2002, Mary Beth and Gillian worth) or at a broader societal levei (as in feminist internalised oppression) have the
had put together a proposal to email as many groups, lists and individuais as possible effect of limiting our potential for growth. Both approaches are about iiberating us
to ask for chapter proposals by the following spring. We were extremeiy excited to from the damaging effects of these methods of contro!.
receive over 20 proposais in time for our next meeting in 2003. Clearly this subject
had touched a chord for many people. Throughout the editing process, we have Both feminism and the Person-Centred Approach share a stance with regard to
worked as collaboratively as possibie within editing iimitations (such as word counts) power (see Proctor, Chapter 11). Both feminist theorists and person-centred theorists
andhave worked together as editors. We have always aimed to work with our person- have critiqued the damaging effects of 'power-over', authority or coercion. Both
centred and feminist principies of respect and empowerment at the heart of our approaches instead advocate the potential of 'personai power' (the Person-Centred
interactions. And now we have the result. Approach) or power-from-within (feminists), each of these concepts referring to an
internal sense ofagency a trust in oneseif. Both approaches also advocate the potential
 ENCOUNTE1UNG FEMINISM GILLIAN PROCTOR AND MAR' BETH NAPIER

of 'power-with' (feminists) or the power of people in groups (Person-Centred their therapy relationships more consistent with their theories of mutua!ity and
Approach). These both refer to the positive potential of people working together coliaboration (see Napier, Chapter 10). Person-centred therapists can learn from
with mutual respect for the benefit of ali. Working together in groups has been a feminism to improve their understanding of how individuais are affected by societal
big part of the deveiopment and history of each approach, with feminist structures and appreciate commonalities in experiences within oppressed groups
consciousness-raising groups and person-centred encounter groups. (see Proctor, Chapter 11), This is particuiariy the case for therapists working with
women who have experienced the effects of patriarchal oppression in traumatic
Both feminist and person-centred theory have critiqued the dominant ways such as rape, sexual abuse and domestic violence (see Hill, Chapter 18; Shaw,
constructions of 'madness' and distress. Both offer alternative viewpoints to the Chapter 12; Smailes, Chapter 17; Davis and Bird, Chapter 16).
dominant medical model's understanding ofdiagnosis and treatment which rest on
the assumption that distress and madness are aiways the resuk of internal pathoiogy.
Feminist and person-centred theories provide different epistemologies from the POINTS OF CONFLICT BETWEEN THE PERSON-CENTRED
medical model (see Wolter-Gustafson, Chapter 9) that suggest that much distress is AND FEMINIST APPROACHES
the resu.lt of relational dysfunction, whether that be on a personal or societal levei.
Both theories stress the importance of mutual and genuine relationships as the key Perhaps the biggest point of conflict between the two approaches is the focus ofstudy.
to establishing and maintaining psychological weil-being. For person-centred theorists, the focus is always on the individual man or woman.
There is no systematic analysis of gender dynamics when attempting to understand
Each shares a critical approach to education, and the mainstream educational the person. For ferninist theorists, the gender of a person is considered the most
methods of teaching as control rather than encouragement of critical thinking defining feature of that person and, therefore, an analysis of gender and the effects of
and positively relating to others (see Cornelius-'White and Godfrey, Chapter sexism and patriarchy must always be considered when attempting to understand the
14). individual's experience. After the focus on the difference between men and women's
experience, a feminist theorist wou!d consider differences between groups ofwomen,
Additionally, feminist and person-centred practitioners view the importance and such as women of colour versus white women or differences between the experiences
role of spirituality in a person's life in a way that does not pathologise a person for of lesbians and heterosexual women. A person-centred theorist would focus on the
having spirituality as a value or an aid in life. Both approaches are more open to uniqueness of each individual and study those aspects of the particular person that
the experience of a spiritual dimension within the person, and clinicians who practice the person deems important. A person-centred approach does not include gender
both approaches are likely to be more accepting and comfortabie discussing spiritual analysis or analysis ofany other societal factors unless an individual specifically mentions
issues and assisting clients to use their spiritual beiiefs as forms of knowing. This is them as being personally relevant.
in direct contrast to scientific models that value rational thinking that can be Although there are many points of intersection and commonalities between
quantified and objectified as the only reliable sources ofinformation. Some feminist person-centred and feminist therapies, each approach is critical of the other. Person-
theôry and some person-centred theory explicitly discuss the impact and relevance centred theorists criticize feminist therapy because a feminist therapist has a particular
of spirituality (see Steele, Chapter 8). agenda for every client that is in addition to whatever the client's initial agenda is.
For example, feminist therapy often has a teaching component to it that is used to
We, and many others, believe that each approach has much to offer in our empower a woman and to assist her in locating the source of her distress insocital
understanding of ouÈ world and human relationships, and that each can learn factors such as sexism rather than seeing distress as something that is soiely an
from the other. Whereas the Person-Centred Approach gives us a model for intrapsychic event. A therapist's agenda is outside the client's frame ofreference and
individual relationships, feminism adds an understanding of wider societal is not in keeping with a non-directive approach. Person-centred theorists argue that
structures of power and influence on the individual. Feminism gives us a model psychological healing occurs when the therapist offers certain facilitative conditions
to criticise patriarchy and many patriarchal practices and institutions, and the for the client that aliows each client a strong sense of autonomy and self direction.
Person-Centred Approach, coupled with awareness of feminist theory, gives us a A therapist's agenda can undermine client autonomy and self-direction. It also puts
model to build up different relationships and structures based on principies of the therapist in an expert role that undermines mutuality between client and
equaiity and respect rather than hierarchies and authority. Dominant modeis of therapist. Person-centred therapists experience women as feeling powerful and
feminist therapy can learn from the principies of person-centred therapy to mãe gaining a sense of empowerment and connection, not because they educated the

4 5

.1
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GILLIAN PROCTOR AND MARY BETH NAPIER

women about sexism, but because they provided a supportive environment where largely responsible for childcare and housework; are sexually objectified in the media
each woman could find and listen to her own voice. and the ever increasing pornography industry; are told how our lifestyles, bodies
Feminist theorists criticise Person-Centred Therapy because in PCT, the source and appearances should meet up to a feminine norm, and stigmatised and excluded
of distress is located wherever the client experiences it. This is seen as unwittingly ifwe 'fail'.
assisting the client to blame herself for distress that is caused by societal or relational Globally, the statistics for violence against women are frightening. At the Vienna
factors rather than intrapsychic dysfunction (e.g., see Shaw, Chapter 12). Another Human Rights Conference and the 4th World Conference on Women, priority
criticism is that the Person-Centred Approach was developed before gender analysis attention was given to violence against women, characterised as 'the most pervasive
informed social sciences. Therefore, a person-centred therapist would not necessarily yet least recognised human rights abuse in the world.' (Heise, 1993: 171). In many
have training in gender or cultural analysis and could be operating from countries, women are victims of 'Honour' killings, defined as acts of murder in
unchallenged, unevaluated sexist, 'racist' and classist assumptions (e.g., see Ehrbar, which a woman is killed for her actual or perceived 'immoral behaviour'. Such
Chapter 13; Napier, Chapter 2). 'immoral behaviour' may take the form of marital infidelity, refusing to submit to
There are other differences in the theories in addition to the criticisms they an arranged marriage, demanding a divorce, flirting with or receiving phone calis
have of each other. For example, the goal of person-centred therapy is the from men, failing to serve a meal on time, or—grotesquely—'allowing herself' to
development of the self. Feminist therapy often emphasizes the development of be raped. Such killings have been reported in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Britain,
relational capacities within the client. All of these differences and critiques are Brazil, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Pakistan, Morocco,
addressed in the chapters of this book. Some 'differences' and criticisms seem to us Sweden, Turkey and Uganda (Ahsan, 2003). 120 million wornen and giris worldwide
to be valid, others seem to be more misunderstandings than true differences, and have suffered Female Genital Mutilation with a further 2 million girls; at risk from
still others provide places of intersections where the two theories together may be this practice each year, mostly in African, Middle Eastern and Asian countries
stronger than either theory alone. As the reader will discover, the chapters in this (UNFPA-SWR 1997). Trafficking women and children for sexual exploitation
book offer a wide spectrum of how these two bodies of knowledge have been used generates more than 8 billion dollars each year with two million girls aged five to
to guide many of us in our work and personal lives. fifteen being introduced to the commercial sex market annually (UNFPA-SWF
1997). Ninety per cent of pregnant girls between the ages of 12 and 16 years in
Peru are pregnant as the result of rape, often incest. In Costa Rica, Peru and Uruguay,
ARE THE PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH AND FEMINISM rapists are not convicted under law if they agree to marry their rape victim and the
RELEVANT TODAY? woman agrees. Domestic violence is documented in most societies where the question
is examined, although some peasant and small-scale societies are reported to be
It seems that today is an historical time when neither the Person-Centred Approach 'essentially untroubled by family violence' (Heise, 1993). A US study estimates that
(PCA) nor feminism are on the agenda in most contexts. Since the heyday of both between 21 and 30 per cent ofwomen are beaten by a partner at least once in their
approaches in the early sixties and seventies when the values and ethics of each fit lives and that over half of these women are beaten at least 3 times a year (UNFPA-
with the political climate at the time, interest and enthusiasm in what these values SWF 1997). Each year in the US alone 700,000 women and girls are raped or
can bring to human relationships and existence has waned (e.g., see Barfield, Chapter sexually assaulted. This is the highest percentage in western countries and only 16
4 and O'Hara, Chapter 5). At the sarne time, hosility and a backlash to these ideas per cent of women report the rape (JJNFPA-SWP, 1997) In conflict situations
has increased, and conflict within the world continues (see Hopkins, Chapter 6), globally, the rape of women has long been used as a weapon of war. Clearly, Ws a
with continuing aggression always failing to end wars. Many argue that individual dangerous business to be bom a woman in this world. -

freedom has never been higher and that women have never before had so many Men's control ofwomen within heterosexual relationships, the workplace and
choices. However many inequalities between men and women remain unchanged in education, continues through violence, rape, sexual harassment, and the
and ideas of individual growth and creativity are low on the political agenda. perpetuation of gender stereotypes. These dynamics are perhaps sometimes more
To say that we live in a male-dominated society usually provokes a lot of subtle and less overtly acceptable since feminist analyses of the sixties and seventies.
reactions. People like to point out how much things have changed in the past few However, whilst some behaviours have become more unacceptable, the same attitudes
decades for women. Yet many things remain the sarne. In the Western world, women affect women's lives in more insidious ways. At the sarne time, ir has become more
siall earn much less than men; are overwhelmingly found in low paid, low status or unacceptable for women to chalienge these attitudes and behaviours as the backlash
part-time work; are massively under-represented in structures of power; are still to ferninism continues.

6 7
 ENCOUNTEBJNG FEMINISM GILLIAN PROCTOR AND MA11x' BETH NAPIER

Feminism has challenged men and there continues to be varying responses by Similarly, the Person-Centred Approach continues to be challenging. It
men to this chailenge. Some men are horrified to learn how they gain their power ar challenges the authority of those in power, and suggests that each individual can
the expense ofwomen and are concerned about the effects ofpatriarchal expectations create their own path in life. The Person-Centred Approach, with its goals of
on men and women. Some meu educate themselves about gender stereotypes and empowerment and growth for each individual, mau or woman, provides a model
the dynamics between men and women and increase their awareness of their own through which we can communicate with respect about how to respond to the
behaviour in an effort to not be personaily part of the oppression of women (e.g., challenges that feminism provides. The PCA provides a framework for creating
see Hannon, Chapter 7). However, as long as feminism hás existed, there has been more mutual relationships where the goal is to understand, not control, the other.
a backlash and fear by men of losing their power and the status quo of gender It can inform the practitioners of feminist therapy about the attitudes and behaviours
expectations and relationships being challenged. Backlash reactions are taken from that promote collaboration and mutuality between people that goes beyond the
the usual range of ways that meu have power in relationships with women, therapist as teacher and guide. It provides a well-researched, extensively studied
particularly in heterosexual partnerships. These reactions range from violence body of knowledge of how to deeply respect the unique, phenomenological process
(including sexual violence) perpetuated against feminists, and women who question of each client. Ou a societal levei, it has brought together and continues to bring
the patriarchal status quo, to attempts to demean, degrade and criticize women together vasdy different groups in ways that promote understanding and compassion
who speak out against men's naturally assumed status and power. In the UK, the across differences. It challenges the medical model of mental health.
latest manifestation of the bacldash in the media seems to be men attempting to It is our hope that the readers of this book will come away with more tools and
gain sympathy from women about the difficulty men have in dealing with women's a greater understanding of how to improve their own relationships—whether with
changing expectations and how they can react to feminism. Often this response partners, family members, friends or clients. We hope that by providing the reader
does succeed in gaining the sympathy of women, who then continue their role as with examples of how to combine these theories, that we have provided a window
care givers in looking after these 'poor men'. In these ways, the gender dynamics into new possibilities of theory, therapy and justice-making on a personal and societal
within relationships are used to attempt to undermine women's increasing power leve1.
and increasing demands for equality, and it is as common to find women
undermining feminism as it is to find men, as they continue to play their expected
roles within patriarchy of defending and looking after their men. FORMAT OF THE BOOK
Of course, feminism is challenging for men and women. It requires us to be
more creative in how we live our lives, being unable to respond to a pattern or The book is divided into 4 sections. The first section contains the introductory
blueprint ofhow to have relationships that patriarchy has provided (e.g., see Schmid, chapters. The aim of these chapters is to introduce readers unfamiiar with either
Chapter 15). It is dangerous for those in power who rely ou others' acceptance of person-centred theory or feminist theory to the main concepts within these theories.
the right to that power. It confronts women who have relied on men taking These chapters should provide enough of a foundation to make the following chapters
responsibility, and men who have relied on women to look after them. It requires understandable.
us, as a society, to rethink notions of the traditional family and gender divided roles The second section is entitled 'The Personal is Still Political—and Healing.
and responsibilities. Personal Reflections of Using Person-Centred and Feminist Theories in Work' and
As feminist theory contilútes to provide fresh insights into societal injustices and presents personal stories and reflections. In Chapter 4, Gay Swenson Barfield shares
personal pain, and as feminist therapy continues to provide a safe haven for women how both the feminist movement and the person- centred movement shaped and
and meu who wish to claim their own voices of strength and compassion, feminism changed her life. It is a beautiful 'herstory' of her life as well as a chronology of the
will continue to provide a guiding light to a hurting world. Our foremothers guide growth of both movements. Maureen O'Hara is interviewed by Gillian Proctor in
our path as we join with our sisters and brothers to continue their legacy to work for Chapter 5 and discusses the influences of the Person-Centred Approach and feminism
a world that is more just and compassionate for alI. A large number of feminist theorists on each other and on her career, going though facilitating person-centred groups in
continue to demand that feminism expand its analysis to include more voices from Brazil to becoming president of Saybrook University. In Chapter 6, Rosemary
women's communities other than white, iniddle-class. These theorists suggest that for Hopkins tells the story of her journey to becoming au activist against chronic global
the majority of women worldwide the effects ofsexism cannot be separated from the 'terror' and inhumanity as her response to the events of 9/11. Tu Chapter 7, Wade
effects ofracism and classism. They chailenge us to broaden ournaming, understanding Hannon presents his personal perspective on why and how to be a feminist man.
and analysis of the kinds of oppression that impact women worldwide. This chapter includes practical suggestions for how meu can increase their awareness
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GILLIAN PROCTOR AND MARY BETH NAPIER

of their part in oppressing women. Deb Steele (Chapter 8) presents her personal working with women survivors of sexual abuse and rape ia individual and group
experience of spirituality and the interweaving of feminist and person-centred ideas therapy. She describes how her feminist understanding informs her Person-Centred
within this area. Approach to therapy.
The third section An IntelIectual Understanding: New theories to guide our
actions' includes chapters that focus predominantly on theory. This section
commences with Carol Wolter-Gustafson's overview of the historical and LIMITATIONS OF THIS COLLECTION
epistemological roots of feminism and the Person-Centred Approach (Chapter 9).
She highlights the similarities between the two and then urges theorists and Unfortunately, we have not been able to present the breadth of contributions and
practitioners in both areas to engage in dialogue and exploration with each other. voices that we would have liked and tried to seek. We particularly lack representation
Ia Chapter 10, Mary Beth Napier examines how incorporating a client-centred from women of colour, working-class women and women who have experienced
non-directive attitude into the Stone Center's model of Relational-Cultural Therapy distress. We also wanted to include a chapter that addressed the unique issues of
will enhance and deepen the connections between therapist and client, and decrease lesbian women. We hope to fluI some of these gaps in a future volume if further
therapist disconnections from the client's experience. In Chapter 11, Gillian Proctor interest is generated. This volume is the first attempt to bring together the two
argues that person-centred therapists can improve their practice with an bodies of knowledge, theory and experience of feminism and the Person-Centred
understanding of feminist theory to consequently extend their empathy to better Approach in the hope that each will be mutually enhanced. We hope to reach
understand the social and political context of each client's life. In Chapter 12,Clare interested readers in the person-centred and feminist worlds and to strengthen each
Shaw discusses the psychiatric and person-centred responses to women survivors of approach in the proces. We very much welcome feedback, dialogue and further
sexual abuse from a feminist perspective. She suggests that akhough a Person-Centred. conversation. Come join us on this exciting journey.
Approach is a distinct improvement on the diagnostic psychiatric approach, particular
knowledge and understanding of the social context of abuse is necessary for
practitioners not to coilude in further individualising the relational and societal REFERENCES
problem of abuse. Randall Ehrbar, in Chapter 13 considers Rogers' theory of therapy
with reference to working with clients from a non-dominant culture. He discusses Ahsan, MH (2003) 'Honour'killings ofwomen. Dhamaka News. See wwwdhamakanews.netl
what person-centred therapists need to consider in this context using feminist theory archives/honorkilling.htm
to inform his understanding. In Chapter 14 Jeff Cornelius-White and Phoebe Heise, L (1993) Violence against Women: The missing agenda, in M Koblinsky, J Timyan
Godfrey consider the area ofeducation by comparing and contrasting a Person- and] Gay (eds) TheHeafrh oflVomen:A globalperspective. Boulder, Cobrado: Westview
Centred Approach to education with feminist approaches. They suggest that each Press.
could learn from the other to benefit the political aims ofboth. Finally, Peter Schmid IJNFPA-SWP (1997) see www.unfpa.org/swp/1997
examines the area of gender differences and the importance of gender as a defining Watson J, Goidman, R and Warner, M (2002) Client-CenteredandExperientialPsychotherapy
factor in what it means to be a person (Chapter 15). He considers in detail the areas in the21# Centuy.Advances in theorR research andpractice. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.
ofsexuality and aggression for men, and challenges men to begin to create positive Wolter-Gustafson, C (1999) The Power of the Premise: Reconstructing gender and human
ways of being men in societ rather than reactiig to changes initiated by women development with Rogers' theory, in 1 Fairhurst (cd) Women Writing in the Person-
including feminism. CentredApproach. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 199-214.
The final section of this book 'Practical Applications and Success Stories'
discusses the practice of therapy, particularly with women and in relation to causes
of distress that have been long-emphasised by feminists. In Chapter 16, Edna
Davis and Margaret Bird discuss their work using person-centred psychodrama
with women and children who are survivors of sexual abuse. Sophie Smailes
presents her work in Chapter 17 with female survivors of domestic violence, talking
in detail about her work with two particular clients and how she intcrweaves her
feminist understanding with person-centred therapy. Finally, in Chapter 18,
Monica Hill presents the work of Rape Crisis from her personal perspective of

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 MAiw BETEI NpwR

primarily with equality. Second-wave feminism (1960 to today) uses women's

INTRODUCTION TO FEMINIST differences to oppose the 'rule' of patriarchy.2 In first-wave feminism, women
THEORY AND THERAPIES challenged commonly held beliefs about women's psychological make-up and
abilities, as well as their place in society by using the strength and wisdom of their
own experiences. First-wave feminism challenged institutions, whereas second-wave
feminism also chailenges the invisibility of patriarchy that occurs in the more personal
spheres of relationships and their everyday lives. This represented a move from
materialism to the dynamics and psychological aspects of women's lives (Humm,
1992). Recently, young feminists have begun writing about the tasks and sensibilities
ofthird-wave offeminists (Bruns and Trimble, 2001). They discuss the ramifications
ofgrowing up when feminism was already a part of academic curriculum and access
MARX BETH NAPIER to more resources and opportunities were open to them as white, middle-class,
educated women. They see the chalienges of their generation of feminists as 'the
loss of subversive stories from young feminist memories, the tendency to believe
[they] are the end product of the feminist fight rather than part of a continuing
Although the political movement of feminism has been felt around the world since process and disregard the political activism aspects of feminist psychology, and the
the 1920s, people are often confused about what feminism is and what it is not.1 tendency to be blind to the undertow of the backlash [against progress in women's
Many women still reflise to claim the label 'feminist' citing that they do not bate issues and lives]' (p. 20). They seek to continue the dialogue on using power as
men and have never considered burning their bras to protest against sexist behaviors. 'relational power', finding ways of including more diverse voices within feminist
Women (and men) who do call themselves feminist vary in some of their beliefs analysis, establishing mentoring relationships with second-wave feminists and
and in the social action that springs from their feminist beliefs. This pluralism continuing to remain open to listen for the areas in our lives and in the world
extends into the field of feminist therapy. There are numerous feminist therapies community where societal change is still needed. They hope to use their privilege
that vary in their goals for clients. This chapter will highlight some of these similarities and new freedoms to help others—both men and women—who are still in the
and differences in feminist thinking and therapy. It will briefly recount the origins struggle for equality.
of contemporary feminist thought, discuss main themes in feminist theory and
therapy, and discuss continued development of feminist thought and ongoing
questions and concerns. Of special importance to this book, this chapter will also MAIN THEMES OF FEMINIST THOUGHT
present feminist critiques of the Person-Centered Approach.
Feminist thought began as a political statement and stance on gender inequality. Feminist psychological therapy springs from feminist thought. Consequently, it is
It studied the uses of power and how status hierarchies deprived women of their imperative to identify some key concepts in feminist thought before exploring
freedom and equality (Worell and Remer, 1992). It is based on the belief that in feminist therapy. This section discusses some of these concepts.
societies that divide sexes into differing cultural, economic or political spheres,
women are less valued than men. Feminism also rests on the belief that women can THE PERSONAL IS POLITICAL
consciously and colleçtively change their social place (Humm, 1992). li challenged
the sex roles that were considered the norm and helped open up more possibilities A rallying cry and major tenet of feminist thought is that 'the personal is political'.
for women's lives. Feminism also encouraged the belief that women's experiences This statement encompasses feminist beliefs about sex-role stereotyping,
are important and that a woman's distress is never purely intrapsychic but must be institutionalized sexism, and oppression. It highlights the negative consequences of
understood in a social context.
The development of feminist thought and action has been described 2.
Patriarchy is the way society is structured with men holding power. It refers to both concrete
chronologically as different 'waves'. First-wave feminism (1890-1920) was concerned systems of power and to the ideology and generally understood attitudes and assumptions that
Por an excellent historical perspective of the international roots and development offeminism, go along with the structures—such as different sex roles and expectations for men and women
see Bailou and Gabalac, 1985. (Proctor, 2002b).

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM BETH NAPIER

these phenornena and condudes that the external environment is considered the between them. Power then is not a unitary concept that only leads to oppression of
main source of women's problems (Worell and Remer, 1992). This protest from one individual or group over another.
feminists challenged the historical assumption that po!itics was the world of men,
the public world. Feminists argued that aioflife was political including the everyday SPECIFIC SOCIAL CONCERNS ADDRESSED BY FEMINIST THINKERS
reality ofwomen's lives. At this time, wornen's lives, which had been seen as 'private'
and 'personal', became public and open for debate and discussion. This rallying cali Since feminism is rooted in women's real life experiences, the development offeminist
was the signal for entry of women into the political arena. Ir also gave feminists and thought was closely a!igned with exposing the circumstances in women's lives that
women a platform from which to speak, that of their own personai experience. were keeping women oppressed as a group and as individuais in the unique
Feminists began to cha!lenge the traditional 'ways ofknowing' that were based circumstances of their lives. The sexual objectification of wornen was defined in
solely on the experiences of men (Belenky et ai., 1986). They carne to see that pornography, prostitution and compu!sory heterosexuality including compulsory
wornen's sensibilities, values and lived reality were valid sources of knowledge and marriage and childbearing. This objectification extended into vio!ence against women
challenged the epistemological base ofwestern modernist ideas ofscience. Feminisrn that includes rape, domestic vioience and incest. Naming these forms of violence
brought back phenomenology into the field of knowledge by emphasizing the and supporting women survivors of them has been, and continues to be, a major
importance of women's lived experience. Thus what women said about their activity of feminist theorists and activists. Subsequent generations offeminists aiso
experiences of being a woman was the bedrock from which feminist theories about added an analysis of race, class, religious beiiefs, sexual orientation and other
being women grew. oppressed categories as ways in which individual women have been marginalized.

FEMLNIST DEFLNITIONS/ANALYS!S OF POWER3

THE DEVELOPMENT OF FEMINIST PSYCHOLOGICAL
Feminist theorists questioned the assumptions in society that allowed men to remam THEORY AND THERAPY
in powerful positions that al!owed them to have overt and covert control over women's
lives. There has been much written about definitions of power and whether or nor In the 1970s, wornen began to study traditional forms of therapy and found that
power is something that women, who have been oppressed by patriarchy, should wornen were invisible in psychological theory and that there was no recognition of
aspire to. If so, what would that power look like? Feminist theories of power are the oppression of women in society (Wyche et ai., 1997). Feminist therapy was
generally based in a structural model of power. In this model, power is seen as developed in reaction to these factors. There are many therapists who cal! themseives
rnonolithic, unitary (held by men) and unidirectional (exerted by men over women) 'feminist therapists'. These include wornen and men who use varying criteria for
(Proctor, 2002a), Hence, power is always seen as negative and oppressive. Structural using this definition. Clinicians who use person-centered, psychodynamic, cognitive-
notions of power have yielded greater understanding of how racism, classism and behavioral, family systems, trauma work, and other approaches to therapy ali claim
other forms of oppression affect people. It has also furthered our understanding of to provide feminist therapy. Akhough feminist therapists may use many different
the relationship between oppression and psychological distress. However, this techniques in their work and come from a number of different theoreticai
understanding of power is lirnited in its abi1ity to predict and address the power orientations, it is the commitment to address women's subordination and
dynamics between two individuais in a re!ationship. disadvantaged status in society that serves as the unifying thread linking ali feminist
Other theorists have proposed dynamic post-structural perspectives on power. psychologies and therapies (Wyche et ai., 1997). Wyche et ai. (1997) believe that
French (1985) is often cited for her definition of power as an interaction rather this cornmitment provides a philosophical approach that guides how therapy is
than a substance. She proposes that there are different kinds of power that pointto conducted and how the client is viewed by the therapist. Feminist therapists practice
different ways of relating to others. She introduced the concept of a person having on a continuum from conducting therapy solely from a therapy based on feminist
agency to change the power dynarnics in a relationship. Starhawk (1987) identified principies to 'hybrid' modeis that apply a feminist lena to the theory and practice of
three categories of power that further delineate how power can be used to oppress another theoretica! orientation.
or used to empower and provide agency to individuais and groups to share power Worell and Remer (1992) state that the base of a feminist stance is the conviction
that women's problems cannot be solved in isolation from the gender po!itics of the
For a more through study of power see Gillian Proctor's Chapter 11 in this volume and Proctor, larger social structure. Some common themes of feminist therapy are described
2002a, below.

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 ENCOIJNTERING FEMINISM BEm NAPIER

REDEFINING THE CAUSES OF DISTRESS AND 'PATHOLOGY' groundbreaking work on definitions of madness uncovered how society, and the
medical professional in particular, had the power to define what constituted
Traditional therapy models ignored the role that clients' social, political, economic emotionaily healthy or sick women. For example, a woman's depression over the
and cultural environments play in the problems that clients are experiencing. They continued physical abuse at the hands of her husband was defined as an intrapsychic
tended to focus solely on the client's intrapsychic make-up, locating the problem in deficit rather than as a healthy, adaptive way of dealing with this abuse when the
how the client is feeling, thinking andfor behaving (Greenspan, 1983; Sturdivant, woman had nowhere to escape such treatment.
1980). Often, when the client's externa1 environment is not taken into account when This kind of analysis continues today as clinicians are challenging such
searching for the source of a client's distress, the therapist can biame clients for aspects diagnostic categories as borderline personality disorder that has been
oftheir problems that are socially induced (Greenspan, 1983). This is called 'blaming predominantly diagnosed for women who are survivors of abuse (Shaw and
the victim' because the individual is blamed or held responsible for displaying behavior, Proctor, in press). This is just one example of how traditional therapists have
thoughts, and feelings that were developed to cope with a restricting and oppressive applied different diagnostic categories and labels for females and males (Ford
environment (Worell and Remer, 1992). In feminist psychology, it is recognized that and Widiger, 1989). Rather than using current diagnostic methods oflabeling
the primary source of a client's pathology is not intrapsychic orpersonal, but rather is a person, based on the DSM-IV (American PsychiatricAssociation, 1994), many
social and political (Gilbert, 1980). The acknowledgment of the societal sources of feminist therapists seek to understand and offer assistance to a client without
women's problems is the core of feminist therapy (Sturdivant, 1980). labeling the client's thoughts, beliefs, and emotions as abnormal (Caplan, 1995;
As early feminist thinkers and activists were identiing the conditions in a Kaplan, 1983; Lerman, 1995).
woman's life that left her with few options, feminist activists and therapists were
working to change societal conditions to assist women in addressing and recovering REDEFINING THE NATURE OF THE THERAPLST-CLLENT RELATIONSHIP
from abuses that left women psychologically vulnerable. Feminists set up services
for women so that women could receive support and an escape from abusive Following Chesler's (1972) comparison of the therapy relationship with the
experiences with men. These included the genesis of domestic violence shelters/ patriarchal, authoritarian relationship between a father and daughter, feminists have
refuges and education, rape crisis counseling and advocacy, and support groups for taken the role and consequences of power in the therapy relationship very seriously.
women survivors of sexual crimes including child sexual abuse. There has been much discussion about how to transform a therapy relationship in
An underlying value in this feminist activity is to emphasize that societal change which the roles of therapist and client are inherently unequal into an egalitarian
is needed rather than 'adjustment' to unjust and unhealthy situations in which relationship. Although there is still debate about how to achieve this end, practitioners
women find themselves (Gilbert and Scher, 1999; Worell and Remer, 1992) Gilbert offeminist therapy agree that the therapist has a responsibility to consciously attempt
and Scher explain that societal changes are needed to bring about egalitarianism to establish the most egalitarian relationship possible with each client. One particular
and to decrease the amount of gender-biased conditions that leave women at a arca of concern is how to allow the therapist to be a 'real person' in the therapy
disadvantage emotionally as well as flnancially. For example, glass ceilings are still relationship rather than remaining in an aloof, expert role. Therapists are encouraged
in place in most major companies that prohibit women, particularly mothers, from to be more self-disclosing and to work towards a collaborative relationship in which
obtaining top management positions. both therapist and client make decisions about number ofsessions, cost of therapy,
Some feminist theorists uggest that therapits need to be involved in changing and contact outside of planned session time, to name a few potential arcas for
these systemic problems in addition to helping clients deal with the aftermath of consideration.
violence, discrimination and sexism that is still codified into law and promoted by At the beginning of the development of feminist therapy it was an important
societal institutions. consideration that women be seen in therapy by women only. This was seen as
necessary in order to ensure that a woman client did not have to contend with the
REDEFINING PATHOLOGY power dynamics between herself and a man, who was seen as not being able to
provide a woman with an experience that would be empowering rather than
Feminist theory has challenged notions of mental health and pathology. Instead of pathologixing.
pathologizing a woman's emotional response to sexual, physical and psychological In her 1997 foreword to a new edition of Women and Madness, Chesler reviews
violence, feminist theorists have shed light on how women's reactions to these everas what has changed since 1972 and delineates what is considered 'feminist therapy'.
are normal and healthy reactions to incidents of abuse. Chesler's (1972) She describes the features of 'feminist therapy' as follows:

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 ENCOIJNTERJNG FEMINISM MARY BETH NAPIER

Feminist therapy: narrow and sexist notions of a woman's mental health and assisted women in
1.Tries to believe what women say. claiming their own power in their lives including defrning themselves from internal
2. Helps women to understand 'that it is normal to feel sad or angry about being standards rather than prevalent societal notions ofwhat a woman should be (Worell
overworked, underpaid, underloved; that it's healthy to harbor fantasies ofrunning and Remer, 1992), This also was embodied by new ways for a therapist to forin
away when the needs of others threaten to overwhelm her' (p. 22).
...
an egalitarian relationship with clients (Marecek and Hare-Mustin, 1987).
3. Believes that women need to hear that men do not love enough and that fathers Worell and Remer (1992) believe that few women can attain equality alone
are equally responsible for children's problems, that self-love is the basis of love and, consequently, that feminism requires both individual and coilective action for
for others and that it's hard to break free of patriarchy. social and political changes. They explain that feminist counseling seeks a dual
4. Tries to listen to women respectfully rather than in a superior or contemptuous outcome: 'assisting the woman toward empowerment in her own life, and seeking
way. Not minimizing wounds but being optimistic. change in the social power structure that forms the basis of many of her problems'
5. Does not label women as 'mentally iii' because they are ar odds with their feminine (p. 17).
role.
THE STONE CENTER'S MODEL OF RELATIONAL CULTURAL THERAPY
Chesler (1997) quotes Janet Surrey who says that 'The work of feminist healers is
to integrate our minds and our bodies, ourselves and others, human community The Stone Center's model of relational cultural therapy began in the 1970s with a
and the life of the planet'. group of women clinicians and academics who realized that existing models of
mental health and therapy were not based on women's actual experience. They
theorized that for therapy to be helpful to women, that therapy must embody values
SPECIFIC FEMINIST THEORIES OF THERAPY that are important to women. A key value was women's natural tendency to work at
preserving connection with others. In contrast to Erickson's view of moral
Worell and Remer (1992, Chapter 2) provide an excellent history and analysis of development where autonomy was seen as the pinnacle of moral development, with
the different kinds of feminist therapies. For the purposes of this chapter, 1 will thinking about others being viewed as immature, Gilligan (1982) redefined moral
briefly discuss mo prominent and well-developed sets of feminist therapy. They are development for women, prioritizing women's emphasis on relationships and
the empowerment model (Worell and Remer, 1992), and the Stone Center's relational connections. The work of the Stone Center helped shift a woman's desire for
cultural model of therapy (Jordan, 1997; Jordan, et ai., 1991; Milier, 1976; Miller connection from pathology to a natural, healthy orientation to life. The Stone
and Stiver, 1997). Center's model of relational cultural therapy rests on the belief that therapy has to
provide the client with a new relational experience and that the particular quality of
EMPOWERMENT FEMINIST MODEL OF THERAPY the therapist-client relationship is the key to healing (Milier and Stiver, 1997).
According to Stone Center theorists, a healing therapeutic relationship is one in
Empowerment feminist therapy was the first form offeminist therapy (Gilbert and which the therapist is with a client in ways that promote a growing sense ofmutuality
Scher, 1999). It was developed in the 1960s and 1970s by clinicians and theorists between them. It is this connection between the client and the therapist: that produces
(Gilbert, 1980; Lerman, 1976; Sturdivant, 1980) and further developed by Brown psychological healing for the client.
(1994) and Worell and Remer (1992). Empowerment therapy challenged the existing In this model, differences between the therapist and client are honored and
models of therapy. li :focused on the woman's actual life and the events in her life the therapist seeks to understand the client's unique experiences through the client's
that caused distress rather than making the assumption that a woman's distress was eyes in order to share the inner world of the client. As the Stone Center
caused by. her intrapsychic deficits. It challenged the medicalization of women's theoreticians continued to develop this theory they began to realize that their
problems and major definitions of madness (Chesler, 1972). It also challenged understanding of women's mental health and psychopathology can be applied
existing mental health and pathology models, especially psychoanalytic and equally to men. They have continued to expand their understanding beyond
psychodynamic models that helped a woman adjust to her proper role in life as wife therapy to workplace issues of power and collaboration (Jordan, 1997; Jordan et:
and mother. ai., 1991),
Empowerment therapy helped women to identify society's definitions about
women as weak, emotional and dependent. It also assisted women to chailenge

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM AIARY BETH NAPIER

FEMINIST CRITIQUES OF HUMANISTIC AND theories are not capable of encompassing the diversity and complexities of women
PERSON-CENTERED THEORIES and their lives. Lerman (1992) concludes that 'there is little in the humanistic
theories that is inherently unsupportive of feminist or nonsexist psychotherapy.
Since the focus of this book involves the intersections of the Person-Centered In general, the theories were formulated before the present growth of feminist
Approach and feminist theory and thinking, 1 will only specifically mention critiques psychology and neither support nor preclude our concepts' (p. 17). She suggests
of person-centered and humanistic modeis of therapy. For critiques of other forms that perhaps humanistic theory and feminist theory could each inform the other
of therapy, see Brown and Bailou (1992). in ways that would enhance both to bring about a 'revolution' in how we view
Lerman (1992) explains that early in feminist theory, the humanistic branch reality.
ofpsychology was seen as being in harmony with much feminist thought (also see Maureen O'Hara provided a feminist analysis of one ofRogers' demonstration
O'Hara, Chapter 5, this volume). However, as feminist thinking became more sessions with a client (O'Hara, 1996). In this critique she states that she had
focused and advanced, there were differences in the two camps that lead feminist known Rogers as a mentor, coileague and friend and continues to have much
thinkers to distance themselves from the humanistic theõrists. Lerman explained respect for him and his theories. She uses the Person-Centered Approach as the
that Rogers' emphasis on the internal perspective of the client in his foundation for her work with others. However, O'Hara is critical of the Person-
phenomenological approach to therapy does not acknowledge the externa1 factors Centered Approach because of the subtle ways that an uninformed therapist can
that cause a client's distress. She stressed that Rogers beiieved that there was no such assist a client in locating oppression as an internal psychological difficulty rather
thing as objective reality but rather that interna1 perceptions create a person's than as a societal force that impinges upon the individual. She also stressed that
psychological make-up. Lerman argues that reality is not solely determined internally person-centered theory was developed during a historical time that was not yet
but is impacted by outside forces that contribute to the person's view of the world. informed by a feminist analysis. Person-centered clinicians, in their attempts to
For example, Lerman (1992) states: 'feminist psychologists and sociologists, in their understand a client's interna! frame of reference as if it were their own, can
studies of the real lives of women, have demonstrated that patriarchal institutions erroneously believe that they can hear a client's world without being affected by
limit and severely constrict the possibilities for women—regardless of whether the their own bias and prejudices. O'Hara argues that feminist analysis has
women involved believe themseives to be oppressed or not' (p. 13). demonstrated that a person always hears others through an internal, lens no matter
As feminist thinking became clearer about the role that externa1 factors such as how diligently the clinician attempts to put aside his or her own beliefs. This is
societal sexism played in a woman's psychological health and distress, feminist never totally possible and can result in a clinician supporting the client's view of
thinkers abandoned the humanistic camp to further develop their own theories oppression as an intrapsychic problem. She gives many examples of how Rogers'
that had gender analysis as a core tenet of their approach. Lerman wonders ifcinicians work in a demonstration with a particular woman was filled with examples of
who practice Person-Centered Therapy will be able to identifr and assist the client how Rogers' choice ofwords in his responses contained unintended bias. Similarly,
with sexism if the therapist has not had specific training to develop a feminist theorists have recently critiqued Rogers for his unintended racist bias in Cari
perspective on women's daily lives. It is possibie that such a clinician could end up Rogers Counseis a Black Client (Moodley, Lago and Takhite, 2004). O'Hara believes
blaming the victim for social forms of oppression. (also see Proctor, Chapter 11 and that in order for Person-Centered Therapy to remaina vital force for change in
Shaw, Chapter 12 in this volume). Greenspan (1983), and Bailou and Gabalac the postmodern, pluralistic world, it must be able to incorporate the knowledge
(1985) state their concerns that it would be an easy mistake for a humanistic therapist gained from feminist as well as other forms of analysis that seek to inform. a
with no training or awareness of the effects of externa1 oppression to believe that all clinician about the ways in which societal forces (such as sexism and racism) htrrt
a women has to do is to change her internal perceptions of herself to achieve people and cause psychological distress. Ifperson-centered therapists were educated
psychological health. Lerman (1992) states: 'to imply that such an internal change in these analyses, it would allow them to better hear their clients with an
would eliminate ali cultural, economic, legal and interpersonal obstacles to a woman's understanding of the bias they bring to the therapy relationship. This consciousness
physical and psychological actualization is absurd' (p. 15). will assist a therapist in hearing a client's world more accurately and give the
Lerman is also critical of the humanistic psychologies lack of differentiation therapist a better chance at not responding to a client through lenses that contam
between the experiences of men and women, the deveiopment of these theories unexamined bias and prejudice.
based solely on men's experiences and the deveiopment of these theories before the
importance of cultural factors was known. She argues that because these theories
pre-date the awareness of cultural considerations on clients' well-being, that these

20 21
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM MARY BETH NAPIER

CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT OF FEMINIST THOUGHT solely on the grounds of expert-based therapies that hold that a therapy relationship
AND THERAPY can never transform into something else? How many ferninist therapists diagnose
their clients for insurance reimbursement purposes without informing and inviting
There has been much scholarship that has advanced our understanding of how participation of the client in the diagnosing process? When do our theories and
women's experience can be honored and individual women nourished and supported. practices benefit us as the more powerfui in the therapy relationship and when do
There are also criticisms of feminist thought that continue to chailenge feminist they benefit our clients?
theorists and activists. Finaily, how do the pioneers of feminist thinking and action allow room for
A prominent criticism ofcurrent feminist thinking is that is has not gone far the ideas and energy of a new generation of women and men to help shape and
enough in acknowledging that gender is just one piece in the larger issue of diversity sharpen the terias and understanding of feminist thinking and therapy? How can
(Greene et ai., 1997) This chailenges the notion that gender is the defining and women who have sacriflced much and been the targer of discrimination and prejudice
most important aspect of ali women's identities and experiences. It also chalienges in their personal and professional lives, who have now become the 'powers-that-be'
the notion that there is such a thirig as 'a woman' for whom ali aspects of feminist in the feminist community, not use power in a way that is similar to the patriarchal
theory appiy. For exampie, a woman who is heterosexual has many similar but also use of power and abuse that began the feminist uprising? There are many student
many different experiences than a woman who is lesbian. Similarly, a white woman experiences with women professors who cali themselves feminist that sound cioser
does not have the sarne kind or levei of discrimination as a woman of color. Socio- to abuse of power rather than power being used to empower ali involved. When a
economic status, physicai (dis)abiiity, inteliectual abiity, country of origin, and group of prominent female feminist thinkers convened to discuss feminist theory
farnily dynamics ali define a particular woman's experience. Feminists struggle with and ask how to move ahead the theory and practice of feminist therapy, they asked
how to honor ali of these particulars of a woman's life without losing the importance themseives, 'How do we chalienge the system while being paid and rewarded by it?'
of the gender anaiysis that guided ferninist thinking for the last two decades. (Brabeck et ai., 1997: 21).
Feminist theorists also struggle to articuiate a more unified theory of feminist
therapy so that an individual clinician can know whether she or he is actuaiiy
practising feminist therapy. It has been suggested that since feminist therapy must CONCLUDING REMAM
aiways be rooted in a person's actual lived experience, that there can never be a
unified, one-size-fits-all feminist therapy (Brabeck and Brown et ai., 1997). Each This chapter wa.s a brief introduction into some of the more prominent tenets,
individual client will be responsive to different leveis of self-disclosure and need practices and further developments of feminist theory and practice. 1 have tried to
different kinds of interventions depending on life circumstances. An expiicit ser of puil together some of the unifying strands in the diversity of feminist theories and
guideiines and values for feminist therapists can help determine when a feminist therapies. Whereas some people would suggest that we are now in an era of 'post
therapist is acting ethically. This is important because feminist principies chailenge feminism', and indeed flrst and second-wave feminists have achieved changes for
many 'ruies' and therapists' behaviors that are codifled in traditional modeis of women's lives today, the need for feminism is far from over. As Bruns and Trimbie
therapy. For example, the use of therapist self-disclosure is very different for feminist (2001) suggest, there is stili mucb to be done. With our foremothers to guide our
therapists than therapists who use expert-based models of psychotherapy such as path, we join with our sisters and brothers to continue their iegacy to work for a
psychodynamic or cognitivd-behaviorai approahes. world that is more just and compassionate.
Within the diversity of approaches that are called 'feminist therapies' many
ethicai dilemmas remain. without clear answers. Some examples of arcas that stii
need more thought, analysis and discussion are questions such as: is ir considered REFERENCES
feminist therapy if a therapist works with a wife and husband from a traditional,
patriarchal family to help the husband see how his status in the community wili rise American PsychiatricAssociation (1994) DiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders
if his wife becomes literate? Or is this simply buying into the patriarchai power (4th ed) (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: Author.
structure of the family? Is ir unethical for a therapist, after much consideration, to Bailou, M and Gabalac, NW (198 5) A Feminist Position on Mental Health. Springfield, IL:
invite a suicidai client to spend the night with her famiiy rather than hospitalize Charles C Thomas.
her, iike some therapists have done? What does ir say abour yieiding power when a Belenky, MF, Ciinchy, BM, Goldberger, NR, and Tarule, JM (1986) Women's Ways of
therapist refuses to be open to a shift in the therapist/client relationship after therapy Knowing—Devdopment ofselfvoice, and mmd. New York: Basic Books.

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 ENCOUNTERJNG FEMINISM ~Y BETH NAPIER

Brabeck, M and Brown, L (1997) Feminist theory and psychological practice, in J Worell Washington, DC.
and NG Johnson (eds) Shaping the Future of Feminist Psychology: Education, research Milier, JB (1976) Towarda New Psychology of Women. Boston: Beacon Press.
and practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 15-35. Milier, JB and Stiver, 1 (1997) The Healing Relationshtp: How women form reLationshps in
Brown, LS (1994) Subversive Dialogues: Theoy infeminist therapy. NewYork: Basic Books. therapy and in liJè. Boston: Beacon Press.
Brown, LS and Bailou, M (1992) (eds) Personality and Psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals. Moodley, R, Lago, C and Talahite, A (eds) (2004) Cari Rogers Counseis a Black Client: Race
New York: The Guilford Press. and culture iv person-centred counselling. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.
Bruns, CM and Trimbie, C (2001) Rising tide: Taking our place as young feminist O'Hara, M (1996) Rogers and Sylvia: A feminist analysis, in BA Farber, DC Brink, and PM
psychologists. Women and Therapy, 23(2): 19-36. Raskin (eds) ThePsychotherapy ofCarlRogers: Cases and commentary NewYork: Guilford
Caplan, P (1995, August) The DSM-W and gender issues. Paper presented at the 103rd - Press.
Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New York. Proctor, G (2002a) The Dynamics ofPower in Counseiing and Psychotherapy: Ethics, politics
Chesler, P (1972/1997) Women and Madness. New York: Four walis eight windows. andpractice. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.
Ford, M and Widiger, T (1989) Sex bias in the &agnosis ofhistrionic and antisocial personality Proctor, G (2002b) FeministTheory. Unpub1ished teaching handout. Chicago: Illinois School
disorders. Journal of Counseling and ClinicalPsychology, 57, 301-5. of Professional Psychology.
French, M (1985) BeyondPower: On women, men and morais. London: Jonathan Cape. Shaw, C and Proctor, G (2004) Women at the margins: A critique ofborderline personality
Gilbert, IA (1980) Feminist therapy, in AM Brodsky and 1ff Hare-Mustin (eds) Women disorder. Asylum (4)3: 8-10.
and Psychotherapy:An assessment ofresearch andpractice. NewYork: Guilford Press, pp. Starhawk (1987) Truth orDare: Encounters withpower, authority and mystery. San Francisco:
245-65. Harper and Row.
Gilbert, L and Scher, M (1999) Gender and Sex in Counseling and Psychotherapy. Boston: Sturdivant, S (1980) Therapy with Women: A feministphilosophy oftreatment. New York:
Allyn and Bacon. Springer.
Gilligan, C (1982) In a Different Voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Worell, J and Remer, P (1992) Feminist Perspectives in Therapy: An empowerment modelfbr
Cambridge: Harvard University Press. women. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Greene, B and Sanchez-Hucles, J (1997) Diversity: Advancing an inclusive feminist Wyche, KF and Rice, JK (1997) Feminist therapy: From dialogue to tenets, in J Worell and
psycho1ogy in J Worell and NG Johnson (eds) Shaping the Future ofFeministPsychology: NG Johnson (eds) Shaping the Future of Feminist Psychology: Education, research and
Education, research andpractice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 57-71.
pp. 173-202.
Greenspan, M (19 83) A New Approach to Women and Therapy: Howpsychotherapyfails women
and what they can do about it. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Humm, M (1992) Feminisms: A reader. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Jordan, JV (1997) Women's Growth in Diversity: More writingsfrom the Stone Center. New
York: Guilford Press.
Jordan, JV Kaplan, AG, Miier, JB, Stiver, IP and Surrey, J (1991) Women's Growth in
Connection: Writingsfroiz the Stone Center. Ne$vYork: Guilford Press.
Kaplan, M (1983) A woman's view of DSM-III. American Psychologist, 38, 786-92.
Lerman, H (1976) What happens in feminist therapy, in S Ccx (ed) Femak Psychology: The
emerging self Chicago: Science Research Associates.
Lerman, H (1995, August) A criticai look at the DSM-IV. Symposium presented at the
103rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New York.
Lerman, H (1992) The limits of phenomenology: A fensinist critique of the humanistic
personality theories, in LS Brown and M Bailou (eds) Personality and Psychopathology:
Feminist reappraisals. The Guilford Press: New York, pp. 8-19.
Marecek, J and Hare-Mustin, RT (1987, March) Feminism and therapy: Can this relationship
be saved? Paper presented at the meeting of the American Orthopsychiatric Association,

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 GILLIAN PROCTOR

Ali individuais have within themseives the ability to guide their

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PERSON- own lives in a manner that is both personaily satisfying and socially
CENTRED APPROACH constructive. In a particular type of helping relationship, we free
the individuais to find their inner wisdom and confidence, and they
will make increasirigly healthier and more constructive choices.
(1989: xiv)

This hypothesis is a summary of Rogers' (1959) theory of therapy and theory of

personality.

GILLIAN PROCTOR THEORY OF THERAPY

The six necessary and sufficient conditions are the theory of therapy and Rogers
explains them as foiiows:
INTRODUCTION For therapy to occur, it is necessary that these conditions exist:
That two persons are in contact.
The Person-Centred Approach (PCA) refers to Gari Rogers' theories of human That the first person, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of
growth and interaction. Person-Centred Therapy (PCT) or Clicnt-Centred Therapy incongruence, being vuinerabie or anxious.
was first described by Cari Rogers in the 1950s and was elaborated by him and his That the second person, whom we shali term the therapist, is
coileagues until his death in 1987. He then extended his ideas to a theory of congruent in the reiationship.
personality which was more hypothetical and provided a theor of why PCT was That the therapist is experiencing unconditionai positive regard
helpftii. Rogers eiaborated these theories throughout his professionai life and became toward the client.
increasingiy interested in applying his theories in much wider arenas than the That the therapist is experiencing an empathic understanding of
individual therapy reiationship. He had a profound impact on the world of therapy. the client's interna1 frame of reference.
Rogers was a psychoiogist. He deveioped this way of being with patients (whom he That the client perceives, at ieast to a minimal degree, conditions 4
cailed 'clients') and calied it 'counseliing', as he was forbidden to use the word and 5, the unconditional positive regard of the therapist for him,
'therapy because of his lack of medical training. Kirschenbaum and Henderson and the empathic understanding of the therapist. (Rogers, 1959: 213)
(1989: xi) suggest that he was responsible more than any other individual 'for the
spread of professionai counselling and psychotherapy beyond psychiatry and The therapist's congruence, unconditionai positive regard for the client and empathic
psychoanalysis to ali the helping professions.—psychology, social work, education, understanding are considered the 'faciiitative' conditions or facilitative attitudes. As
ministry, lay therapy, and others'. weii as these conditions becoming the cornerstone of PCT, Rogers (1957) aiso
However, his impact was not limited to the world of therapy. Throughout his describes these conditions simiiariy in his 'integration statement' (Bozarth, 1999)
iife, along with his çolleagues, he extended his theories of therapy and personaiity where he asserts that they are the necessary and sufficient conditions in ali therapy.
to apply to: education, partnerships, ali kinds of human relationships, groups, The foliowing is a closer look at ali six of these conditions.
organisations, the work place and the resolution of international conflict. Bozarth
(1998: i) explains that Rogers used the term PCA to 'identify the principies CONDITION 1: CONTACT
hypothesized in client-centered therapy as they might be impiemented in other
arcas, such as education, business, groups and society'.. The PCA continues to be Rogers further clarifies that the first condition is actually a precondition for the
developed and used around the world by practitioners in ali of these arcas. other conditions to be fulfihied. He explains; psychoiogicai contact as that in which
The basic message or hypothesis of Rogers' theories are summarised by 'each makes some perceived difference in the experientiai field of the other' (Rogers,
Kirschenbaum and Henderson and described as both simple and profound. 1959: 221). Basicaily, this condition means that for therapy to happen, the therapist

26 27
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINIsM GILLIAN PROCTOR

and client must notice or be aware of each other's presence. Prouty (1994) and Unlike psychodynamic therapy, PCT does not refer to such concepts as 'transference'
others have fiirther developed PCT to elaborate a theory of'pre-therapy to work to or 'counter-transference. The concept of congruence demonstrates the commitment
increase contact between the therapist and client with clients where contact cannot of a person-centred therapist to a real relationship with a client, as a genuine person
be assumed. Prouty (2002) and Barrett-L.ennard (2002) argue that contact is a themselves in the relationship.
complex phenomena and exists on continua and in many domains.
CoNDrnoN 4: THERAPIST UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD (UPR)
CoNDInoN 2: CLIENT INCONGRUENCE
Earlier in the evolution of Rogers' therapy theory, he referred to the importance of
In the second condition, the state of incongruence refers to the discrepancy between the therapist's warmth, acceptance and respect for the client. These characteristics
the self-concept and the organismic self.' Basicaliy, a person is incongruent when carne together following Stanley Standal's doctoral thesis (see Moon, Rice and
their outer expression is not in tune with their inner feelings or experiences. For Schneider, 2002) in the concept of UPR. Rogers (1957) explained that an attitude
example, someone may constandy express that they are totaily happy and have had of UPR from the therapist means caring for the client, but in a non-possessive way,
an idyilic life yet be fui! of distress inside. This connects to Rogers' personality as a separate autonomous person. Rogers also referred to UPR as a deep 'prizing' of
theory of how psychological distress is created. He suggests that ali psychological the client. An attitude of UPR by the therapist means she/he will aim to value and
distress can be understood in terms of incongruence. Brodley (2004) has suggested prize ali aspects of the client's experiencing equaliy. The therapist's acceptance of
this condition is the least important for the therapy and this is certainly the least the client is not conditional on the client having to be or present a certain way.
often mentioned condition in person-centred theory. Bozarth and Wilkins (2002) UPR reflects acceptance, care and a non-judgmental attitude. Bozarth (1998: 83)
suggest that the client needs to be sufficiently aware of their own incongruence and, describes UPR as 'the curative factor in client-centered theory'.
troubled by it to persist in the endeavour of therapy.
CONDITION 5: THERAPIST EMPATHIC UNDERSTANDING (EU)
CONDITION 3: THEtPIsT CONGRUENCE
Rogers explains that to empathically understand is to sense the client's private world
The third condition requires that the therapist be congruent or integrated. This as if it were the therapist's own world. Empathic understanding describes the process
means that the therapist must be aware ofher/his own inner experiencing and must of the therapist trying to step into the client's world and experience it 'as if' (s)he
not be presenting a façade to the client. Rogers also clarifies that congruence means were the client. It is the therapist foilowing the moment-by-moment experiencing
an awareness of feelings, and not necessarily communicating these overtly to the of the client, never trying to be one step ahead of the client but to follow as closely
client. This is a constant process for therapists to aim to be aware of their inner behind as possible and communicate this understanding to the client. Mearns and
feelings and experiences on a moment-by-moment basis. This condition also refers Thorne (1988) describe this as:
to the importance in PCT for the therapist to be a real person, not putting on a the counselior demonstrates a capacity to track and sense accurately
professional front as a therapist, and not hiding or denying who they are as a person. the feelings and personal meanings of the client; she is able to learn
While Rogers points out that no one individual can be fully integrated at ali times, what it feels like to be in the client's skin and to perceive the world
he is referring to the time à the therapy contat: as the client perceives it. (p. i)
It is enough if in this particular m'oment of this immediate
relationship with this specific person he is completely and fulty CONDITION 6: CLIENT PERCEWES THERAPIST'S UNCONDI1IONAL POSITIVE REGARD
himself, with his experience of the moment being accurately AND EMPATHIC UNDERSTANDING
symbolised and integrated into the picture he hoids of himself.
(Rogers, 1957; cited in Kirschenbaum and Henderson, 1989: zi)' In the final condition the client must be able to perceive some acceptance and
empathy from the therapist. This condition demonstrates the vital importance of
1See below in Theory of Personality for definitions ofthese terms. the client's perspective in PCT Ifthe client does not perceive the therapist's attitudes,
2. Atthis point in his career, Rogers used the masculine pronoun to refer to men and the conditions are not met; therapy cannot take place. Barrett-Lennard (2002) had
Later in his career he changed this convention and used inclusive language in his writings and this condition at the centre of his research in PCT, recognising that the best person
speeches (see his note about this in Rogers, 1978a: ix). to evaluate the therapist's attitudes was the client.

28 29

1
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GILLIAN PROCTOR

Rogers emphasises that the extent to which the conditions are fulfihled varies, The non-directive attitude is the therapist's discipline to try and inhabit the client's
and he hypothesises that, the more these conditions are fulfilled, the more world and understand the client from within the client's frame of reference rather
psychological growth wili occur in the client. This suggests that these are conditions than imposing the therapist's interpretations or explanations. By communicating
to be aimed for by therapists; they are not absohites. Rogers also claims that these their empathic understanding to the client, the therapist strives to be with the
are the necessary and sufficient conditions to work with any individual, no matter client's experience and pace without trying to direct content. This attitude reflects
what problems they may have. He asserts that whenever these conditions are met the therapist's belief that they are not the expert on each client's world. The therapist
(whether in formal therapy or outside of it) they are similarly effective. does not know what is 'right' or the most heipful way to proceed for each and every
client.
NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT
THEORY OF PERSONALITY
Rogers is clear that these six conditions are all that is needed for positive change to
take place. These conditions are attitudes, not techniques and if they are fulfilled, After arriving ar bis theory of therapy from research, Rogers then eiaborated this to
no other specific interventions are needed. A fiirther implication of this theory is hypothesise a theory ofpersonality, to expiam why/how PCT works.
that 'the techniques of various therapies are relatively unimportant except to the
extent that they serve as channels for fulfihling one of the conditions' (Rogers 1957, THE ACTtJALLS1NG TENDENCY
cited in Kirschenbaum and Henderson, 1989: 233). Specific interventions or
techniques may decrease the likeiihood of these attitudes being embodied by the Central to his personatity theory is the hypothesis of the existence of an innate
therapist. potential for constructive growth in each individual which Rogers termed the
Moreover, a psychological diagnosis or formulation of problems is not necessary 'actuaiizing tendency' (Rogers, 1959). This concept foiiowed similar hypotheses
for therapy. PCT is the sarne with ali people, independent of the manifestation of • from bioiogists such as Goldstein (1939, in Brodley, 1999). Rogers used the analogy
distress within the client. Whatever the diagnosis or specific problem with which a of a potato plant to describe this concept. He described finding a potato plant in a
client may come to therapy, the person-centred therapist's job is exactly the sarne, dark garage that had grown spindly shoots towards the one high window that gave
to convey the attitudes of congruence, empathy and unconditional positive regard. light, still striving to grow despite the adverse conditions (Rogers, 1978a: 8). He
If these conditions are the necessary and sufficient conditions for ali therapy, believed in the potential of each living organism to grow to the best of its abiiity
the facilitative conditions are qualities of experience, not inteilectual information, and for humans specifically to grow towards their potential, which is constructive
and must be acquired through experiential training: formal qualifications are both for each individual and for society as a whole.
unnecessary for their acquisition. Academic quaiifications or knowiedge about
personaiity development or mental health for example, are irrelevant to a person's CONDITIONS OF WORTH
ability to convey the attitudes of congruence, empathy and unconditional positive
regard (Rogers, 1957). He hypotbesised that this actualising tendency can be thwarted (although never
killed completeiy until the organism dies) by conditions in the environment,
NoN-DIic11vE ATTJTUDE speciflcally when the individual encounters 'conditions of worth'. Conditions of
worth are messages that individuais are acceptabie only if they think, feel or behave
Intrinsic to the facilitative conditions is a non-directive attitude on the part of the in a certain way. These messages can be cultural (e.g. concerning gender roles) or
therapist. Brodley explains how this attitude follows from the principie of the seif- come from important individuaIs in someone's life, such as parents. Ifpeople receive
actualising tendency' and the facilitative conditions: conditions ofworth, they begin to internalise these conditions as a 'seif-concept' of
The nondirective attitude influences the therapist to protect the
...
what they should be, which, over time, can lead the individual to become further
client's self determined processes that promote the client's self- and further removed from the 'organismic seif'. The organismic seif is Rogers' term
empowerment. And it fosters the avoidance of therapist intentions for the experiencing self within, the messages coming from internal interpretations
and behaviors that might disempower the client. (Brodley, 1997: 18) ofperceptions—the inner selfor 'real' seif. This discrepancy between the self-concept
and the organismic seif, and the ways that individuais have for coping with this, is
See below in Theory of Personality for definition of 'actualising tendency. hypothesised to be the cause of psychological distress.

30 31
 VMI

ENCOUNTEBJNG FEMINISM GILLIAN PROCTOR

Rogers' Personality Theory is very much focused on the development of the regard and understanding of others. Rogers describes these changes as follows:
individual, and ideas ofthe 'self'. However, the causes of distress, i.e., the imposition In such a relationship the individual becomes more integrated, more
of conditions ofworth, and the remediation of this distress (the therapy relationship) effective. He shows fewer of the characteristics which are usually
are clearly relational. Later, Rogers extended his theories to apply to increasingly termed neurotic or psychotic, and more of the characteristics of the
larger groups of people and communities. heaithy, well-functioning person. He changes his perception of
himself, becoming more realistic in bis views of self. He becomes
more like the person he wishes to be. He values himself more highly.
INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY THEORY ON THERAPY He is more self-confident and self-directing. He has a better
THEORY understanding of himself, becomes more open to experience, denies
or represses less of his experience. He is more accepting in his
Rogers' personality theory has very little influence on the practice of PCT, 'Whereas attitudes toward others, seeing others as more similar to himself.
the therapist may use the personality theory to formulate a client's problems outside (Rogers, 1961: 36)
of therapy, the therapist's aim when with the client is still purely to embody the
facilitative attitudes. The therapist still has no aim for the client, and remains non- Rogers developed these observations of how a client is likely to change during PCT
directive, to preserve the autonomy and uniqueness of the client. Other offshoots into the concept of the fully functioning person (described in Rogers, 1961 and
of classical or non-directive PCT have developed, such as Experiential Therapy or reprinted in Kirschenbaum and Henderson, 1989). He described this as a process
Focusing that have been more influenced by Rogers' personality theory and have rather than a state of being, characterised by a freedom to be able to move in any
developed aims for the therapist above and beyond the necessary and sufficient direction. He lists the key characteristics of this process as: an increasing openness
conditions of Rogers' therapy theory. These therapist aims are to increase or fadiitate to experience, increasingly existential living (to live fully in each moment) and an
the client's depth or speed of processing in therapy. However, when we refer to increasing trust in their organism.
PCT in this book, we are referring to Rogers' original theory of therapy that is non-
directive or classical PCT.
RESEARCH BASE OF PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY

PROCESS OF PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY Rogers' theory of therapy was based on research on what seemed to help clients in
therapy. His theory followed bis experiences and experimenting with how to help
Rogers (1959) describes the process that a client who experiences the facilitative clients over many years. He methodically examined hours and hours of recorded
conditions of therapy characteristically goes through. It is clear that the characteristic and transcribed therapy sessions to examine what the ingredients ofeifective therapy
outcomes of therapy do not lead to any aims for the therapist but merely describe were. This was the first time that actual therapist-client interactions in therapy had
changes that are likely to occur as a result of the facilitative conditions. Thus a been opened to the scrutiny of research. Instead of relying on therapists' recoilections
description of processes that the client may go through does not influence the or interpretations of what therapy was about, he and his researchers looked directly
classical/non-directive person-centred therapist in their practice. In experiential as õutside observers at what was said in therapy.
approaches to PCT, personality theory and research about the process of therapy He used the transcripts of therapy sessions to systematically examine what
may influence the therapist's aim when with the client. Experiential therapists may therapists did that was helpful, and what was unhelpful. Initial findings identified
use techniques to 'deepen' the client's process or aim to help them go through the that therapy progress was thwarted by therapists being directive, asking probing
following processes more quicldy. questions or interpreting. On the contrary, therapist interventioris that lead to client
Rogers (1959) stated that during the process of therapy, the client is likely to insight and deepening or further exploration were those where the therapist 'simply
be aware of more of his/her inner experiencing and is able to accurately experience recognises and clarifies the feelings expressed' (Rogers, 1942, reprinted in
more of his/her perceptions. In reciprocity with the attitudes experienced by the Kirschenbaum and Henderson, 1989). From these direct observations of therapy,
therapist towards the client, the client increasingly feels positive self-regard, is he developed his theory of therapy of the six necessary and sufficient conditions
increasingly free to be him/herself and understands him/herselfbetter. In reciprocity (Rogers, 1959). Later, he used Q-sort methodology to analyse how clients' views of
with these changes towards self, the client is also likely to experience more positive themselves and others changed during therapy (see Rogers and Dymond, 1954).

32 33
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINIsM GILLIAN Pr&ocTor&

After the development of bis theory of therapy, Rogers and many others spent facilitate growth in an education setting (Rogers, 1969). Rogers began to work
much time continuing to research the effectiveness of PCT. Since the 1950s and with larger and larger encounter groups and then used this approach to try and
continuing today, there has been much research evidence supporting the efflcacy of resolve political conflicts internationaliy by facilitating encounter groups with
Person4Client-CentredTherapy for clients with many different types ofdifficulties, members ofpolitical factions who were in conflict with each other. This peace work
including psychotic experiences (see Barrett-Lennard, 1998 for review of research). is still continued in various parts of the world today and remains a significant
One of the most recent pieces of research in the UK's current climate of 'evidence- influence in many approaches to peace work.
based practice' used a randomised controlled trial dcsign to compare three treatments
for people with depression or arixiety and depression in primary cate. King et ai.
(2000) compared PCT, Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) and routine GP care. PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICAL PRINCIPLES BEHIND THE
Unusual for such comparison studies, in this study the therapists providing PCT PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH
were qualified at a high levei. The study found that both PCT and CBT obtained
significantly better results than routine GP cate at four months follow-up. The fundamental ethical principie behind PCT is prioritising the autonomy of the
In addition to specific research on the effectiveness of PCT, research to client. In contrast, the ethical principie of beneficence (doing what's judged to be
investigate the factors responsible for success in general in therapy have also added best for the client) is prioritised by many other modeis of therapy. Gendlin (2002:
to the weight of evidence for PCT. Forty years of psychotherapy research has xi) describes Rogers' beliefs which are embodied in the PCA saying, 'He cared about
consistentiy discovered the importance of the client's resources and the quality of - each person but not about institutions. He did not care about appearances, roles,
the therapy relationship for effective and good therapy. Lambert (1992 cited in ciass, credentials or positions, and he doubted every authority including bis own.'
Lambert 2004) estimated that 40% of outcome variance was accounted for by the Rogers describes PCT as 'revolutionary' with respect to the poiitical stance
client's externa1 and internal resources and 30% by the quality of the therapy and philosophy ir uphoids: one of bis books is entitled Cari Rogers on Personal
relationship. Bozarth (1998) discussed the implications of this research, conciuding Power: Inner Strength and Its Revolutionary Impact (1978a). In discussing the poiitics
that the type of therapy or technique or training or credentials of the therapist are of bis approach, he defines politics by saying:
found to be irrelevant, and the most consistent relationship variables related to Politics involves the question of where power is located, who makes
effectiveness are empathy, genuineness and unconditional positive regard. The results the choices and decisions, who carnes out or enforces those
of this research are consistent with the philosophy and theory of Person-Centred decisions, and who has the knowledge or data regarding the
Therapy (PCT), which relies dlirectly on the client's resources and the therapy consequences of those decisions. It involves the strategies involved
relationship. This consistency is unsurprising given the research-based way Rogers in the taking of power, the distribution of power, the holding of
developed PCT. power, and the sharing or relinquishing of power. (Rogers, 1978b: i)

PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY AND POWER

FURTHERAPPLICATIONS OF PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY
1 argue (Proctor, 2002) that Gari Rogers was the first theorist to consider issues of
After elaborating bis theory of therapy, Rogers suggested that this theory could be power in the therapy relationship. Rogers challenged the power inherent in the role
applied to ali human reiationships. Thus, the aims to provide the facilitative of the therapist in many revolutionary ways. Person-centred theory is based on the
conditions could beapplied to partnerships, ftiendships, working relationships and principie of respect for each individual and their autonomy. Ir is a radical theory of
any other relationship. His book Becoming Partners: Marriage and às Alternatives therapy and is heretical to psychiatric understanding of mental iilness. The theory
applied .this theory to partnerships (Rogers, 1972). Rogers also became more ofpsychological distress is based on internalised oppression, and the effect ofPerson-
interested during bis time in California in applying this theory to groups, and Gentred Therapy is to reduce the power that others have had over clients and thus
along with coiieagues, he developed the idea of the encounter group. Again, the increase their own sense ofpersonal power, or 'power-fivm-within' (see Proctor, 2002).
aim of the group fàcilitators was to provide the facilitative conditions to the group, In bis later work, Rogers also focused on the structural power in society, and 1
and he wrote about this in bis book on encounter groups Cari Rogers on Encounter suggest that to consider ali aspects of power fully, the person-centred therapist needs
Groups (Rogers, 1970). His first book on education, Freedom to Learn: A View of to consider the 'socially positioned individual' (Kearney, 1996). It is not enough to
What Education Might Become, crystallised how this approach could be applied to aim to understand each unique individual, witbout trying to understand how society

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GILLIAN PROCTOR

and the cultural context of that individual impacts on their experiences. therapy including the accountability of the therapists to be able to demonstrate the
Rogers explicitly set out to change the role of the therapist from that of an extent to which they fulfilled the core conditions. He similarly demystified the
expert and to aim for a more egalitarian therapy relationship. This follows from the therapist as a person by stressing the concept of congruence.
philosophy underlying Person-Centred Therapy. Rogers contends that the premise
of the actualising tendency chailenges the need to control people, i.e., chalienges:
The view that the nature of the individual is such that he cannot be CONCLUSION
trusted—that he must be guided, instructed, rewarded, punished,
and controlled by those that are higher in status.' (Rogers, I978a: 8) Despite Rogers' huge impact and significance, his work has also attracted a lot of
controversy and disagreement. Kirschenbaum and Henderson (1989: xv) explain
He explains the implications of this philosophy and values: that 'Rogers' work has been so controversial, maligned and misunderstood as well
The politics of the person-centered approach is a conscious as accepted and embraced.' This is hardly surprising given the political implications
renunciation and avoidance by the therapist of ali control over, or of bis theories. Trusting individuais, letting clients guide their own process, valuing
decision-making for, the client. It is the facilitation of self- each person and prioritising relationships is a message which runs counter to the
ownership by the client and the strategies by which this can be priorities of those with political power or money and against the philosophy of
achieved; the placing of the locus of decision-making and the global capitalism giving wealtb to a few at the expense of many. Similarly, the PCA
responsibiiity for the effects of these decisions. li is poiitically can strike a blow at the heart of patriarcby, with irs clear messages that all people,
centered in the client. (Rogers I978a: 14) women and men, are trustworthy and of value.

This trust in the client's process leads to the non-directive attitude. The non-directive
attitude is a way for therapists to express their commitment to avoiding client REFERENCES
disempowerment (Brodley, 1997). Rogers (1978a) pointed out the implications of
this principie of non-directivity on the part of the therapist by discussing the threat Barrett-Lennard, GT (1998) Cari Rogers Helping System: Journey and substance. London:
to counsellors from his views: 1 was making it clear that if they agreed with me, ir Sage.
would mean the complete disruption and reversa1 of their personal control in their Barrett-Lennard, GT (2002) Perceptual Variables of the Helping Relationship: A measuring
counselling relationship' (p. 7). In this sense PCT is a radical disruption of the system and its fruits, in G Wyatt and P Sanders (eds) Rogers' Therapeutic Conditions.
dynamics of power in therapy. Natiello (2001: 11) explains that 'Such a stand is in Volume 4. Contact and Perception. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 25-50.
radical conflict with the prevailing paradigm of authoritarian power.' Bozarth, J (1998) Person-Centred Therapy: A revolutionaryparadigm. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS
Rogers assem that opposition to Person-Centred Therapy sprang 'primarily Books.
because ir struck such an outrageous blow to the therapist's power' (1 978a: 16). He Bozarth, J and Wilkins, P (2002) Introduction to Vol 3: Unconditional Positive Regard in
chailenges the notion of expert knowledge which gives power, and believes in the Context, in J Bozarth and P Wilkins (eds) Rogers' Therapeutíc Conditions. Volume 3.
power of congruence, that: Unconditional Positive Regard. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. vii—ix.
In such an individual, functioning in à unified way, we have the Brodley, BT (1997) The nondirective attitude in client-centered therapy. Person-Centered
best possible base for wise action. It is a process base, not a static Journa14(1): 18-30.
authority base. (Rogers, 1978a: 250) Brodley, BT (1999) The actualizing tendency concept in client-centered theory. Person-
Centeredjournal, 6(2): 108-120.
DEMYsTIFIcATIoN OF THERAPY Brodley, BT (2004) 16th May, emaii personal communication.
Gendlin, E (2002) Foreword, in Cari Rogers: The quiet revolutionary. CR Rogers and DE
Another way in which Rogers addressed the imbalance of power in the therapy Russeli (eds). Roseville, CA, USA: Penrnarin Books, pp. xi—xxi.
relationship was to make Person-Centred Therapy transparent and explicit, to Goldstein, K (1939) The Organism. Boston: Beacon Press.
demystify therapy. He did this by explaining exactly what the therapist does in Kearney, A (1996) Counseiing, Class and Politícs. Undeclared influences in therapy. Ross-on-
therapy and providing much tape-recorded and video-recorded material for public Wye: PCCS Books.
use. He placed great importance on the clarity of the process and the content of King, M, Sibbaid, B, Ward, E, Bower, P, Lloyd, M, Gabbay, M and Byford, S (2000)

36 37
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINIsM T

Randomised controlled trial ofnon-directive counselling, cognitive behaviour therapy A PERSONAL ODYSSEY-SHAPING
and usual general practitioner cate in the management of depression as well as mixed
anxiety and depression in primary care. Health Technology Assessment, 4, 19. Also POLITICAL AND FEMINIST PRINCIPLES
published in the British Medical Journal, 321, (2000), pp. 1383-8.
Kirschenbaum, H and Henderson, VL (1989) (eds) The CarlRogeïs Readei Boston: Houghton
IN THE PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH
Mifflin.
Lambert, MJ (cd) (2004) Handbook ofPsychotherapy and Behavioral Change (5th cd). New
York: Wiley.
Mearns, D and Thorne, B (1988) Person-Centred Counseiing inAction. London: Sage.
Moon, K, Rice, B and Schneider, C (2002) Stanley W Standal and the Need for Positive
Regard, in J Bozarrh and P Wilkins (eds) Rogers' Therapeutic Conditions. Volume 3.
GAY (SwENsoN) BARFIELD
Unconditional Positive Regard. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 19-34.
Natielio, P (2001) The Person-Centered App roach:A passionatepresence. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS
Books.
Proctor, G (2002) The Dynamics ofPower in Therapy: Ethics, politics and practice. Ross-on-
Wye: PCCS Books. When 1 was asked—and committed enthusiastically—to write about my personal
Prouty G (1994) Theoretical Evolutions in Person -CenterediExperiential Therapy:Applications experiences in conjoining the Person-Centered Approach (PCA) with feminist values
to schizophrenic and reta rded psychoses. Greenwood, CT: Praeger. and activities for this significant text, it was also with some trepidation. Writing with
Prouty,G (2002) Pre-Therapy as a theoretical system, in G Wyatt and P Sanders (eds) passion about ideas and social movements has been relatively easy for me; however,
Rogers' Therapeutic Conditions. Volume 4. Contact and Perception. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS writing about myself within that frame and context is a considerably more daunting
Books, pp. 54-62. chailenge.
Rogers, CR (1942) The use ofelectrically recorded interviews in improving psychotherapeutic
techniques. Americanjournal ofOrthopsychiatry 12, 429-34. THE DUBIOUS TRUTHS OF HERISTORY
Rogers, CR (1957) The necessary and sufficient conditions oftherapeutic personality change.
TheJournal of Consulting Psychology 21(2): 95-103. So 1 remind the reader that this personal narrative is not hard data, but a private history
Rogers, CR (1959) A Theory ofTherapy, Personality, and Interpersonal Relationships, as softened and slanted through the memory, perceptions and perspectives, disappoint-
Developed in the Client-Centered Framework, in S Koch (cd) .Psychology, a Study ofa menu and great joys of a now nearly 69-year-old woman who thinks of herself as a
Science. Vol 3. Formulations of the Person and the Social Context. New York: McGraw 'gatherer' and connector, a social activist and a flawed but committed idealist. This
Hill, pp. 184-256. chronicle is also undergirded by the deep conviction that our work in the fields of social
Rcgers, CR (196 1) On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. change within the feminist and person-centered communities made a difference in some
Rogers, CR (1969) Freedom to Learn: A view of what education might become. Constable, small and larger ways for women, for peace and ultisnately for the PCA. It is a privilege
OH: Charles E Merrill. for me to be able to link together in this review the guiding principles and philosophies
Rogers, CR (1970) Carl Rogers on Encounter Groups. New York: Harper and Row. and practices of my life, since each of these philosophical outcroppings had deep roots
Rogers, CR (1972) Becoming Partners: Marriage and às alternatives. New York: Delacorte in my experiences from childliood onward as a female child of both crisis and amazing
Press. opportunities.
Rogers, CR (1978a) CarlRogers on PersonalPower: Innerstrength and its revolutionary impact. Since 1 hold teamwork, indusion and acknowledgment of others in high value, my
New York: Delacorte Press. one major regret is that space does not allow me to list all of the incredible individual
Rogers, CR (1978b) My Political View. Statement made to the El Escorial Workshop. March women and men who were involved over the years in all that follows. My original
31, unpublished manuscript. version did list hundreds ofthem, but lists ofhundreds do not fit with editorial realities!
Rogers, CR and Dymond, R (eds) (1954) Psychotherapy and Personality Change. Chicago: So 1 trust that each ofyou not named will know who you are as you read about our long
University Press. and rich passages through histoty together, and will consider yourselfvery present and
loved.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GAY (SwENsoN) BARFIELD

CLARITY COMMITMENT AND CONVICTION Not a happy place to end, but a powerful place to begin and continue our work for
social justice.
Much like the PCA and feminist philosophies themselves—which provide the sou for Bom in 1936, as an infant and child 1 traveled throughout the United States with
the personal fiowering of so many of us—and deeper than my own possibie my parents and three older siblings in a caravan of musicians 'on the road'. 1 was the
foreshortenings, prejudices and distortions in this story, something emerges with an youngest of four children bom to a rather famous father, 'big band leader Buddy Fisher,
unbiased clarity and strong conviction for me as 1 write this now. It is astonishment at the 'Chicago Joy Boy', and we traveled until the 1940s when the orchestra disbanded as
the powerful events that can be created and lived out when women are supported (as young musicians went off to war. After that my father became a traveling salesman,
was 1) and nourished in their visions and their higher callings. What a horrendous ioss struggling now in shame, not farne, to keep bis large family out of poverty and his
it has been to centuries of humanity that more wornen across the globe have not been bruised ego intact. Large quantities of alcohol soaked up much of the money he earned
supported to such a large degree. What is called up for me here is the expression 'Be to ease bis depression and loss. The heavy drinking only released bis rage, anger and
careful what you ask for—you are likely to get W. At face value, this is a potentially brutality on us ali the more, particuiariy on my weary and frightened mother, by then
simplistic positivist cliché, considering that, for billions ofwomen, life does not provide going through a harrowing menopause as well.
such rich opportunities. However, it can become real and tangible. It can happen when As a teen in the 1950s, 1 was enthralled and relieved finailyto be settiing somewhere,
our personal visions, cornmitments and longings ARE encouragedandenabledby respect, anywhere, in one community (1 às Vegas, Nevada!), and living in a real house, not a
support and mentoring or 'meniressing', at opportune moments, and we trust ourseives hotel. So 1 becamne the model American young woman in my roles of the virginal 'good
to risk, described so famously by Goethe: girl', high achiever, head cheerleader, prom princess and football queen, along with
Whatever you can do, or dream you can, begin it. being the first female senior class president, and dass salutatorian and graduation speaker.
Boldness has Genius, Power and Magic in it. As an entering freshman in the autumn of 1954 at the University of California, Berkeley,
Begin it now. 1 began tu experience intimations of the larger social and political upheavals just abead.
By the time 1 graduated in 1958 Berkeley students had moved from enjoying fraternity
1 was veiy fortunate to have both such support and mentoring, and the boldness or parties and panty raids tu protesting and creating the 'free speech movement' on campus.
effrontery to attempt to realize some of my greatest dreams—something that Goethe At the sarne time, but not yet known to me, a man named Cari Rogers and bis innovative
encourages in us ali. work were transforming the field of psychology, and powerful feminist voices were
emerging in parailel streams to one another, around the country and world.
In the 1960s these feminist voices were being heard more widely through their
PERSONAL ROOTS AND PARALLEL REVOLUTIONS—AN new magazines (Ms) and organizations (National Organization for Women). At the
OVERVLEW OF NFARLY SEVENTY YEARS sarne time, Rogers took bis own now renowned, sofdy rebellious voice and work away
from academia to move to the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute (WBSI) in La
My own personal odyssey neariy perfectiy paraileis the development of the PCA and joga, California. He and other coileagues eventually broke away from that group in
feminism as we began to evolve up and out from under a long era of a fundamentaliy 1968 to found the Center for Studies of the Person (CSP), an even more revolutionary
male-dominated consciousness, governing many, if not nearly ali, our world cultures. form of non-organization than the formem. There, the tbemes ofexperieritial knowing,
The narrative flow of this chapter emerges from my bwn roots watered in the soil of the self-discovery, and stretcbing human potentials far beyond the norms and limitations of
1950s with its traditionalist roles ofwomen, as represented by my home life and high my experience in the 1950s, were vividlly experienced in encounter groups. Thousanch
school yeàrs. It continues through to the turbulent 60s, the feminist 70s, and the activist of participants were drawn to CSP through the Ta Joga Program', the grandfather of
grass-roots lay diplomacy efforts in peace and conflict resolution of the 80s. The 1990s encounter groups founded and co-directed by Bruce Meador, Doug Land and BiU
once again saw the wars, economic, ecological, racial and gender/preference crises and Coulson, coileagues of Carl's now at CSP—described in CarlRogers On Encounter Groups
opportunities of the previous decades increasing in magnitude. My story encls in the (Rogers, 1970).
present with me as a semi-retired therapist and elder woman still voicing her concerns The 1960s also saw the cataclysmic revolutions in anti-Vietnam war activism, and
about these sarne issues in the new century. As Ido this, 1 wirness the appalling reiigious, the racial justice, gender equity and ecological movements that sought to cbange our
ideological and ecological wars being fought over sparse and ever-shrinking resources. entire cukure. Living in Berkeley, San Francisco and San Marco in those years, 1 was an
These resources are coveted greedily by both the indulged societies and classes on the active part of these experiments and marches, and their democratizing processes. 1
one hand and the desperately 111, starving and needy nations and groups on the other. discovered the arnazing liberation and intelectual stimulus that accompanied eacb of

40 41
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GAY (S'NsoN) BARFIELD

them, and consequentiy developed my own larger sense of self and meaning. Having often holdirig disputing perspectives, we hoped that by working together through the
discovered Gari Rogers' writing by then, 1 infiised mywork as a teacher in an experimental person-centered approaches to dialogue, they might then return to their own countries—
high school in the San Francisco Bay arca with bis values of 'freedom to learn' and its many of the major 'hot spots' on the pianet—to appiy these sarne principies ofpeaceful
coilaborative teaching and learning modes, ali of which ied to a sea change in my life dialogue.
soon after. With that ia mmd, the major initial activity of the Peace Project to realize this goal
The early 1970s brought on-going and rapidly acceierating personal evoiution for was the meeting on the chailenges within Central America held ia Rust, Austria, ia
me, inciuding a divorce, a new love, new work, new graduate studies, and new meaning, 1985. Ir was convened in cooperation with the United Nations University for Peace and
as 1 moved in 1973 to La Jolla and to CSP There 1 was abie to create, with others, the its President, the former President of Gosta Rica, Doa Rodrigo Carazo 0db. He, along
first Women's Center at CSP, along with one of the iongest-lived (22 years) programs at with Dr Karl Vak, President of the 'Z' bank ia Vienna, Austria, was instrumental in co-
the Center, the 'Living Now Summer Institute'. 'Living Now' focused on political and creating the meeting with us. It was this particular gathering of diplomats and iay leaders
social themes during a 10-day residential retreat held on the University of California from 17 countries (along with his previous fifty years of renown and revoiutionary
San Diego campus. Ir was held just before the Ta Jolla Program' so that peopie traveling work) which ied to Cari's nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987—received and
from other states and countries couid attend them both in tandem. The Person-Centered read aloud to him as he lay in a coma and dying}
Approach (PCA) remained the bedrock principie and foundation for 'Living Now'. With onevery large single donation by Mrs Joan Kroc and the support ofhundreds
Gari and other leading writers and spokespersons (some 100-pius over the 22 Institutes ofsmaller donors, we went forward with a steacffst determination with our peace work
we convened) were the guest speakers addressing these themes and issues. At first, this after Cari's death. We held a second meeting of diplomas in Heredia, Costa Rica, ia
proved to be a rather uneasy 'deviation' from basic encounter-only workshops, for some 1973. The conference had the participation and support of attendees from 11 nations
CSP and PCA peopie to accept. and the then sitting president of Costa Rica and Nobei Peace Prize winner for 1987,
However, the 1980s saw an increased emphasis on peace and social justice in our President Oscar Arias, and once again former President Rodrigo Carazo Odio.
CSP programs in California, nationaily and certainly internationally. As the cultural However, after Carl's death in February 1987, the early 1990s saw a dirninution in
wars with communism and its 'Iron Curtain countries deepened and the fear of nuclear our abiity to accomplish our largervisions of global polirical impactas donations dropped
war heightened worldwide, the iay voices of detente and 'citizen diplomacy' groups away and anticipated funding from fotmdations faiied to materialize. This was due ia
attempted to change this disastrous direction. The work of Gari, Chuck Devonshire iarge part to three important factors; first, the absence of Cari's ieadership, credibiity
and Valerie Henderson from the USA and others throughout Europe in cross-cultural and brilliance; second, the leadership of the Peace Project was ieft in the hands ofpeopie
communications began in the early 1970s with PCA coileagues from many different relativeiy unknown outside of the PCA worid, namely our marveious staif/team and
nations, even some from behind the then 'Iron Curtam' countries, sometimes with myself (and a woman at that!); and third, a structural design at CSP which, although
grear risk to participants thcre. Gari had already begun important work in similar ways leading to the independent program creativity mentioned before, did not iend itselfto
with other coileagues, particulariywith Pat Rice, Dick Farson and Bill McGaw in Ireland, fiduciary confidence by the iarge foundations we had iong been courting. Thus, by
and iater with Ruth Sanford, who traveled with him to places such as the Soviet Union, 1995 the Peace Project essentially dosed down its major efforts and its small bank
Northern Irdand, and South Africa. When ali this work was at its zenith, many of us at account.
CSP were also convening numerous other internationai gatherings and programs Before doing so, however, 1, by then the sole director, and a small group of us at
throughout the worid. Cari initiated and participatçd in these events, which took on an CSP continued the work as we focused more on local urban diversity issues ia the San
increasingly political overtone, intent and emphasis. Diego area. We held 'living room dialogues on diversity and formed an 'urban diversity
By 1984, with Gari and myseif as co-founders and co-directors—and a dozen or so council' for the city of San Diego and arca leaders. We saw, and heiped to encourage, the
other CSP staif members as coileagues, and some 50 iuminary advisors, many outgrowth of other PCA diversity groups with Gari's coileagues around the country,
international—we formed the Cari Rogers Institute for Peace (initially called the Institute particuiarly those begun by Ruth Sanford, Lewis Gover, Chuck Stewart and their many
for Person-Centered Approaches to Peace, and referred to over the years as 'the Peace PCA coileagues on the easr coast of the US.
Project'). The goal was to move PCA work beyond therapy and other important social
issues to inciude high-ievei international poiirical issues as iegitimate arenas for person- 1Several in-depth analyses and critiques of this gathering have been published elsewhere, many
ccntered dialogue and conflict resolution. This was our attempt to heip reduce the in the Journal for Humanistic Psychology. Another will soon appear in the updated version now
mounting and deadly tensions between nations and regions besetting the planet. With in process ofCarl's biography written by Dr Howard Kirschenbaum and further analysis by this
leading representative poiiticians and grass-roots peace groups present as participants, author will appear in a forthcoming text on politics and the Person-Centered Approach.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GAY (SwENsoN) BARFIELD

SPIRITUAL COMPONENTS OF THEWORK MORE WOMEN/FEM1NISTS IN THE PERSON-CENTERED

APPROACH
By the late 1990s and early years of the new millennium, these smaller peace and social
action efforts within the PCA community had either stabilized or spread through As 1 look back while writing this, 1 reriIl vividly and clearly that the most substantial
cornmunities. During the sarne period, many other writers and theoreticians within the and beartening changes for me as a woman and PCA feminist over the past 30-plus
PCAwere now more overdy induding and/or debating the next phase of the developmcnt years, have been the increasing impact and involvement of more women at the Center
of the PCA—and of psychotherapy in general—namely that of its spiritual dimension, for Studies of the Person in La Jolla (and in the PCA in general worldwide), and in the
and its legitimacy within our field. These theoretical explorations were particularly peace and gender consciousness-awakenirsg movements internationally. The involvement
catalyzed as a consequence of a rather remarkable paragraph written and published by of increasing numbers of women began with our opening the first Person-Centered
Cari in 1986. It is nowadays quoted and debated widely, both for its spiritual overtones Women's Center at CSP in the early 1970s. Other contributors to this bookwill describe
and for his mention of a potential extra therapeutic condition (beyond bis famous 'tbree their work in depth in other chapters. The important fact is that the nurnbers ofwomen
necessary and sufficient conditions') which he called 'presence'. The spiritual dimension working for peace, equality and justice within PCA expanded exponentially over the
of our work was especially well captured through the brilliant work of Brian Thorne of intervening years, and today extends all across the globe. Many of these CSP/PCA
Norwich, England, amongst bis own prodigious writings on PCA counseling and women (e.g., Valerie Henderson, Maureen O'Hara, Marvalene Hughes and Dcc Aker)
spirituality. Much of my own work botEs locally and internationally during that period, now hold, or have held, positions of leadersbip, including presidencies, at important
and since, has also incorporated, voiced and reflected this aspect of the PCA as a central educational and peace institutes. 1 would like to think that for some of them their
guiding element of our approach. Feminist understandings were constant companion significant engagement as social change agents today may have, in part, evolved out of
components reflecting their own sense ofspirit and empathy. By this time, for me, the their early participation as either organizers or staffmembers in CSP work. Perhaps in
PCA, feminism, politics and spiritualityhad cometo a natural stage ofmerging, biending the CSP Women's Center, or from their CSP membership and work with Cari, or from
and fiowing together, while still retaining their integrity as separate bodies ofknowledge their involvement in the 'Living Now' program, or especially dear tu my own hears of
and ways ofknowing and experiencing. course, from their participation as team mernbers and staffwith the Carl Rogers Institute
for Peace at CSP in the 1980s and early 90s. So 1 am very grateful to have been
instrumental in creating these programs with the support of dozens of other women
OURWORK TODAY AND FOR THE FUTURE and men coileagues who beieved in, and acted upon, their sense of equity and social
justice in its merging with Rogers' approach.
1 attempted to continue my work botEs locally, and by traveling widely abroad every two As feminists and person-centered practitioners and philosophers in our troubled
years to train, speak and facilitate. Once again my life changed personaily, and happily. world today, we cannot afford to be unconcerned and uninvolved politically, lest all that
In 1990 1 married and moved; first to a remote mountain village (Bishop, California), went before this current generation ofyoung women and men worldwide be lost. We
and tben five years later with my aspiring (now actual), orchid-grower farmer husband, could lose the equality and social justice for which we have worked so hard and long and
Glen, to a remote volcanic mountain and seaside village (Mt View and Hilo) on the Big with such total commitment. We are, each one ofus, the products and producers of the
Island ofHawaii. In Hawaii 1 have offered small PCA training prograrns and continued values of our eras. We are, willingly or not, participants in great historical movements,
to work abroad now and then. 1 also counsel and ttain therapists in small ways, speak as we become either the ardent or reluctant agents of change that make a difference in
publidy, and attempt to put my concerns and hopes for the future—and for upcoming our times. 1 can personaily acknowledge the hesitation and disinclination to move with
generations ofyoung idealists and visionaries—into my 'mentressing' and my writing. the tides of history that hold many ofus back, especially as we think with some timidity
The young women cross-cultural co-editors of this book now represent this future. and embarrassment about our own perceived personal limitations and incongruence.
They provide this opportunity for diverse feminist and person-centered voices to But as Goethe told us in that early quote, 'Boldness has Genius, Power and Magic in it'.
collectively resound across age, race and culture, for which 1 am deeply grateful. Our Courage is required to create change, no matter what our shortcomings; and using our
world offers many daily opportunities for such needed reflections and expressions, not best talents, resources and strengths is part of such courage.
to mention actions by all ofus, no matter what our ages or places on this needful planet.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GAY (SvENsoN) BARFIELD

RELUCTANT FEMINIST loneliness, sorrow and shame, yet 1 held on stubbornly to a righteousness about whatever
the issue was itseiF. 1 later discovered that my own personal reversa1 from being a 'please
1 myself was in fact a reluctant feminist. Yet, as a young woman and doctoral student everyone' passive prom-princess to being a passionate political polemicist was not an
'unusual swing of the pendulum for many women at that time. But for a so-called
working on women's self-languaging, 1 was drawn to and enthralled by Gloria Steinem's
brilhiance, Betty Friedan's breakthrough work and contentious style, Germaine Greer's person-centered practitioner and empathic listener ? It was rather incongruent to say
...

intellect, Starhawk's extravagant feminist spirituality, Charlene Spretnaks' work on the the least! Eventually, 1 carne to rest in the more palatable position of darity ofthought,
politics ofwomen's spirituality, Phyllis Chesier's groundbreaking work on definitions of voiced with some compassion for the other in the process. 1 think others, and myself for
madness, Ursula LeGuin's linguistic masterpiece on 'the mother tongue', as well as the certain, benefitted considerabiy from this salutary and more congruent change.
groundbreakingwritings ofwomen such as Riane Eisier, Dinnerstein, Mifler, Chodorow,
Gilligan and the Stone Center theorists on feminist ethics and psychology, whose works
on empathy so resonated with Rogers. Throughout this evolutionary period with its MOM, MEN AND MÁRRTAGE
parailel growths and convergences of politics, psychology, feminism and spirituality, 1
was imbued with the influences and impacts of these early feminists on life and society. But even with much incongruence in evidence, 1 knew then (as 1 know now) that
Furthermore, 1 carne to see that each of these women was in dose alignment with bringing feminism and the PCA together appealed to me for personal reasons invoiving
Rogers, and he with them, in each ofhis and their own unique psychoiogical approaches my mother, men, and marriage. Because of her model ofmothering, with ias considerabie
to personal growth, freedom, equality, justice, and sense of empowerment and community deficits, due to much suffering in her own marriage and life as a woman, 1 carne to
believe that married women could not be emotionallyhealthy, nor could we have healthy
within the human family.
Yet, 1 still, almost defiantly, resisted accepting for myself the label 'feminist' for a reiationships in general with well-balanced and non-harming men. My wonderful
long time. 1 argued that 1 did not want to be categorized, s1otted, misperceived and seen brother-in-law, Vic, my older sister's husband, was the one very important exception to
as a wild-eyed, antagonistic, man-hating, angry, bra-iess woman. 1 was, by then, a -the unhappy condusion about men and women arrived at by a tender pre-adolescem:
committed client/person-centered theorist and practitioner. 'While 1 certainly wanted giri. He rernained my male model anchor until his too early death from cancer in my
women's voices heard and respected, 1 wanted even more that Rogers' triad of core early adult years. 1 shall be forever grateflul to him for his tender, tearfiui, but tough and
conditions ofempathy, genuineness and unconditional positive regard be understood as strong example of the kindness possible in a strong man.
universal human strengths—universal human strengths that rendered each ofus stronger 1 know that my early childhood decision never to marry, nor to have children,
as menor women oras social change aents, wbether as giver or receiver of these attitudes. carne directly from the terror, helpiessness and anger 1 fdt watching my mother's painful
1 also thought it was brilhiant and intuitive of Gari to have fused together what 1 had experience in her role as an intellectually briiliant woman battered and beaten down as
considered the very psychological attitudes inherent to women in particular! 1 still believe a wife and mother, and her direct message to me not to do the sarne with my life. My
much of this strongly, and honor Cari even more in my heart and mmd by thinking of mother's resulting pervasive depression and day-long drinking, only re-enforced that
him as the flrst feminist male therapist to help change our cultural values by appreciating existential decision forme toremain single, sober and self-supporting as longas possible—
and respecting such attitudes as the healthiest configuration of our psyches. not all bad decisions as such, but ali taken for the wrong reasons. Eventi'ally, 1 believe
this history may well have led—in order to justifr my being sexual at afi—to my being
forced violently into having my first sexual experience (an event we now dearly cail
WALKING My TALK—A HARD AND ROCKY ROAD rape, but dared not say aloud then), in a German wheat field, awakening as the morning
sun shone 011 the brihiant red poppies in the distant horizon, mirroring the red biood
011 my khaki skirt.
Despite my lofty goals, it was difficuk for me to 'waik my taik' at times during this
period, as 1 myself went through a painful (to myself and others) period of adamant, It was not until 1 became an educated feminist and a mernber ofCSP, some dozen
vehement, antagonistic (and, according to some, sometimes even intellectually brilliant) years later, that 1 met large numbers of women who were modeis to me of heakhy,
castigations of (mostly) those of the male gender who belonged to and ran the larger productive, well-baianced human beings. It was then that 1 could begin to more
society, and (certainly) to some of the male staff members ofCSP. Faced with injustices comfortably own the description of myself as a feminist and move actively on those
and inequities, 1 often railed and raged and wrote scathing letters and diatribes, well principies. 1 could finaily come to trust, love and respect coundess marvelous men as
argued in the main, but less hearable because of their haranguing and indignation. 1 friends and coileagues at CSP and around the worid—and even some as lovers. But it was
paid dearly for this period of my life by soinetimes feeiing a sense of isolation and still not always easy between us as women and men at CSE as we will sce in what foliows.

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THE BEGINNLNGS OF (AND RESISTANCES TO) THE one minirnaily paid 'coordinator' (often self-selected cooperatively from among us
WOMEN'S CENTERAT CSP 'founders') we opened the Women's Center. Hundreds of women showed up for the
meetings held at the Women's Center ftom 1973 through 1977 to discuss both personal
Early in my involvement at CSP, around 1973 or so, 1 participated as a member of a 'concerns and importam issues of the day. So popular were the meetings that we would
small women's group convened by Dr Betty Meador. Betty was one of perhaps only often spill out of the small rooms onto the patio, For nearly five years we offered courses
three or four women members of CSP at this time, (a 40-plus member institute), among for the empowerment of womenwhich reflected more of the PCA approach and less of
whom were Maria Vilas-Boas Bowen and Orienne Strode Maloney. Other women the political energies that the burgeoning activist feminist centers springing up around
were at CSP ar the time of my arrival there, but in the role of secretary, coordinator, the country were promoting with great vigor, lucidity and cornmitment. Concurrently,
'significant other', or wife of an 'actual' member. Betty's women's group, and another the first official academic department in the United States in Women's Studies was
which many of us formed later from this core group, soon became the seedbed for many being born at San Diego State University There, Maureen O'Hara, newly arrived at
of us 'ancillary' associares of CSP to become actual invited members of CSP ourselves, CSP herselffmom the mid-west, was seedbedding the sarne PCA and feminist values in
and therefore colleagues and community members of Carl's professional family—it was her original and intellectually soaring women's studies classes. Women's 'liberation' was
considered quite an honor for each of us. Year by year thereafter, we began to swell the taking many shapes, and the PCA was adding its own voice to this importam social
ranks of women at CSP by inviting other women to join tu, sometimes far beyond the justice movement.
readiness of some of the men to accept this inevitable change of the times. Back at the CSP Women's Center, we offered and faciitated courses—either free
It became a most difficult and challenging moment for CSP when this group of or veryiow cost—in such topics as life planning, values chirification, assertiveness training,
women, in late 1973, decided to move beyond being simply participants in a women's communications skills, male/female relationships and biorhythms, as well as individual
group, or mere auxiliary appendages to CSP, or a token number within the group. We client-centered counseling, non-structured person-centered community meetings and
decided instead to open a full-fledged women's center ourselves as a part of CSP, as one support groups. Each gathering acted as an avenue to empower women's voices and
ofits 'projects'. With at least one or two official women CSP members to legitimize our their sense of entitlement and personal power and confidence. Because the theme of my
effort, a group of tu rented a small Spanish style house downstairs in front of the CSP doctorate was women's self-esteem in the second halfoflife, and 'creative aging', 1 also
offices at 1125 Torrey Pines Road in La Jolla. taught classes for women aged 65 to 90 about the many new concepts in gerontology.
Soon we began to offer brochures filled with a variety of events and classes for The pumpose of my doctorate was to increase a sense ofesteem, respect and prizing, and
women. Nor ali the courses reflected a PCA focus or process, but some were advocating pride in ourselves as we age, particulariy though our use oflanguage— something that
a radical change for women, called 'empowerment' or 'consciousness-raising'—again 1 carne to cail 'languaging' about ourselves—and its powerful connection to health,
much to the philosophical chagrin of some male members of CSP. 1 recail many a longevity and psychological well-being in older women. The paradox, of course, was
Wednesday afternoon CSP staif meeting where the response to our forming the women's that as 1 listened to their iife-aflirming words, 1 learned much more about positive self-
center brought sharp reactions from some members. Biting sarcasm, volatile inteilectual concepts from my elderly students than 1 taught them in the aduk education classes-
discussions, and hot debates carne from this perturbative change, much as ir was doing 50 much so, that ir has infused and become a core of my own work on communications
in society in general. Sometimes we left the weekly afternoon meeting 'in a stew' with and the power of language ever since. Now at nearly 69, during my own aging process,
one another. More often than rot, however, these disputes were beautifully facilitated 1 try to remember and apply what they taught me back then. Gari was right once again
by one CSP member or another. Itwas often a man (Will Stiliwell, Norman Chambers, when he toldtu he learned most of his own theory from listening to the coilective voices
Andre Auw and Charlie O'Leary come to mmd, and Carl ofcourse), who was able at a of his clients, just as we do now, as feminists finaily listening to each other as women
crucial moment to hear the deep and sincere concerns of ail sides, and thus provide the with shared realities.
very bedrock of our world view, the etnpathic listening for which CSP and Rogers' By the latter 1970s, more politicaiiy militantwomen, and some lesbian and bisexual
approach had become world famous. women, began to come to the CSP Women's Center. Their presence tested our values
about what we hoped the Center represented. li also seemed to frighten many women
who were tentativeiy dipping their feet into the waters of equality and independence,
YARIED PROGRAMS AND ORIENTATIONS AT THÊ csp but who were not quite ready for that level of change as they were barely beginning to
WOMEN'S CENTER work ir out with their husbands and sons! \Qith many women uneasy with a potentially
militant and aligned orientation, the general attendance began to wane and eventually
Nevertheless, after much excited planning by about a haif dozen of us, and with only dropped off to a levei unsustainable by ekhem staff or participants. Tu the end, the Womerfs

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Center's vision was not totally realized as an on-going permanent resource. However, 1 with these women and men. Sadly, space does not permit further elaboration, and
to inciude some and not others would do a disservice to each of their meanings in
trust it did serve as an important beginning for so many ofus 'emerging women', (to use
Natalie Rogers' term and titie of her book of the sarne name, Rogers, 1980), and it met my life and memory. For me, in sum, feminism and living, breathing feminist
a need in the San Diego community for quite a while as a politically non-aligned place women, combined with the PCA phiosophy, made possible everything that 1 have
for wornen to gather and grow. It certainly launched numbers ofwomen in the discovery ever done professionally.
and development of new uncharted aspects of themseives. And not just the feminism of wanzen, but the profound commitment offeminist
men in the PCA world who also catalyzed and joined with us to build this movement
for equity and peace—again, how 1 wish 1 couid name them ali! The role of Carl arnong
these men, however, cannot be understated. He literaily totaily aitered my life on first
A SPR1NGBOARD FOR WOMEN'S LEADERSHIP
contact. To recount this meeting and its impact on me, 1 need to return to a very early
Many of the women volunteer staif and participants also used the resources at the time in my first marriage, as a newly reluctantly married woman living in a greatVictorian
Women's Center and roles they assumed there as a springboard from which to invoive apartment in San Francisco, workingher waywith her husband through graduate school.
themseives in other important social movements, change their personal lives, continue
their education and extend their sense of possibilities professionally. The roles which we
assumed collaboratively at the Women's Center became powerfui means for developing LEAVING AN OLD LIFE BEH1ND—ON TO LA JOLLA
women's leadership capacities and trained many of us (in classic curriculum vitae terms)
as program designers, adrninistrators, professional therapists, facilitators, public speakers, 1 and my first husband were married twoyears after returning from meeting in Europe
fiscal managers, CEOs and entrepreneurs. In doing so it provided each ofus with practicai in 1960. He from the mid-west and 1 from Las Vegas, we moved to San Francisco where
together we attended graduate school at San Francisco State throughout the early 1960s.
skills in all management and staffing tasks, as well as much new found freedom and
independence, more equality in our relationships with the men in our lives, and many We worked part or fuil-time, and paid $200 a month for a fabulous, tiny, three-room
'railroad' style apartment on Nob Hill in San Francisco, with a pull-down Murphy bed
opportunities for creativity.
For me the Women's Center was all of this and more, for it actually provided me and a spectacular view of the entire San Francisco Bay.
the internship for my doctorate. Its creation was the integral action aspect ofmy doctorai Very early into my marriage 1 became quite ill with a series of debiitating health
program through Union Graduate School, which was based largeiy on Rogers' approach issues. These included mononucleosis,2 severe back problems (that hospitalized and
to learning. We were required to have, as a direct outcome of our PhD studies, a socially immobiized me in body casts and braces), digestive problems, chest pains, and other
relevant action component, then termed a 'Project Demonstrating Exceilence'. The manifestations of what 1 now understand to have been my huge resistance to this
founding of the Women's Center by mysdf and others thus allowed me to live out the essentially unwanted marriage. These illnesses and my depression and rage at the earlier
principies about which 1 was writing, as it allowed so many of us to come together toco- rape in Germany laid me low for weeks at a time and for severa1 years running they kept
create our own personai visions for ourseives and other women. me safely distant from any satisfj?ing sensual or sexual 11k with my husband. Instead,
what we had in common were our graduate studies, our good intellects, our political
and literary interests, and eventually our teaching jobs. Ligbtened by humor and wit,
GLOBAL SISTERHOOD but all undergirded by our joint sense of guilt and sharne, we both covered over our
mutual sadness with anger and aicohol for too much of the time and then with reactive
We were not aione at CSP in doing this work. Person-centered women colieagues and extra-marital relationships or flirtations. After seven mutually hurting years, we ultimately
kindred spirits around the country and around the world were making their own way used those ways of being as the precipitating events that gave tu the permission and
into this large movement, in parailel and sometimes conjoining cirdes to achieve global courage (that we could not muster on our own) to divorce. This is where Carl carne in.
One day in an education class at San Francisco State Coilege, the professor gave us
sisterhood.
My mmd, heart and spirit are brimming with memories of just such world- a single-page summary to read written by a man named Dr Carl R Rogers. It was about
wide sisterhood (and often brotherhood, iest we forget) which strengthened my Three Necessary and Sufficient Conditions' as they might apply in the dassroom. As 1
own resolve at difficult moments, which took place at amazing gatherings we con- read this short paper in the library, a knot appeared in my throat, tears began to well up
vened on most of the continents on the pianet. Those assemblies, wherever they
took place, aiiowed me to realize some part of my own hopes and visions, aiong
2.
In the UK, the term for mononucleosis is glandular fever.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM GAY (SwENsoN) BARFIELD

behind my eyeglasses, and then began to pour forth, until 1 had to go outside to let MEETING CARL—THE TURNING POINT
them flow freeiy. The sobs and weepmg carne from the joy ofrecognition, a realization
of what 1 had been tnissing ali my life—but must have understood at my core—that By then separated and divorcing, 1 returned to La Jolla that summer at the end of the
human beings could treat each other much differently than 1 had experienced growing school year, at Cari's invitation, and attended the famous encounter group session called
up lii my violent home, or in my marriage. 1 sawwithin these simple but profound ways the 'Lajoila Program'. This revoiutionary encounter group, with little or no structure as
of being, and listening, and respecting one another described by Gari, that men and such, was held for three weeks every summer at the University of California San Diego
women could, in fact, change their relationships together. More than that, how they campus, under the auspices of the Center for Studies of the Person. The foliowing
listened and spoke to each other might even change much of the world's suffering in the summer 1 returned to the program as an invited stafffadiitator, and within the next year
process. 1 had failen in love with a CSP member, moved to San Diego to be with him in 1973,
From that moment forward, 1 experienced a higher degree of interna1 incongruence began my doctorate in 1974, was elected an 'official' member of CSP in 1975, and as
m my marriage than 1 had ever known before, an incongruence which increased literally we say, the rest is history.
day by day, until 1 could no longer tolerate it without an emotional breakdown—which From this history and many other rich experiences in the years that followed, there
1 began to feel was imminent. What held me together even with all the psychosomatic are dozens of incidents that 1 might cite of my experiences working side by side with
symptoms and real physical pain, was the fact that after my internship ended, but Gari in numerous contexts and countries around the world. However, 1 wouid like to
before divorcing, 1 obtained my flrst teaching job as a French and Social Studies teacher share here only one or two significant ones that are most applicable to this particular
in an innovational public high schooi in San Mateo, a rather well-to-do suburb south of book on feminism and the: Person-Centered Approach.
San Francisco. The school was about to change its structure and curriculum from a
traditionai format to the 'open classroom' experimental design then becoming popular
and similar to coilege schedules. Much of the schooi's philosophy was based on the WOMEN, FEMINISM AND ROGERS
Stanford University Pato Alto approach to educational innovations, and on the premises
of Gari Rogers' book Freedom to Learn, (Rogers, 1969). In relation to the importance ofwomen in helping Gari move in the direction of more
So 1 poured myself into re-organizing my French classes, juro the coilaborative explicitly political social actions and gender awareness/consciousness-raising, there were
style—teaching and creating the curriculum conjoindy with the students. 1 described severa1 keywomen who acted as catalysts to Gari's education in bis evolution as a feminist
this later in a chapter titled 'Grammar and Growth: The French Gonnection' which (although he may not have mcd that term himseif). Also iniportant was an uneasy
eventually appeared in the second edition of Freedom to Learn for the '80s (Rogers, interaction which took place between Gari and me and many others as part ofthe Peace
1983) in the USA. In ad&tion, 1 was part ofour Social Studies team where, we made Project work, and a memo and conversation between us that followed as a result. Similar
similar transformations as five of us team-taught together—the students teaching with to bis theory of psychological change, as he grew older Gari continued to develop as a
us. We brought in controversial figures of the era as guest lecturers—peace activists, person and once again demonstrated his on.-going and arnazing capacity for growth and
black movernent leaders, political spokespersons, ecoiogists, etc., to enliven the themes. change throughout his life, right up to his last days at 85 years old.
Back in the French classes we often spoke about these sarne themes, together deveioping
vocabulary appropriate to the topic at hand and, in that way, merging the two courses.
1 began to see that this fresh approach to iearninteaching reallyworked brilliandy, RUST, AUSTRIA, PEACE CONFERENCE INCIDENT
liberating student creativity more than 1 had ever hoped or irnagined possibie. One day
after flnishing reading Gari Rogers cm Encounter Groups, (Rogers, 1970) and Freedom to Shortly after returning from the Rnst, Austria meeting on peace in Central America,
Learn, (Rogers, 1969)1 irnpetuouslywrote Dr Rogers a letter to teil him of our innovations held in 1985, and with some time to recover from it ali, Gari and 1 had an important
based on his work He wrote back to me, inviting me to La Jolla to speak personaily private conversation in my office as a resuk of a long and unhappy personal memo 1 had
with him about this work 1 was doing in the classroom. After our flrst phone conversation sent to him about an incident that had taken piace in Rust at the end of the conference.
(me ali ailutter, he empathically inviting me to relax, saying that he understood 1 might At that final meeting in Austria, Gari had generousiy thanked everyone in the various
be a bit nervous, but that he did truly want to hear what 1 had to say!), 1 went home staff groups faciitation, research, site organization, translation and adniinistration,
exhiiarated and wrote the paper he suggested 1 write, which later appeared as the chapter whether in California, the University for Peace in Costa Rica, or from Austria. He also
mentioned above. thanked the courageous political and lay leaders who had joined in this historic event.
During Carl's closing remarks, Maria Vullas-Boas Bowen, (another anchor 011 the Peace

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 ENCOUNTERJNG FEMINISM GAY (SwENsoN) BARFIELD

Project staff and great sister, feminist and friend to me for years uniil her sadly too-early anyone's mmd that Gari was the essential and primary reason that people responded to
death), looked over at me as 1 was going paler and paler, and then red with astonishment. this whole peace project. Ir was based on the huge reservoir of trust and respecr created
Cari had failed to mention my name. 1 was the co-founder and co-director with him of by bis iife-long body of work, personal congruence and character. However, 1 was
the Peace Project itself, and he had thanked everyone who had worked so hard to bring particuiariy saddened, angry hurt and confused that Gari bimseif knew, yet did not
about this highly risky and revolutionary event, except me. acknowledge publiciy ar that important moment, that 1 had catalyzed and lcd the Peace
Suddenly Maria, stunned and angry herse1f, said aloud to the entire gathering of Projecr's creation with him from the very beginning, and then directed and initiated the
diplomas and lay leaders present, 'CARL! WHAT ABOUT GAYI' Gari then said, 'Oh, many complicated logistics and connecrions across three continents that lcd up to the
yes and Gay Swenson, ofcourse, for ali her hard work as Coordinator of the: project'. 1 actual peace conference itseW 1 achieved this with the constant heip of our incredible
was crushed, angry, hurt and humiliated, and felt a deep disappointment and sadness. 1 team, of course, and then swirched hats once again and co-fadilirated one of the four
held back tears with great difficultyi At that moment 1 felt 1 had become essentially the small groups of the diplomats, as did each of us.
project secretary and an afrer-thought in the eyes of most of the key political and lay 1 need to say this in order that: the reader can understand why the incident stung so
atrendees present. 1 feared it would take me wceks and months to undo that role reduction/ deeply, prompting my personal note to Gari and our ensuing privare conversation ar the
perception, and to move forward with many ofthem in our follow-up efforts to continue Peace Project office ar CSP later. What follows is my recoilection of our conversation
the peace work in Central America, not: to mention South Africa, the, Soviet Union and] some 20 years iater. li is not verbatim, but is rather the essence of our dialogue. Hopefully
or Israel/Palestine then anticipated as the next venues for similar conferences. it conveys the richness of Gari's being, and his ever-present abiity to incorporate new
information and iearn and change from ir.

THE MEMO: ITS MEANING FOR ME AND FOR FEMINISTS

OUR CONVERSATION
Back home in Lajoila, when 1 could get my head and heart back together enough to be
clear, and when Cari recovered fully from the demands of this huge event, (and from the Sitring on the couch in the small airy office, Gari immediateiy apologized very sincerely
pneumonia he had acquired in Austria), 1 wrote a long personal memo to him. As 1 for forgetting to include me in his many acknowledgments and appreciations ar the
remember (it is now m the Humanistic Archives in UC Santa Barbara along with other Rust meeting. He understood how that must have hurt. He could not explain the lapse,
CSP files), 1 wrote about my need to feel empowered as a woman in particular in my he said. Pausing a bit, he seemed very thoughtfui for a few moments, very quier, and
dailywork with important politicai and lay leaders. When he either did not acknowledge then said that he could think of oniy one rhing that: might have prompted that iapse—
my role and work as Co-Director when speaking about the project, or redefined or besides his being pretty exhausred and 111 with emerging pneumonia at that: last meeting.
renamed my role to that of a secretaria!, coorclinator or administrative position, 1 said Gari said that he knew he had often nored over the years being uneasy with some of our
that 1 would not be heard as an equai by these mosdy mate leaders. Particularly since 1 strong styles when working with, and reiaring to, highly verbal and assertive women
was a woman working with many high-level Washington and Latin American male such as me, his daughter Natalie, bis wife Helen, Maureen O'Hara and Maria Vilas-
politicai persons on this project involving Central America, my credibility with them Boas Bowen, for example. But more importandy, he said, he had also iearned so much
depended a great deal on the artitude Gari conveyed about our working relationship as from each one of us, and maybe didn't say that: enough to us, because he did value those
Co-Directors, regardless of my own clear compete4ce and abilities. srrengths deeply in each of us, together with our insighrs, inteiligence and the many
1 was particularly concerned about the iasr community meeting ar the Rusr contributions we each brought to bis family life and our conjoint work together. He
conference, where the issue carne to a head so obviously for me. 1 wrote 1 was more than said he was very grateful for each of us as coileagues and family and friends, and how
pi'zJed—I was hurt deeply as well by whar had happened, and 1 wanted to know what much we had each eniightened him and helped him grow personaily, particularly
it meant to Gari personaily that he forgor to include me in his closing remarks without regarding feminism, equality and spirituai dirnensions of the work. 1 was touched deeply
a reminder from Maria—not coincidentally another woman staff member. Since that: hearing this from Gari, as he seemed congruendy self-aware and seif-examining as he
gathering m itself was the apex of ali our joinr work together over many years, and the expiored this as a possible factor in bis lapse, wirhout making it an excuse. Ir was an
stepping-off point for future work in other crisis areas of the world, 1 began to even imporrant moment in our dialogue and our relarionship, and very helpful and healing
question in myselfwhether 1 could go forward with the work at the sarne levei ofintense for us botE. Yet, 1 still felt that was not the whole picrure somehow for Gari about me in
involvement as before. particular, and 1 said
1 want to be very clear here, and say that rhere was never any quesrion in my or 1 roid him 1 knew that it was true that 1, for one, had ofren not been so easy to work

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with on many issues and teams and programs over the years at CSP. 1 said that while 1 touched by bis wide-ranging and sincere acknowledgments of my work and person. He
was admittedJy pretty bright and creative, and 1 knew that he and others appreciated was always there for me empathically during grievousiy sad times of change and loss. He
that about me. 1 also knew, however, that 1 was often very outspoken and quite righteous was enormously generous to me in countless other ways over many years as teacher,
about my perspectives when 1 had some strong objections to issues, peopie or practices coileague, friend and family. But these are other stories for other times and piaces.
on various teams we designed, developed and worked on iocally at CSP and In sum, it is clear to me that 1 found the mentor, mate modei and surrogate father
internationally. 1 realized that that was sometimes very hard on my coileagues. 1 said all and grandfather that 1 did not have, and which a burgeoning feminist needs and deserves
this to Gari to acknowledge my own piece of the puzzie we were trying to understand to become her better self. Moreover, 1 like knowing that he believed he had become a
together. What is important is that this open sharing and genuineness on both our paris more complete and better man, therapist and yes, feminist, from what he had learned
that day at the office once again gave me heart about our approach, our values and our from his own birth daughter, bis wife of 50 years, and from his many spiritual daughters
effort to live it out together in work that was so meaningful to both ofus. as well. 1 am infmitely and ever grateful for being one among many ofthem.

CARL'S CEI EBRATED CONGRUENCE A FINAL NOTE

Afrer that conversation in my office, throughout the following year Gari and 1 met or And so 1 end this chapter on a light note, with Carl's own words from a sweet handwritten
spoke together nearly daily about the work. We continued to meet weeidy (and monthly short letter dated January 18, 1987, justtwo weeks before bis death on February 4th. Ir
with the entire Peace Project team) to seekmore grants from foundations, mãe plans to was in response to the well-attended beautiful public 85th birthday celebration and
hold other political gatherings and coordinate ali the foilow-up programs in South Peace Project fundraising event that 1 and other CSP coileagues organized for him in
Africa, Russia, Central America and perhaps Israel/Palestine, under the aegis of the December, (which was filmed and can be seen in irs entirety on video). Whlle this is
Peace Project, Gari 'walked bis taik' consistently with me as his coileague. He was otily one ofmany notes from him over the years, 1 offer this one in particular to highlight
most diligent in recognizing me verbaily in key situations and at all the many public another form of his generous spirit. My eyes tear up a little reading it again and seeing
events where we were speaking together about our peace work, during what carne to be bis fmiiar handwriting yet happily so, because 1 realize once again what an unbelievable,
the final year of his iife. life-changing privilege and blessing it was to have had this amazing man catalyze my
1 am deeply grateful for this conscious effort on his part. However, 1 was even more life's work, and help me to find my own truer self, my better abilities to love and to
profoundly grateful for, and awed by, another of his essential qualities—his congruence. contribute something to life while 1 am still on this blessed and wounded planet.
Ir was the fact that afrer reading his iiberating words so many years before, initially As Gari did for me, my hope is that by my writing this rather personal historical
idolizing him, and then sharing ideas with him as a coileague, 1 discovered the happy chapter, and through the briffiant theoretical chapters in this volume written by others
truth throughout the years, again and again, that, yes, here was a man who in his iife of his coileagues and students, more change will come. Together, our voices and values
actually did what he wrote about. He listened, he truly heard and understood, he may encourage younger women and men of this, and following generations, in their
respected, he prized, he self-explored, genuineiy sharing himseif and his own feelings. own search for their 'paths with heart' and their sense of tbemselves. 1 also hope very
And then he changed, and by example helped others to change with him itt the process. much that tbey will find en route their own mentors and mentresses itt the quest for
He was this way to the end, always evidencing the cpacity for growth and transformation peace, justice and equality between men and women around the globe.
that his theoiy itselfembodied. He was indeed, as in the titie of bis chapter in A Way of
Being (Rogers, 1980),.'wnoider,
i oiderand d groig' Dear Gay, (emphases Carl's)
With all my own personal iimitations, good gifts and talents blended together, 1 1 don't feel 1 have ever properly thanked you for ali the work you did
know that Gi ri deeply appreciated me for my own congruence, especially as 1 iearned to to make the 'Celebration' on December za such a success.
express it more appropriately! Over many years, we shared lots of fun and light times It was no secret that 1 was very ambivalent about the event
together and co-created numerous high risk and demanding events with others, as did beforehand, but 1 want to say that 1 thoroughly enjoyed it, was deeply
so many of bis coileagues, who may now be reading this. He'supported me irnmeasurably touched by ali the tributes, and am grateful to you for having invested
in intangible ways, and encouraged me professionally by bis constant participation in so much of yourself in it. Thariks!
the 'Living Now' program and other teams we created at CSP. In a beautifiul and lengthy 1 also appreciate very much your continuing dedication to the Peace
letter of recommendation, to use for wherever 1 may wish to work in the fiiture, 1 was Project. You have certainly done far more than anyone could have

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asked you to do. If we do get funds, ifwe are able to again move ahead
into important projects, it will be in large measure due to you. 1 am
1 AN INTERVIEWWITH
grateful to you for that. DR MAUREEN O'HARA:
Only one request—please take some of the Celebration money to Is
pay yourself a living wage! If an order from me would help make it A PIONEER PERSON-CENTRED
official, I'll be delighted to give it.
With much gratitude,
THERAPIST AND FEMINIST REFLECTS
Cari ON 30 YEARS OF PROCESS AND
How whimsical, paradoxical and liberating for us ali that the final written words of Gari PROGRESS
cited here included an order!
MAUREEN O'HARA is INTERVIEWED BY GILLIAN PROCTOR

REFERENCES

Rogers, CR (1969) Freedom to Learn. A view of what education might become. Constable, OH; Q. 'Which were you first: feminist or person-centred?
Charles E Merrill. Oh, definitely person-centred but the timing was very dose. 1 was a scientist in the
Rogers, CR (1970) Gari Rogers on Encounter Groups. NewYork: Harper and Row. UK before 1 went to the US, so 1 wasn't really interested in social sciences at ali. 1
Rogers, CR (1980) A Way ofBeing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. got interested in psychology when 1 went to the US to accept a teaching job in
Rogers, CR (1983) Free4om to Learn for the 80s. Columbus, OH: Charles E Merrill. 1969 and very quickly thereafter got introduced to feminism. 1 was teaching biology
Rogers, CR (1986) The Rust workshop: A personal overview. Journal ofHumanis& Psychology, at an American coliege where there was a very hot group, or ceil, ofwomen scholars
26(3): 23-45 and in H Kirschenbaum and VL Henderson (eds) (1989) The Gari Rogers who were very feminist. 1 started working with c1ient-centred work in about 1970,
Reader. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 457-77. using student-centred pedagogy in my classes. Right from the very beginning, 1
Rogers, N (1980) Emerging Woman:A decade ofmidlfè trandtions. Point Reyes Station: Personal could see how what these feminist women were saying was both related to what 1
Preas. Reprinted in the UK (1995) Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books. was working with in PCA but also different.

Q. What was it about each of them that attracted you?

With person-centred work, it was actually student-centred education 1 was interested
in, because 1 was a teacher and 1 was teaching a course in human sexua1ity We
wanted a pedagogy that would privilege and honour the specific subjectivity of the
people in the class, because at that time there was a tremendous amount of work
that had been written about sexuality but always from the objectivist point of view.
Peoples' own subjective experiences were not figuring at ali in the literature. So
when we began our work, our classes, it was very clear to us that the real wisdom
about sexuality was: to be found in the subjective experience of the people who were
struggling to develop their own sexual lives, their own sexual identity. What attracted
me about PGA was that here was a psychological position and a pedagogical position
that began with the subjective point of view of the client or the student. It was
perfect for what we were interested in doing. Beyond that there was the notion that
you could trust the inherent human impulse to grow, the impulse to seif-liberatc,
the impulse to self-heai—all of those basic impulses towards health and wholeness
that were core to our pedagogy. What seemed so revolutionary was the idea that

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you didn't have to be making an intervention from the outside; you could work position was big enough to allow for ali the different subjectivities, but 1 graduaily
directly from the inside. Very quiddy, working in the sexuaiity arena, we got into the began to see things through a more feminist lens. li gradually became ciear to me
question ofwomen's identity and gay and lesbian identit So it was a natural transfer that in a world where the playing field is not levei for men and women, if you treat
of the theory from PCA into working with women and sexual minorities as they were men and women the sarne way, then you're actualiy privileging the white inale
trying to define their identity and define their subjectivity So 1 wasn't really interested voice. This is because in a world where many women are silenced not for personal
in person-centred work as a therapy at that time but really interested in it as pedagogy. reasons but because of structural forces, mens' are the visible voices, or better stili
the audibie voices. If you don't recognise that in a gendered world, which ours is,
Q. And once you'd got into both feminism and PCA, how did they women are situated differendy and they are historically developing their subjectivity
influence your teaching? against a context which has denied their subjectivity, if you don't recognise that
Well, the people that were raising questions about gender and questions about fundamental dynamic, then you really don't see women's situation at ali. Ir was the
sexuaiity, about relationships and power in reiationships, were mostly feminists, feminists in my iife that heiped me to understand that. Since then I've really made
people of colour, and sexual minorities—people who were either on the societal no distinction between feminism and PCA because for me, being a woman and
margins, or were women and so were treated as if they were on the margin. It was being a PCA practitioner and theoretician and being a feminist, my PCA position
very clear very quicidy that my work as a PC practitioner was going to be greatly is a feminist position.
improved and deepened by a reference to this whole other discourse that was going
on in gender studies and in women's studies. So very early 1 was in dialogue with Q: Could you say any more about how your women's group influenced Cari
the feminists on campus. There was much to dialogue about. This was because on Rogers and PCA at that time?
the one hand Rogers was being accused by the feminists of being sort of the epitome Well, 1 have to say that 1 think Cari was much more open to the ideas that were
of the white inale individualist position. Feminists pointed out how basic PCA surfacing frorn the women's group than many of the men that he was working with at
theory and practice was so very much aligned with twcntieth century individuaiism. that time. Because Carl really did, in a profound way, listen to the person he was
But on the other hand, because Rogers was such a champion of the subjective, he taiking to, and heard more than just the individual speaking. He didn't really have a
really did believe that if you created the right conditions to nurture the subjectivity very good theory for expiaining what he was hearing, but he did hear, so when the
of a person, it really didn't matter whether the person was female or inale. He women started to speak about these issues—and Natalie, his daughter was very
beiieved that because their unique subjectivity would emerge, whether a inale or influential in this regard too—he began to open up to the idea that there was something
fernale, it would emerge in their own voice. missing in the PCA writings that was particuiarly of concern to women. In particular,
So to begin with 1 was a bit reluctant to embrace a feminist analysis, because it he began to see more clearly such social phenomena as racism and sexism, and began
seemed like Rogers' analysis was already big enough to allow space for a subjectivity to understand that women were speaking out of a position of being disempowered,
that was both essentially human and gendered. But the fact of the matter was that not only as individuais but also as a class of individuais. And he began to get it. It
that wasn't the conversation that was going on. 1 could agree with the argument wasn't easy for him because he was so deepiy rooted in that individualistic, humanistic
made in opposition to questions coming from feminists as to how there was no existential position. But being the superb iistener that he was, it wasn't hard to convince
barrier to considerations of gender, but there was no conversation going on within him that if these women who he respected and cared about were bringing something
PCA circies about feminisn at that time. to him, then he'd better pay atrention. And he did.
When 1 went to La Jolla to work with Gari Rogers in 1973, there was a women's 1 think he did so more so than the men of the generation right below him, and
group that was meeting at the Center for Studies of the Person. 1 joined the group. 1 think in some ways they had more to lose, because they were stili at the stage of
Many of the men at CSP could not understand why there was any necessity for a their life and careers when women were asking for positions that would push them
women's group. They saw it as hostile, and 1 suppose it was. 1 mean there were times out. So they were understandably more resistant than Carl was.
when it was really bitter, and part of the bitterness had to do with the absolute denial
on the part of the men of the fact that women's situation was any different from Q. So you saw him changing in response to what you were saying?
theirs. And to this day, there are people in that circie whó deny the existnce of forces Oh yes, absolutciy. To begin with, learning just simple things such as, if four or five
at the group levei—societal forces—as being relevant variables, and see everything as men had spoken in a row in a group, the next person that he would turn to, and
explainabie in terms of the individual's own capacity to be their own person. look to see if they would say anything, would be a woman. He wouldn't necessarily
So to begin with, 1 personaily believed, as the men did, that the Person-Centred make an observational comment like 'It looks iike four of the last five speakers have

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been men, so wouldn't it be nice to hear from some of the women.' The women Q. So they started out dose together and then they diverged?
would do that. 1 certainiy would, and Natalie and Maria (Bowen) would, but he Absolutely. It started out as more of a generic humanism, and that generic humanist
did the equivaient, which was to make sure that if a woman was taiking she wasn't feminist voice still exists by the way, but it was not the most noticeable voice of
going to get interrupted. Ifshe did let herself get interrupted, he would go back and feminism, in the States anyway, in the eighties and into the nineties. The other
would say, 1 see you kind ofgot shut down there.' That partem of intervention was thing that happened—and this is my personai piece of the story—is that 1 began to
ciearly influenced by the way in which the women coileagues were pointing out to see that there was something amiss for wornen in some of the basic notions of the
him the ways in which women in groups were routinely being silenced or iveren't humanistic psychology position. In particular 1 began to be troubied by the idea
speaking up. Natalie was fabuious in that regard because she was constantiy on that iife is a journey from a dependency to independence, and autonomy is a big
patrol to make sure that if there was a mixed group of men and women, that the deai. 1 carne to realise that for women, autonomy defined in that way reaiiy isn't ali
men weren't doing ali the taiking. Cari listened to that and paid atrention. that appealing. Wornen see their lives much more relationaily; they see their lives
much more in terms of the peopie that they're connected to, the groups that they
Q: And at that time were there feminists that were influenced by PCA? belong to, the famiiies that they belong to, the relationships that they belong to.
Well, it's interesting. I've tried to think about this because much of the feminism For many women, identity, authenticity and autonomy are seen from within a
that 1 was reading in the early days 1 would have caiied humanistic feminism in the relationship context.
sense that they were arguing from the point of view that everybody struggies. The 1 think that is a new idea for PCA and 1 think it's a better idea. In the mid-
existential chalienge to become authentic and to realise your own possibilities are eighties, 1 began to see relationai ideas, such as those of the women at the Stone
difficuk for ali people—to become a person is a struggle for everybody. For women, Center for Women's Psychology at Wellesley Coliege, the interpersonal psychology
the struggle is based also on the fact that women have been siienced and marginalised, of Harry Stack Sullivan and some of the systems gestair ideas, as adding something
but essentialiy the struggle was a human struggie. But sometime in the 1980s in the to PCA that IV aiways felt it missed. Let me give you an example. In a community
United States, feminism took on two different voices, which 1 think took it away group in a Person-Centered Approach workshop, for instance, a women might
from PCA. One of these was a very strong form of social constructivism, or start to speak up about something that involved a roommate. Typically she'd say
deconstructivist position, that realiy to a very large degree, elirninated the individual something iike 'Weii, we've been thinking'. Almost routinely, one of the men would
as a conscious agent. This position saw the 'self' or the'individual' as a construction jump ali over her and say 'No! Would you speak for yourseif?' or 'Maybe you couid
of the social situation in which they operated. The other thing that happened was a speak for yourself.' Weli, she was speaking for herself, but a self that beionged to a
risc in a women's psychology that focused on women as an oppressed group and relational 'we'. But such a relational concept of self was not part of the orthodoxy of
ernphasised 'woman as victim'. There was so much emphasis on victim psychology the person-centred or humanistic position. In the humanistic vision (and for that
that again 1 think the empowering piece of PCA really became a probiem for many matter of Eurocentric psychology in general) the mature person is one who is
of the feminist counsellors. For example, there was the PCA notion that you don't completely autonomous—who does not iook to others for identity and direction. 1
heip the client, because the client has the resources within themseives to struggle think the error here is that to be self-healing doesn't mean that you do it by yourself.
and realise their own way through. For many women's counsellors, that was It simpiy means that you are the architect or the author ofyour healing story, but it
considered to be a kind of 'withhoiding'. They argued that because of their doesn't mean that the story is a singie person story. So 1 have really become interested
victimisation, women needd more active heip, active intervention. So 1 think that in the incorporation from women's psychology, feminist studies and women's studies
those folks really saw the PCA position as sort of wimpy, not fierce enough, not in general, of the whole notion that women define themselves and develop their
chailenging cnough of the status quo. This was particularly true with those feminists sense of identity—even their sense of reality—largely through their important
that had their own agenda for women. That agenda was to mobilise women's rage, connections and relationships. For women the voice of the self is reflective ofcontext
you know, to fight back. That didn't go together very well with a PCA position that and relationship.
in a very deep way said to women that it's not the counseilor's business what path
you take. The PCA message is: 'What my business as a therapist is, is creating the Q. That's the current chailenge for PCA?
conditions for you to discover what path you are going to take.' So there was a Yes, 1 think so. 1 think there is still something of a batde. You get into an encounter
contradiction between a feminism that was quite activist with an agenda ofwomen group and there wiii be people who really see the story as a 'we' story and who have
having specific new kinds of rights, versus a classical client-centred position which some awareness of forces and movements that are a product of the relationai field.
was that the kind of iife a client chooses is for them to work out. And there will be others who see a group as a coliection of '1's' and see what we refer

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to as 'we' as nothing more than a kind of virtual emergence at best. But through my affecting my home life too much. It was then that 1 got a job ar San Diego State
work at the social levei, and through more feminist, constructivist and relationai University teaching in the Women's Studies Department teaching the psychology
frames, I'm much more wiiiing to acknowiedge that relationships have a reality, of women.
that it is not mereiy the sum of the parts; that the reiationship is an entity that has
its own voice. It has its own effects on its participants, and it has reaiity status with Q: Cari 1 just go back a bit? Did feminism influence your training work at
the rest of the world. So 1 think that PCA needs an elaboration of some new theory that time?
that can aliow for a conversation about relationships, about groups and families, Oh yes. But it was different in Brasil, because the Brazilian situation was quite
and about participation within larger wholes ofcommunities. 1 think that women different from North America or Europe. Feminism was very much a minority
have brought that conversation to PCA and 1 think it's really strengthening it as a position. In fact, psychology in Brasil at that time was still dominated very heaviiy
psychology as well. by the psychoanaiysts. So women stiii beiieved that feminism was a protest against
femininity and that the feminists were anaiysed as being neurotic. They were stili
Q: At the time you were teaching, how did each approach influence your coming out of that Freudian point of view, so we had to go very carefuliy with
work? feminism in Brazil. In addition to that, it was a very macho society at that time.
1 was a university professor in the seventies. As part of my doctorai studies—which There was one occasion when we were doing a women's group in a building in
Gari was directing, in bis non-directive way—I went out to California. At that Brasilia where there was one of the women in the group who was a psychiatrist. Her
point, 1 started working directiy with Gari and the Person-Centered Approach team. husband had forbidden her to go to the group, because he thought these American
1 left the university and was making a living working as a trainer, and as a writer. feminists were corning to destroy Braziiian family life. She carne to the group anyway.
1 wasn't doing therapy at that time, aithough before 1 went to California, 1 had When we finished the work one afternoon, we carne down in the eievator and he
received psychotherapy training at the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland and in an was waiting in the lobby with a revolver. He was pointing the revolver at her and
internship program in Ohio. 1 think 1 started seeing individual clients in threatening to kill her. And this was when 1 realised what we were risking. It was
psychotherapy in the iate seventies. 1 began doing these large PCA groups with pretty obvious by this point that feminism in Brasil was much more threatening
Cari. We started in '74 and for the next decade 1 was literaiiy doing just that work. than ir was in the States by that time.
1 went to Brazil with Gari in '77 and from then on for about another eight years 1 In our work in Brazil. so much of the pain that we were seeing in the groups and
was literaliy in Brasil six months of the year and in the United States six months of with clients was related to women's subordination—which was abject in places.
the year. Almost ali the work 1 did was psychotherapy and group process faciiitation Very wealthy women had zero power—lots ofrnoney, servants, lots ofprivileges in
training. This work was completely freelance and independent. My eariy iove was many ways and absolutely no power. No power. Women in Brazil at that time could
Gestalt Therapy, but when 1 went out to California, 1 was connecting more with stili be beaten to within an inch of their iives if they refused their husbands sex.
PCA. In reaiity, though, my work has always reaily been a combination of the two. Wornen were having piastic surgery to reconstruct their hyrnens so they would
My approach has always had the therapist more engaged in the relationship. 1 think seem like virgins when they got rnarried. A rnan was acquitted of the murder of bis
that is probably why 1 was so interested in the new ideas from the Stone Center, wife because she had an adukerous affair and the judge had decided that no man
and women's psychology and so on. Gestalt work was much more relational in that shouid be expected to tolerate such a thing and ruied it was justifiabie homicide. So
sense—I am not speaking about the Fritz Peris rpe of Gestalt therapy—the kind of feminism was very hot. We were working during very difficult times in Brasil, but
therapist-centred work that you see on the Gloria fllm, for instance, but the Cleveland the work was immensely important.
Gestalt Institute approach. Their style has aiways been much more relations, systems 1 iook back now at the women we worked with at that time and see that many
focused and drew heavily on the work of Kurt Lewin, the Tavistock Institute and ofthem are now in ieadership positions. Braziian feminism is real and it's powerful,
the Nationai Training Labs. So 1 got invited to join a Gestalt institute in San Diego and it goes ali way through the society. So 1 feel we made a contribution, actually.
as a faculty member. That was when 1 reaiised that 1 was interested in learning how We made a contribution in a very steaithy way because we weren't speaking about
to be a psychotherapist for individuais. At that point 1 decided to do a lot more what we were doing as feminism. We were speaking about it in the language of
training, both as a client-centred therapist and also as a Gestalt therapist. 1 was aiso Tinding one's own voice'. The metaphor of voice is very important to Braziians,
training other people in Brasil and in Latin America and in the US. 1 wasn't working iargely because of Paulo Freire's work heiping iliiterate peopie find their voice. So
in the university at ali until, 1 guess it was about 1984. 1-decided 1 didn't want to we used alor of his work to frarne what we were doing, so in answer to your question,
commute to Brasil anymore because it was beginning to be very draining and was feminism was very important for me at that time.

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Q. And then you went back to university in '84? figure out what effects are relevant and what effects are not relevant. It is important
Yes, 1 began teaching at San Diego State University where 1 taught Psychology of to evaluate biological claims in terms of relevant social context. 1 think it's very
Women in the Women's Studies Departrnent. That was when 1 really got deeply relevant to many areas of women's lives that women have children. But not ali
into the other versions of ferninist psychoiogy, such as the Lacanian, object relations, women have chiidren. So for women who don't have chiidren, it's irrelevant except
women's psychoanalytic theory of such writers as Jessica Benjamin, Dorothy that insofar as they're going to be evaluated in terms of wornen who do. But to
Dinnerstein, Caro! Gilligan, Mary Belenky, Julia Kristeva and Luce Irigaray and ali ignore the reality that for the rnajority ofwomen their iives are profoundly constructed
those brilliant women. 1 had to teach about them because we had to cover the range in terms of their capacity to have chiidren and raise chiidren, which we did in the
of female psychological theorists. We also had to cover the cognitive behavioural 1970s, well, cleariy that's nonsense. li is a relevant variabie both in terms of how
modeis and the existentiai humanistic and the ferninist therapies in general, so 1 and why women are oppressed, but also how and why women have capacities that
had to cornpletely immerse myseif in ali the different ways that women's reality was are imrnenseiy valuabie to society. But 1 think it's eariy days for being abie to
being described and approached. Aithough 1 iearned a great deai from the works of extrapolate from the biological story to the psychological story to the socioiogical
these women, 1 never got converted away from the more humanistic position because story. 1 actually think that one of the chailenges for ali theory in the social sciences
1 still think it brings something more to the conversation. 1 think ir brings a right now is developing theory that can handie the multi-ieveiied hoiistic picture
consideration of what men and women have in common. Which 1 think is very that neither reduces everything to bioiogy nor ignores bio1ogy. We need social theory
important. To my mmd, it's just as bad to leave out what we have in common as it that doesn't reduce everything to social forces but can hold multiple perspectives in
is to leave out what we have that's different. So I've always felt lucky about having mmd and can account for the relationships among leveis of organisation.
both humanistic and feminist perspectives. 1 can both see women's and men's reality
through a gender lens and that brings one set ofunderstandings. Or alternatively 1 Q. How do both approaches affect you in your current position as president
can see it through the humanistic lens that brings another set of understandings. of a graduate university?
Beyond that you can look through a class lens which brings us something else. So 1 think that being in a position of reiative power, as the President and CEO of Saybrook
the more lenses you have, the fuiler picture you have of what these women's stories Graduate School in San Francisco, it's very important for me to keep my ferninist eyes
are really like. open to how easily it is to abuse power. 1 think if you've been raised to think you're in
some historic-ally disempowered class that doesn't have power, whether it's working
Q: How do you see gender differences, in terms of being socially class, or a woman or whatever, it's sometimes difficult to see that once you have
constructed or biological? power, the ways you couid abuse it. So one of the things my feminist perspective
1 don't think thatit isuseflul to think in 'either-or' terms here. Ifyou look at things brings is that it has made me work very hard to stay aiert to the ways in which power
through the biological lens, there are lots of ways in which men and women are is so easy to abuse. 1 do that by asking women 1 trust to keep me honest.
quite the sarne and there's iots ofways in which men and women are quite different. On the other hand though, 1 do have the power to make sure that Saybrook
And 1 think that realisticaliy we have to take into account the ways in which men walks its talk in terms of gender so when I've got a hiring decision to make, 1 put it
and women are different biologicaliy. But the probiem is that most of those in the foreground. 1 say, 'Weli, you know, what kind of a balance do we have here?
differences don't seem to account for the societal differences that we have. There are Do we have the balance we want? Do we have the right voices around this table? Do
women who can physically !natch what a goodl proportion of men can actually do we have, if we're dealing with an issue such as psychoiogicai services for homeiess
and vice versa so the differences that we have in society cará really be expiained by people say, do we have the right voices in the conversation, because if they're ali
biologicai differences. But of course there are biological differences. We are just mate voices, we don't. Ifthey are only middle class, we don't have breadth either. Or
beginning to sort through the implications of these biological differences. When 1 if they're only academics, we don't. So part of my consciousness-raising over the
was first invoived in feminism, we couidn't even speak about any biologicai basis years to the importance of not having one group speak for another and to have each
for difference. We couidn't even admit that there were biological differences because person's subjectivity invoived in crafting a soiution to a particular challenge, 1 think
it was the era when ali reality was deemed socially constructed, so to speak about that's something 1 pay attention to every day. 1 really do.
biological differences was regressive or retrograde in terms of theory. 1 think that For me the issue is diversity and balance, and 1 frei that we have been very
levei of hard-core social constructivism has passed. 1 think people are wiiling to successful in this at Saybrook. My desire for diversity and inciusivity extends to
admit now that as the lower boundary conditions we wouldn't expect biology to making sure that no one is excluded. Because I've been a feminist ali these years,
have no affect at ali, but we shouidn't overestimate the effects either. We need to and I've done so much work in ali of my career in staying aware ofsexism, staying

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aware of gender bias and so on, and taking steps to rectify it, when 1 see women life rather than about how much money you make or what status you have. Fuifilment
taking a very 'politically correct' position and stifling male voices, or stifling white has to be more intrinsic, which brings me back to the basic PCA position. 1 suppose
voices in the narne offeminism, or taking a victim position when they're not actually that despite ali the influence on me from theory and experience, 1 do have still that
being victimised and may even have more power than many of the men around, oider humanistic 'romantic' position that what really counts is the unique inner
then 1 won't ler that pass either. I'm very sensitive to that too. 1 think that's what I'm subjectivity of each person and that this must be nurtured so that it can fiower.
learning from my work as a leader. Power, when you have it, and wherever it comes
from, is easy to misuse. And that doesn't change just because you come from a
traditionaliy marginaiised class. If you're no longer struggiing to come out of
marginalisation and you actually have power, then you're just as vuinerabie to
misusing it as anybody is. So 1 think part of what 1 can do, is 1 can actually hoid on
to the humanistic balance whiist we also make space around the tabie for whatever
voices need to be there for whatever we're working on. 1 think this sensitivity actually
influences me ali the time.
There are ways in which being a woman and being a ieàder at this point is a
new kind ofprivilege. For instance, 1 now get invited to participate in things that 1
wouidn't have been invited to participate in 25 years ago, because I'm a wornan.
More recendy, since 1 became a university president, 1 often get included in important
committees and task forces that make it possibie for me to make a real difference at
poiicy leveis. That's the space that we've opened up as feminists.
We've opened up spaces for women like me to be at the table with peopie who
make real decisions. But of course, that's an immense responsibiiity because once
you're there, you have to be, 1 think, super-aware. First of ali ofhow we got there—
of ali the sacrifices that people have made along the way to open up spaces for
women in positions of power. But you also, 1 think, have to be aware that we have
to do it differently. If we just go into those positions of power and do it the same
way as before, the way that everybody cisc has always done it, the oniy thing that
changes is the gender of the piayers, but the basic unfair game stays the sarne. So
part of what 1 bring to rny work is the realisation that 1 want to change the game.
1 want a game that is not about power, not about hierarchy, not about exploiting
one person's life to advance somebody cise, but is a game that is about ali benefiting.
1 think this value comes out of that relational notion 1 spoke of eariier. As 1 sce it,
we ali have to come along iogether. It's a different way of being in power. 1 beiieve
that this is what we must do now that women and minorities are gaining access to
the corridors of power. Ifwe just repopuiate the sarne hierarchical system but this
time with women, well we reaiiy won't sce a difference. Peopie wili still get
disenftanchised, they wili still get ripped off, they will still get siienced, only now
they're just getting silenced by powerfid women instead ofpowerfui men. Ir doesn't
seem like we've gotten very far if that's where we end up.

Q: So everyone has to get to the top together?

1 think it's not a top and bottom issue. 1 think it's more that you have to reconstrue
the game or the work ofhuman emancipation to be one about the quality ofone's

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 ROSEMARY HOPKINS

counseilor, and previously as a trainer, and 1 was certainly more focused on being
ON BECOMING AN ACTIVIST than doing. This was what had attracted me to the Person-Centred Approach. To be
fully present in a relationship, to empathise, accept and be genuine was my aim,
and 1 believed that this was sufficient for change to occur. Discovering the Warrior
in me, a sense of my personal power, a sense of being more fully myself, 1 exposed
more of my potential. And this coincided with meeting and marrying a wonderful
man who introduced me to a new culture, and also to new opportunities for personal
development, in the United States.
So it was that ou the morning of 11 September 2001, 1 was in the United
States in the closing circie of the third session of Arafia,2 a women's leadership
programmc. 1 still freeze like a rabbit in the headlights when 1 remember the moment
ROSEMARY HOPKINS we were toid of the attack on the World Trade Centre. Ali sense of personal power
evaporated and for the next six days, before 1 couid be reunited with my family in
Scotland, 1 saw and heard and felt things beyond my imagination. 1 was in the
wrong place; 1 was separated from my cbildren and granddaughter by an ocean that
And the day carne when the risk it took to remain tight inside the bud was more had never seemed deeper or wider. Yes, 1 thought of and spoke with my husband,
painfid than the risk it took to biossom. but somehow the mother in me, the woman in me, had ignited.
Anãs Nin (1903-1977) As the stories unfolded around me, in Washington where 1 have family, in
New York where 1 wouid have been that afternoon on my way home, in Pennsylvania
For more than 60 years 1 have travelled literally and figuratively, living in and where 1 have friends, the horror of the attacks was displayed over and over ou the
experiencing the different cultures of South Africa, Canada and Great Britain. My television in the Georgia home of the dear friend who took in the Arafia
journey in the last 10 years, during which 1 trained and practised in the Person- internationais. 1 felt remote in my compassion, numb in my fear, suspended in my
Centred Approach, is the focus of this story. reality. 'When 1 tried to do a moving meditation 1 feli over. 'When we four women
Within a week of completing my counselling diploma, 1 was sitting in a circie went to a vigil at the local coliege, young women gathered round us, in our silence,
of some 40 people, above Loch Vou, by Balquidder, in the Scottish Highlands. asking who we were. Yes, it was weird. It was a strange time. 1 was in an unknown
There were flags of rainbow colours flying at our backs, while in front of us blazed part of me, a part 1 was to need time to meet and get to know. 1 was to discover
a huge fite as we passed the 'taiking stick' and 'spoke our truth'. 1 was part of an myself as a different person, carrying ali 1 knew before, with ali the pieces there, but
Ehama medicine ceremony based on Native American teachings of the Four Shieids scattered, and the whole gradually coming together again arranged differently.
of Balance,' and 1 was to discover in that weekend what it is to walk in beauty, to As a counselior 1 was accustomed to being with adults who had been sexualiy
honour and be honoured as a woman, to delight in the Magical Child in me, and to abused as chiidren, accustomed to people sharing deep pain, fear, and ioss of their
celebrate the Warrior in me. organismic seif. 1 trusted the Rogerian principies and theory of personality. 1 truly
So when a Gestak-trai'ned therapist frien4 invited me a few mondas later to believed in a person's abiiity to reclaim her or bis intrinsic seif. And 1 believed that
join an all-women programme called Celebrating Women, based ou the work of 1 had the inteliectual and emotionai capacity to hoid ali of that in reiationship with
Angeles Arrien (1993), 1 felt ready. Over the course of a year, in places of great a person—in fact, with severai people in the course of each day. 1 also believed in
beauty, 1 met in me the archetypes of the Warrior, Visionary, Healer and Teacher. 1 my capacity to suspend judgement, to hold others in positive regard, not oniy in
explored and expressed myself in meditation, aikido, dancing, writing, making the counseiiing room, but also elsewhere in my life. 1 believed that 1 couid
sounds, speaking and listening. And celebrate 1 did too—especially the Warrior differentiate between my own process and that of others, that 1 couid offer empathy
Woman in me. to myself, as well as to others.
1 was more familiar with the Healer and Teachèr in me in my work as a In the weeks after 1 got home to Scotiand, 1 discovered 1 did not have the
emotional capacity 1 thought 1 had, and became overwhelmed by what 1 heard
1
See <www.ehaxna.org/ccremony> and
<wwinknowvate.com/inknowvate/ehama_8_ direction_council_configuration.htm>. 2 Spish word meaning the female spider, the web-maker.

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 ENCOIJNTERING FEMINISM ROSEMARY HoPKINS

from clients, overwhelmed by what 1 heard and saw in the rest of the world, and that 1 would not rest until 1 had found ways of making a difference, and that one
most frighteningly, overwhelmed by my unidentified feelings which couldn't find a person ata time in counselling was not enough. 1 needed to be doing more. 1 needed
way out. 1 was lost inside myself. tofind outlets for my rage. If 1 was to be outraged, 1 needed to be effective. And yet,
1 stopped counselling and spent time with my daughter and granddaughter in this cacophony of thoughts, 1 needed and wanted to stay true to my principies. 1
and a few women friends. My husband was bewildered as 1 went to ground like a knew that 1 needed to have the capacity to feel compassion for the victims of terror-
she-animal secking my own kind for protection, solace and understanding. As time ism as well as the victims of enduring terror.
went on 1 knew something wasn't adding up. Deep inside, some part of me, the fuse As a South African living outside the apartheid regime since 1960, 1 had held
that had been lit at the instant 1 felt trapped, was beginning to burn more strongly. myselfat a safe enough distance from global inequalities and environmental threats—
1 was angry, and 1 felt my anger before 1 understood it. as a supporter rather than an activist. For many years 1 had been a supporter of
And then the November 2001 issue of New Internationalist arrived with its Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, Oxfam, Shelter and other caring non-governmental
evocative titie: Twjn Terrors. Inside 1 read the words of Mark Twain, writing about organisations. Even my longstanding work with Traidcraft in the Fair Trade
the French Revolution in A Connecticut Yankee in KingArthur's Court, and the Movement felt more like support than activism. In person-centred terms, 1 had
fioodgate opened inside me. 1 began to flow again. At a deep levei, the horror 1 was never engaged psychologically with the victims or perpetrators of political and
feeiing had not made sense, or had made half-sense, and 1 couidn't grasp the missing corporate dominance, exploitation and violence. 1 thought that caring and support,
haif until my rage erupted. making a difference by raising or giving money was enough until 1 met my rage and
There are two 'Reigns of Terror', if we could but remember and outrage, and knew 1 had opened myself to another way of being in this world.
consider it; the one wrought murder in hot passions, the other in 1 could move from supporting the victims, to being active in effecting change
heartiess cold blood; the one lasted mere months, the other had in the world. 1 could stand up againstviolence and injustice as well asfor peace and
lasted a thousand years; the one infiicted death upon a thousand justice. The risk was to show up and demonstrate, to step outside the safety of my
persons, the other upon a hundred miliion; but our shudders are ali community and circie of friends and colleagues—my tribe. The greater risk was to
for the 'horrors' of the momentary Terror, so to speak; whereas,
... remain in dissonance, incongruence and confusion.
what is the horror of swift death by the axe compared with lifelong 1 could and would do more. 1 became active in the Campaign Against Arms
death from hunger, cold, insult, cruelty and heartbreak? (New Trade, Amnesty International, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmanient, and read
Internationalist, 2001) everything 1 could to understand what was happening in the post- 11 September
War on Terrorism' and to mãe sense of a world dominated by one superpower. 1
The New Internationaiist listed the deaths from acts ofterrorism aiongside deaths needed to know why people hated the United States enough to give and take life.
from 'Enduring Terrors'. The figures showed what 1 hadn't dared to think, but 1 And that was my second revelation. 1 became acutely aware that 1 did not respect
knew and didn't have the capacit-y to feel, understand and believe until then. or trust the world of political and corporate power dominated by men. The women
Number of people who died of hunger on ix September 2001: 24,000* of Afghanistan, victims of the Taliban, were an excuse in the war on Afghanistan.
Number of children killed by diarrhoea on xx September zoox: 6,020* They had prominence as justification for a war on an already devastated countr and
(New Internationalist, zoox) once the war was 'over', women's rights were scarcely reievant (Hawthorne and Winter,
* Based on reports fronk UNICEF and reputable NGO campaigns on world 2002). 1 was beginning to understand the masculinity of global politics.
hunger, and assuming annual deaths were evenly spread. Globalisation is not an equal or free system. It is raced, ciassed and
gendered. The dominant groups in the global economy are over-
And each day before, and each day after whelmingly male, white and privileged. (Mary Meilor, 2003)
There were more statistics showing lack of adequate food, safe drinking water,
sanitation and education—basic human rights. Statistics that toid of prolonged Letter writirig is private, petition name gathering is more public, and ali of this is
suffering and dying. safe in the company of fellow thinkers and believers, or people who love you de-
And 1 knew what my rage was about—inhumanity. Terrorism is not the en- spite what they might perceive as crazy ideas. 1 suspected that if 1 spoke out, par-
emy. Inhumanity is the enemy. And 1 had discovered the conflict 1 had been carry- ticularly from a feminist standpoint, that if 1 was fiuly present, fully accepting of
ing inside me, the overwhelming feelings ofguilt, shame and rage, that 1 am part of that Warrior part of me, that if 1 allowed my rage to be fully felt and expressed non-
ali of this. 1 met the terrorist part of me; 1 met the inhuman part of me. And 1 knew violently, 1 would be open to criticism. But that was better than denying myself.

72 73
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM ROSEMARY HOPKINS

How often 1 have thought of Rogers and his potatoes in that dark celiar. How srnall group of Israeli and Palestinian women dressed in black stood vigil in silence
often 1 have drawn courage from that image, that only when we die do we stop once a week in the sarne place in Jerusalem hoiding a sign saying 'Stop the
reaching for the light. 1 was going to live in my fullness, and to do that 1 needed to Occupation'. Women in Black, now an international network, was inspired by the
risk being honest, to risk being different, to risk losing friends, Susan Sontag (2003) Madres de Ia Plaza de Mayo, rnothers and grandmothers holding narnes and photos
speaks of the risk of being different—different to your usual position, different to the of the 'disappeared' in Argentina, and by the Black Sash, women who stood silent
position of those around you, and different to their expectations of you. She draws a vigil against apaxtheid in South Africa.
vivid picture of what it is to step outside your tribe, daring to be unpopular, even Remembering my roots, remernbering my Warrior woman who stands for
unpatriotic, daring to say that lives in other tribes are as valuable as your own. clarity and action, remembering my yearning for sisterhood, 1 found ali of these in
1 had run into ambiguity and complexity. 1 have valued complexity and chaos in the solidarity 1 experience when 1 stand with Women in Black in Edinburgh. Each
my therapeutic work and believe that to be person-centred implies a willingness to go week we stand silent vigil for justice and peace, against war. Women sometimes ask
with, and stay with, whatever is happening in the process, to go where you know you how to join Women in Black. The answer is simple: Show up, wearing biack. In
don't know where you are going, but to value and trust the organic nature of that fact, it was months before 1 learned the names of the women 1 stood beside week
process. 1 was discovering that being out of step with my tribe Ieft me feeling isolated, after week. This quality of sisterhood has surprised me. Ir is not the comfortable
and also free to explore—such is the nature of complexity, the both/and! sense of belonging 1 had yearned for, and yet 1 go back week after week to stand in
In the Ehama ceremonies, in the Celebrating Women and Arafia programmes, 1 visible silence where 1 feel so alive and authentic.
developed a keen sense of and longing for sisterhood. 1 beieved it would be a safe Peggy Natiello emphasises the importance of person-centred practitioners
place for me to express myselffully and freely, to give and receive, and to celebrate incorporating their 'personal styie and unique personality traits' (Natiello, 2001). 1
being part of something bigger than me. 1 was learning fast and 1 was learning wide. believe that is what 1 had been doing in searching for a place for my political activism.
This was personal and global journeying, and 1 was meeting many wonderful people 1 needed to be consistent and congruent, to have my activism match who 1 am, and
challenging the systems. Ironica11y, 1 was letting go of directing my searching, of 1 needed to be principled. To act on principie, says Susan Sontag (2003) is not
making things happen, and discovering that women were finding me. Women from about appeasing your conscience, or even being sure that what you are doing will
CND ,3 curious about the South African beaded AIDS ribbon 1 was wearing, achieve its aim—to act ou principie is to act in solidarity with others of similar
approached me on the train on 15 February 2003—the day that 30 million people heart and mmd.
walked for peace and against war in 600 cities across the world. Rather than feeling Standing in silence on a busy street comer, 1 can feel powerfuiiy present, in the
isolated, as 1 had at first, there seemed more people out there who shared my values, presence of others who may choose to engage, or not. 1 recognise in these moments
and many of them were women. of being fiilly present, sornething of the 'transcendental', the 'intuitive' phenornenon
Since then, 1 have walked for peace under the CND banner, stood vigil outside that Gari Rogers referred to towards the end of bis life as 'presence' (Thorne, 1992).
Cornton Vale Women's Prison on the eve of the trial of an activist, joined the biockade 1 have felt physically warmed as 1 stand, and spiritually moved in compassionate
at the Trident nuclear submarine base at Faslane, and remembered Hiroshima and contempiation of victims of wars worldwide. 1 recognise the experience of Alice
Nagasaki in a Peace Garden with thern. Waiker (1997) who writes ofovercoming fear through coilective presence in poiiticai,
However, sisterhood has not turned out to be what 1 thought it would be— cultural and spiritual activism.
being a member of a comfoÉtable, intimate groq. Sisterhood has been more like the The ongoing task is continued development of our capacity to be
...

coming together of kindred spirits who share similar values, feel safe together, can wholly and authentically present in the world, to abdicate power
iaugh and cry together, argue and debate together, and feel enriched by this relationship. and control over others to tolerate their pain and struggle, and to
...

This form of sisterhood appeared unexpectedly in the Big Issue4 in the spring grow in the exquisiteiy respectful attitudes of empathy and positive
of2002—an article on Women in Black,5 Scotland. Beginning in January 1988, a regard. (Natiello, zoox)

Campaign for Nuclear Disarinanient, see <www.cnduk.org>.

3. 1 take responsibility for my feeiings and actions, for my power to, rather than my
The Big Issue in Scotland is a magazine sold by homeless, oi ex-homeless people as a way of power over, and to the best of my ability to suspend my judgement of the words and
making an income. actions of others—not easy! The 'others' inciude fellow activists, supporters and the
Women in Black in the UK and US, see <www.wibs.org.uk>, <www.womeninblack.org.uk> supported, those who disagree with or don't care about my principies, as well as
and <wwwomeninb1ack.net>. those 1 perceive as the cause of my protest. This is the chalienge in becoming an

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 ENCOUNTERTNG FEMINISM ROSEMARY HOPKINS

activist using a person-centred approach. To hoid protagonists for pre-emptive 1 am aware that others can feel uncomfortable with my intensity and find my
military action in Iraq, for exampie, in 'positive regard' is an on-going chalienge! reiuctance to proseiytise confusing. However, 1 believe 1 have found a way of
Activism is not just doing as in protesting, demonstrating, standing vigil. becoming a political activist that is consistent with the 'person-centred approach
Activism for me, like the Person-Centred Approach, is essentially about having a [that] cannot be practiced without passionate presence. li calis for intense awareness,
deep respect for and vaiuing of humanity, and listening to the stories people teu. a genuine renunciation of control, and a sense of wonderment and anticipatory
These stories are my inspiration, my source of information, and my connection attendance' (Natielio, 2001: 155).
with people, whether it is listening to my 92-year-oid aunt who lives her principies My passion is also a celebration of beauty in its natural forms and human
of justice and peace for all; whether it is finding the story of the Iroquois women creations, a celebration of humanity, ofwonder, and of hope.
who prevented war by refusing to mãe moccasins for the tribe's warriors;6 whether Curiosity is my self-fertilizer, stimulating growth ofknowledge and expansion
it is spending time with Yehudit Keshet, an Israe1i from Jerusalem who co-founded ofawareness, personaily and globally. Feminist writers, academics and anaiysts like
Machsom (Checkpoint) Watch in the Occupied Territories; whether it is reading Cynthia Enloe and Diana Bel, and women's organisations like RAWA,7 WLUML8
Barbara Kingsolver's provocative, wide-visioned coliection of essays written foliowing and Bat Shalom,9 encourage feminist curiosity in a world of militarised and masculine
11 September 2001; whether it is discovering the writings of ecofeminist and anti- foreign poiicy (Hawthorne and Winter, 2002). The key question women can ask,
globalisation activist, Vandana Shiva; whether it is appreciating the efforts ofBritish whether about armaments or military action, ownership of seed or human genes,
politician Mo Mowiem reaching out and listening to the people ofNorthern Ireland; trade agreements or human rights, is: Who will benefit? Followed by: And who
whether it is hearing the strength and humility of Helen Steven on her retirement else? 1 believe these are the important questions—the awkward questions.
from the Scottish Centre for Non-Violence which she founded; whether it is meeting Ifpassion is the fuel, curiosity the catalyst, then imagination is the life force of
the courageous women ofWola Nani (Xhosa, meaning Embrace), an H1V/AJDS my organic and evolving self. 1 continue to rage and to be outraged by violation
support agency in Cape Town, South Africa; or seeing radiant peace in the face of and violence, outrage that Vandana Shiva says, 'is a necessary complement to being
Ngawang Sangdrol, the 26-year-oid Buddhist nun recently released from Drapchi spiritual' (cited in Biggs, 2003). Out of my celebration ofwomen, 1 have met and
Prison in Tibet after 10 years of brutal incarceration. expressed the feminist, the Warrior woman part of me. Out of my paralysis, fear,
1 could narne so many inspiring women—wornen of courage, patience and confusion and rage, 1 have expanded my world and made fertile compassionate
passion. 1 have them being Warrior women for justice; activists for, a better world; connections within that world. Out of my discoveries and my dreams, 1 will continue
listeners, taikers, collaborators, creators. 1 have them being 'Midwives for Change' to show up, to be silent and to listen, to speak out and to write, to be and to do, and
(Chopra, 2003). to continue becoming an activist.
Inspiration intrigues me. It has a serendipitous synchronistic quality to it, an
element of readiness to receive, and a mystery that touches me dceply. Inspiration
comes to me each week as 1 stand in visible silence with Women in Black, in
sisterhood with Women in Black around the world, in solidarity for peace and
justice.
So that has been my journey so far. There is an irony that in a world where
women are silenced, where '(vomen are the victins ofdomestic, corporate and political
power, 1 have chosen to stand in silence to demonstrate against this injustice. For
me, to not show up as my authentic self wouid be to yield to my internaiised
oppression of seif-imposed misogyny and self-censorship. 1 vaiue the freedom 1
have to express myselffully, and my journey continues with inspiration from many
renewable resources. 1 travei on with passion, curiosity and imagination. 7 The Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan, see <www.rawa.org>.
Passion is my treasure. Ir fueis me and 1 live myself more fully in my passion. Women Living Under Moslem Laws, see <www.wlumi.org>.
' Bar Shalom is an Israe1i national feminist grassroots organization of Jewish and Palestinian

A Messagefrom the Iroquois Women—Moccasin Makers and War Breakers A Cail to Action by the Israe1i women working together for a peace grounded in a just resohstion of the Israel- Palestine
Women ofthe World, written by Kahn-Tineta Horn, Mohawk Nation—see wwwfreepeltier.org/ conflict, respect for human rights, and an equal voice for Jewish and Arab wornen within Israeli
call_to_action.htm. society, see <ww'batshalom.org/eng1ish/batsha1orn/>.

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ROSEMARY HOPKINS

Who are they -

The Women in Black REFERENCES

Standing in silent vigil?
Arrien, A (1993) The Fourfoli Way. San Francisco: HarperCoilins.
Biggs, BS (2003) Brave Hearts, Rebel Spirits. Chichester UK: Anita Roddick Books.
Icy winds tearing
Chopra, A (2003) Midwives ofChange. Resurgence magazine, 220: 34.
The messages of peace,
Hawthorne, S and Winter, B (2002) September 11, 2001: Feminist Perspectives. Melbourne:
Flapping the banners
Spinifex.
Saying No to War.
Kingsolver, B (2002) Small Wonder. London: Faber & Faber.
Meilor, M (2003) Wornen & Nature. Resurgence (magazine), 216.49.
Heads down, eyes averted, some taunting—
Natielio, P (200 1) The Person-CentredApproach: A passionatepresence. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS
lhe people, they scurry past.
Books.
Curious, supportive, some gratefi.d -

New Internationalist Cooperative, (200 1) Twin Terrors. New Internationa1ist, 340: 18-19.
The people, they pause in their haste.
Heads bow, hands reach out, eyes flul, Sontag, S (2003) The Power of Principie. Speech ai the presentation of the Rothko Chapel
Lips move in heartfull thanks. Oscar Romero Award, 30 March 2003. <wvwrefusersoiidaritynet>.
Thorne, B (1992) CarlRogers. London: Sage.
Who are they Waiker, A (1997) Anything We Love Can Be Saved. New York: Bailantine Books.
-

The Women in Black

and many more
Standing in silent vigil,
Mourning the dead and the living dead,
The disappeared in those far offplaces?

Who are the mothers,

Grandmothers and daughters
Who stand side by side round the world?
Shoulder to shoulder—in solidarity
Shoulder to shoulder—saying No to War
Shoulder to shoulder—saying Yes to Justice.

On Jerusalem's steps they stood up in. grief,

Israe1i and Palestinian women.
On Jerusalem's steps they showed up for pace
Palestjnjan and Israeli women.

Around the world

The warrior women
Join in the silent vigil
Around the world
The Women in Black
Stand together in silence for peace.
Rosemary Hopkins
4 March 2003, Scotland, UK

78
79
 J WADE HANNON
ON BEING A FEMINIST MALE ali his work life). 1 have one brother and one sister, both younger. We were a poor
rural working-class family.
Growing up 1 was fortunate ia that 1 spent much time around my female
relations as well as the male ones. 1 was ofren ia the kitchen watching, learning and
helping my mother, aunts and grandmothers. 1 also spent time doing the sarne with
my father, uncles, and grandfathers, but not in the kitchen. Unfortunately, by the
time 1 was nine, ali of my biological grandparents were dead, although my step-
paternal grandmother was alive until 1 was 19.
Growing up ia the period that 1 did exposed me to a number of social and
cultural phenomena that influenced how 1 grew and developed as a person and who
1 am today.
J WADE HANNON As a child, McCarthyism was very much alive and well in the United States
'heartland'. The minister at the local fundamentaiist Protestant church that my
aunt and uncle took my siblings and 1 to used to go on about 'Communists under
every bed', 'Communists under every bush', and the 'evils of Karl Marx and Marxism'.
As 1 begin writing 1 am struck with the term 'Feminist Male'. Some females This always perplexed me. His tirades lcd me to discover a copy of The C'ommunist
would argue that it is inappropriate for a male to use the term in regard to himself; Manifesto by Karl Marx in the school library shelves ia my ninth grade year. 1
others would embrace a male doing so. Digby (1998) wrote, 'it's not hard to fird remember thinking 'Hmmm "Communist" and "Marx", very interesting', so 1
...

explanations for why the very idea of a feminist man is likely to be met with some pulled it down and read it. 1 could not understand what the problem was. His ideas
form ofincredulity' (p. 1). 'Some women,' he states, 'are inclined by the manifold made very good sense to me.
ways in which they have found feminism to be empowering to them as women The Civil Rights movement was very important to me ia many regards. 1
not to see feminism as a sociopolitical stance which could be espoused or rejected recai1 how many people ia my town and the surrounding arcas would make many
by anyone, male or female' (p. 1). Even within the comrnunity of males who disparaging remarks about people of color, especially African-Americans. This was
embrace feminism, some would use the term 'pro-feminist' to describe themselves always hard to understand. Theme were no people of color in my hometown—
rather than a 'feminist male' (Bartky, 1998; Brod, 1998; Digby, 1998; Hopkins, although many ofus were part Native Arnerican. We were just three rniles from the
1998). state of Oklahoma, where many Native Americans lived, most of them involuntarily
1 have referred to myself as a feminist for many years, decades actually, and do moved there ia the 1800s. It was known as 'Indian Territory' until 1917 when it
not see any problem with it. Feminism is a ser of beliefs, a social theory and, as became a state. My Cherokee ancestors were among the Native Americans forced to
such, 1 believe it is very appropriate for males to use the term if they do, indeed, live there. My father was bom in Oklahoma, as were his brother and sister and their
embrace feminist theory in one ofits many inanifestations. Hopkins (1998) astutely father and so on. 1 knew that 1 was not ali 'white' and did not see how one's skin
observes, 'feminism, it turns out, is something we ali can do' (p. 52). color made her/him 'bad'. 1 remember seeing Civil Rights marches and ralhes on
11 television and hearing Martin Luther King, Jr. His words made a huge impact on
me.
WHO 1 AM? The other major currents that shaped me were the student New Left and the
Anti-Vietnam War movements. At the time these ali blumred together ia my mmd,
1 am a fifty-year-oid divorced man ofmixed ethnic ancestry (five different European although, now, having lived through and studied the period 1 realize that they were
and one Native American nationalities). 1 have one daughter (age 19) and one son separate with many overlapping characteristics ia them. 1 was also very much involved
(age 11) who share me as their father and have different mothers. with what was referred to in the US then as the 'Youth Culture', especially rock-
1 grew up ia Edna, a small town (approximately 460 people) ia southeast and-roll music, both as a listener and a musician. 1 played guitar in many local
Kansas, which is in the center of the main part of the 1.Jnited States of America bands from the ages of 11 to 20 (when 1 'metired' from being a rock-and-roll
(liS), (excluding Alaska and Hawaii). 1 was bom ia 1953 to a waitress mother and rnusician). The rebeliiousness ofmock-and-roll music was very attractive, particulamly
construction electrjcjan father (who was an active member of the electrician's union the emphasis on social and political issues.

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As a youth 1 had embraced the Christian religion. The majority of people Another large part of my life is being a father. Being a feminist impacts the
where 1 grew up professed to be Christian. For me, though, it was a very serious way in which 1 am as a father. 1 aim to not replicate the sexist social gender stereotypes.
thing, from age 12 to age 20 1 was committed to becoming a minister (although at 1 use non-sexist language and help my children to see how these conventions are
201 realized that Christianity and religion in general made no sense and transformed unfair (as with the female teachers at my son's school who use the title 'Miss' or
into an agnostic secular humanist). The commitment to peace and love that 1 'Mrs' as opposed to 'Ms' 1 point out that the male teachers are ali called 'Mr' and
understood of the religion was important to me and led to my embracing the Civil encourage him to use 'Ms'). Being non-violent is an important part of my role as a
Rights, New Left and Anti-War movements. They alI seemed to fit together nicely. father. 1 have never hit or spanked either of my children. That is not to say that 1
By the age of 15 1 was a pacifist, anti-racist and an anti-capitaiist. have never been angry with them—I have. But 1 express my anger with words not
The Women's Movement became a part of my awareness shortly afterward. violence. 1 work to share my feelings, both the 'positive' and 'negative' ones (although,
The basic argument that women were equal to men appealed to my budding sense in most regards, 1 tend to view feelings as neither, rather, from a more
of justice and equality 1 had a very strong and influential female teacher in high phenomenological perspective ofjust being). When 1 was grieving my father's death
school. Imogene North taught vocal music and was a brilliant and compassionate ten years ago 1 cried a lot. 1 did this in front of my children. In the United States, a
person. She saw in me many things that others did not. 1 vividly remember her male crying is still not a common occurrence, although much more so today than
saying to me once, 'Wade, 1 don't know how a person like you could ever have come in my youth. 1 work to not impose heterosexism on my children. 1 talk about when
from Edna, Kansas.' She clearly viewed me as remarkable. In my 1970-71 high they are attracted to a male or female, not one or the other. Being an active ally and
school yearbook she wrote, 'It's quite refreshing to meet a great original thinker, supporter of the gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender community also demonstrates to
instead of a memorizer. 1 expect a great new philosophical treatise from [you] them that 1 am sincere in this regard. 1 firmly and strongly believe that fathers
When 1 got to coliege 1 met many more women who were strong, vibrant and should be an equal parent with the mother. Being a divorced father in the United
feminist. One woman in particular exposed me to many of the basic covenants, States, this is not an easy feat. In many regards, the divorce and custody system was
idear and writings of the feminist movement. In addition to other political activities created to mãe fathers only responsible for paying child support (if even that) and
1 became active in supporting the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), Pro-Choice not to be 'real' parents.
legislation, anti-violence (especially anti-domestic violence), childcare initiatives and
other feminist efforts. 1 was a dues-paying member of the National Organization
for Women (NOW) for several years in my 20s and 30s. Over the years 1 have WHAT IS FEMINISM?
remained engaged and active in ali these arcas in addition to becoming active in the
Labor movement. Coming from a working family with my father, bis brother and To me, feminism simply means that women and men are equal and there should be
many other family and friends active in unions, it is no wonder. Being a part of the no barriers to equality. While there are many other dimensions to feminist thought,
union movement allows me to bring much of my politicai work together (although, this is the boiled-down part. For more detailed explorations see Clough (1994),
unfortunately, many in the United States union movement retain their irrational Collins (1998), Davis (1983), hooks (2000), and Smith (1987, 1990) to name a
attachments to the so-called 'Democratic' Party). few. Tong's (1998) work is a good overview of feminist thought in it's many variations.
In general, my view of political activity coalesced around the concept of Taking feminist theory into practice, Collins (1998) states:
liberation at an early age and 1 have maintained that throughout my life. 'Liberation', Giobaily, a feminist agenda encoxnpasses several major areas. First
to me, means the process of struggling to be free and who we truly are as people, and foremost, the economic status of women and issues associated
individually and collectively. To a large degree that is why 1 chose to be a counselor with women's poverty, such as educational opportunities for giris,
and to embrace the Person-Centered/Client-Centered Approach. industrial development, empioyment policies, prostitution, and
A constant struggle for me has been the tension, the dialectic, between working inheritance laws concerning property, constitute important
as a counselor and fostering personal change and working as an activist and fostering women's issues giobaily. Politicai rights for women, such as the
social change. One synthesis that occurred for me was almost fifteen years ago right to vote, to assembie, to travei in public and to hold office, as
when 1 became a professor of counseling. Doing this work has enabled me to work well as the rights of political prisoners, and basic human rights
with students who (hopefully) are more sociaily and cukurally aware counselors violations against women, such as rape and torture, constitute a
who will, in at least some small degrees, be more sensitive to and appreciative of second area of concern. A third area of global attention consists of
diversity and confront the social systems that need to be changed. marital and family issues, such as marriage and divorce laws, child

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custody policies, and domestic labor. Women's health and survivai Commitment to non-violence—as 1 mentioned carlier, this has been a key
issues, such as reproductive ríghts, pregnancy, sexuality, and AIDS part ofwho 1 am for many years, but my exposure to feminist theory and practice
constitute another arca of global feminist concern. This broad global has added urgency to work to counter the excessive violence in US society which 1
feminist agenda finds varying expressions in different regions of believe is the most violent in the world and extends into many househoids in the
the world and among diverse populations. (p. 66) form of child abuse, partner abuse and physicai 'disciplining' of children (which 1
consider to be child abuse, but is not recognized as such in the ljnited States, unless
1 find this to be a good 'platform' that fits weli with my beliefs about humans. it is 'excessive').
Another component of feniinist practice that is important is the valuing of the Patriarchal hegemony—by this 1 am referring to the impact of the patriarchal
experiential, subjective spheres of existence. These are, as Smith (1990) asserts, sexist system on consciousness. There are so many factors in our society that impact
'central to the feminist chalienge to academic discourse' (p. 31). This, ofcourse, is how we think, feel and act that are related to the means in which the hegemonic
also a key part of the Person-Centered/Client-Centered Approach. structure seems to controi us. How we act as 'men', the ways in which the system
teus us what is 'manly and what is not, and how we must work to show 'that what
appears as natural is rather socialiy constructual and therefore political' (Clough,
LEARNING FROM FEMINIST THEORY AND PRACTICE 1994: 30), We must endeavor to develop ways in which to counter these social
construas that seep into our innermost thoughts and feeiings!
Over the years 1 have come to see how feminist theory and practice have influenced
me and become important to me as aperson, counselor and professor. These are:
• Language—the use of non-sexist language and gender inclusive terminology SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR MALES
are very key, such as 'ietter carrier' not 'mailman', 'fire fighter' not 'fireman' and
looking at phrases that are unsavory such as 'rule of thumb' which used to denote There are many ways in which men can change to become iess sexist, striving to be
that a husband couid beat his wife with a stick no longer than his thumb. a non-sexist male (and hopefuiiy, feminist). Even within Person-Centered meetings
• Countering male privilege—.-maies are often socialized to expect that they 1 have observed many examples of males behaving in sexist manners (and not just
can speakwhencver theywant, interrupting others (especiallywomen), and to expect the older males!).
to be served first, waited on first, etc. Part of my efforts as a feminist male is to learn Some suggestions are: (a) males need to talk less and listen more; (b) not assume
to be quiet more often and not do those typical 'male' behaviors. In my classes, 1 that females should do certain kinds of activities (such as cooking, cleaning, etc.);
work to facilitate student verbal exchanges that are respectful of ali speakers, and 1 (c) not monopolize; (d) behave in ways that are more aware of how women are
defer from speaking when 1 can to aliow others, especialiy females, to have more systematicaliy mistreated, speak out against those injustices, and work for change;
speaking time. 1 am also very aware of the fact that 1 am a physically large man and (e) increase one's self-awareness in regard to how one's behavior (inciuding verbal
that others, especiaily women, can see me as intimidating and/or threatening based behavior) can be seen as intimidating, offensive, etc.; (f) read feminist theory and
on this. Ir is a dynamic that 1 have to keep tabs on, as my self-concept is not one of educate oneseif; and, (g) seek to achieve harmony between being respectful toward
being that way, quite to the contrary. others without being patriarchal, patronizing or condescending.
• Power relationships.L—.this relates somewhat to the previous concept, but it is
on a more systems or macro levei and includes ciass and ethnicity (Collins, 1998).
1 find looking at the, many forms ofoppression heipful—the ways in which oppression ENDING REMARKS
of one group by another take piace. For example, US states that severely restrict a
woman's right to reproductive health options or the ways that in primarily female Being a feminist male is not an easy project to adopt, yet 1 see no other way to exist
workplaces the bosses deny the women workers decent wages and working authenticaily. The core of Rogers' writing is very consistent with most feminist
conditions. values. So often in my life, 1 have felt marginalized, 'the other', 'the weirdo', the
• Equaiity and egalitarianism—these concepts are very important to me as a deviant. Much of the time 1 have embraced my 'deviant' self, but at times the
person, a practitioner, a professor and an activist. 1 actively reject the ways in which upkeep for being me becomes wearisome. Having discovered the Person-Centered
people are systematically treated differently based on gender and work to live my Approach and feminist theory while a student at university have both been
life in as much as 1 can, in concert with the principle of: wellsprings for me. 1 continue to be nurtured and rejuvenated by both.

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REFERENCES
IN OUR HUMANITY IS OUR DIVINITY:
Bartky, S (1998) Foreword, in T Digby (ed) Men Doing Feminism. New York: Routiedge, INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN
PP. xi—xix.
Brod, H (1998) To be a man, or not to be a man—that is the feminist question, inT Digby, FEMINIST SPIRITUALITY AND THE
(ed) Men DoingFeminism. York New: Routiedge, pp. 197-212.
Clough, PT (1994) Feminist Thought: Desire, power, and academic discourse. Oxford, UK;
PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH
Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Collins, PH (1998) Fighting Words: Black women and the searchforjustice. Minneapolis MN:
University of Minnesota Press.
Coilins, PH (2000) Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of
empowerment. (løth anniversary ed) New York: Routiedge. DEB STEELE
Davis, AY (1983) Women, Race and Class. New York: Vintage Books.
Digby, T (1998) Introduction, inT Digby (ed) Men DoingFeminism. NewYork: Routiedge,
pp. 1-16.
hooks, b (2000) Feminist Theory: From margin to center. (2nd ed) Cambridge, MA: South Feminist spirituality is a term which aliows for a muitiplicity oftruths; it is a broad
End Press. church. It could be defined in terms offeminist theology (feminist perspectives on
Hopkins, PD (1998) How feminism made a rnan out of me: The proper subject offeminism the existing world religiàns), in terms of the ancient Goddess religions, in terms of
and the probiem ofmen, in T Digby (ed) Men DoingFeminism. York New: Routiedge witchcraft and shamanism, in terms of the, sacred feminine within ali religions or in
pp. 33-56. terms of individual women's experiences of the numinous. Feminist spirituality is
Smith, DE (1987) The Everyday World as Problematic: A feminist sociology. Boston, MA: about an arising from within, connectedness with nature and the pianet, spirit as
Northeastern University Press. immanence, indweiling, and embracing of the dark as well as the light. It is about
Smith, DE (1990) The Conceptual Practices ofPower.Afeministsociology ofknowledge. Boston, embodied experience of the divine. Inherent in this is a deep respect for humanity
MA: Northeastern University Press. as a whole, for each individual in particular, and for the primacy of subjective
Tong, RI? (1998) Feminist Thought: A more comprehensive introduction. (2nd ed) Boulder, experience. In this way, ferninist spirituality shares a common value base and
CO: Westview Press. philosophy with the Person-Centred Approach. In this chaptet 1 explore the ways
in which 1 have experienced the coming together of these two worlds in both my
personal and professional life.

My first encounter with the experience of a reality which transcends that of the
material world, and which connected me with what some would cal1 the Goddes
carne with the birthing of my first chiid. As 1 found myself in the grip of a physical
process which swept away ali iliusions of being in control of nature 1 was lost in awe
at what was happening. My body was wracked with pain, 1 felt frightened, lost and
alone and yet simultaneously 1 knew myseif to be in the heart of a wondrous mys-
tery. The chemistry bioiogy and physics that 1 knew went nowhere near expiaining
the miracie in which 1 was participating, that of giving birth to a new life, of par-
ticipating in creation.
Having grown up in an atheist, sociaiist househoid, 1 had no reiigious belief
j system within which to frame this experience and yet 1 couid only frame it as mystical.

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1 felt deep in the heart of mystery, and in an altered state of consciousness in which A short whiie ago 1 was preparing for a workshop that 1 was offering on spirituality
my sense of connection with ali of life—animal, vegetabie and mineral—was and the Person-Centred Approach at a nationai conference. 1 was feeling very anx-
profound. 1 knew myself as one with ali that is, through a physical, intuitive knowing. ious at the prospect, to the extent that it was impossibie for me to think clearly, 50
The emergence of a new perfect life from within my own boundaried body transcended 1 decided to 'go inside', to just sit quietly as 1 am used to doing in meditation, and
any attempts at a rationalist, materialist explanation; there was nothing in that see what happened. What happened was that as 1 sat, Client-Centered Therapy kept
framework that couid begin to speak to me of the utter miracle of this creation. going through my head so 1 got it from the shelf, sat again then opened it at the
The miracle of creation had served in the Western world as the basis for twenty words:
thousand years ofworship of God as femaie, as mother, as earth and nature-centred. It is undoubtedly true that the great majority of our sensory
There are parts of the world where it is still so. This, however, was not a reference experiences are thus ignored, never raised to the level of conscious
point available to me at this stage. The experience which 1 now understand as symbolization, and exist only as organic serisations, without ever
rnystical and shamanic then became, in the absence of any other conceptual having been related in any way to the organized concept of the self
framework—internal or externai—one of mental iliness. From being in a state of or to the concept of self in relation to the environment. (Rogers,
bliss 1 plunged into a state ofdespair. Having been diagnosed as having post-partum 1951: 504)
psychosis, 1 escaped being hospitalised through sheer terror and determination and
through the love and support of my family and my health visitor. Here were sown This had great meaning for me because this is precisely what 1 was struggling to do
the first seeds of knowing the profound healing power of being accepted. and being in preparing for the workshop, attempting to articulate (or symbolise) organic
heard, in being blessed with a health visitor who had had a similar experience many sensations and to relate them to my organised concept of self and to my concept of
years previously and who carne in day after day to sit with me whilst 1 poured out self in relation to the environment. As a woman raised in a patriarchal secular society
what 1 had come to perceive as my madness. Her capacityto simply listen, to offer 1 have internalised many conditions ofworth around my organic experiences of the
me understanding, to trust my ability to still care for my baby, enabled my fear to nurninous, the ineifable, that which defies logical explanation. To bring these
subside and my return to a more grounded reality. experiences into conscious awareness, to integrate them into my self concept as part
Thus this personal feminist perspective of spirituality links with feminist of a process of sharing them with others, was, at some levei, terrifring.
perspectives on madness and also with Rogers' theories of personality development. Knowing that the above quote was in relation to one of the nineteen propositions
Witen our lived visceral experiencing and valuing is at odds with our self concept and 1 turned to read which one and found that it was number eieven:
the social construct of reality that we exist within, then our need to adapt in order to As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either,
beaccepted, to feel belongingness, will lead us to deny the truth of our own internai a) symbolised, perceived and organized into some relationship to
reality, whether consciously or unconsciously. Ifwe try to claim and to articulate that the self, b) ignored because there is no relationship to the self-
internal truth we then have to live with our internalised judgements around that structure, c) denied symbolization orgiven distorted symbolization because
experience and are vuinerabie to both those and the judgements of those around us. the experience is inconsistent with the structure of the self. (ibid: 503, my
In the fieids of spirituality and mental health, women are made doubly emphasis)
vulnerable. Whiist much has changed in the twenty-eight years since the experience
that Iam describing it is Áill the case that people articulating their spiritual experiences What then carne to me was the process that 1 had found myseif in during the
are particuiariyvulnerable within the mental health system. Further, the mental health previous week in my personal therapy and in supervision where 1 had been attempting
system is still one that is dominated by a world view which is essentially reductionist, to articuiate some of the themes that were with me in relation to spirituality and
deterministic and androcentric (male-centred, defined in male terms) and where what the Person-Centred Approach. 1 had repeatedly been asking 'Does this mãe sense?'
may be largeiy a personal value judgement can be reified as diagnosis. It is also the saying things like 'li feels as though there are two sets of beiief systems in me, two
case that the power/knowledge discourse around spirituality is still predominantly world views that are trying to integrate; it feels potentiaiiy transformative yet it also
that of andiocentric religion, whether Western or Eastern. li can be a deeply painful feels like it's a really risky potentially dangerous time. 1 feel airnost like I'm at risk.'
and fearful struggie therefore for women who are attempting to clim their spiritual This again links with person-centred personaiity theory. Earlier in Client-
experiences and to bring them into the public discourse. Centered Therapy Rogers writes,
In the case of the radical re-organisation [of self], the client may
go through the most racking torment of pain and a complete and
2 11
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chaotic confusion. This suffering may be associated with rapidly potential launch of US nuclear weapons. The outer fence, ten, twelve feet high,
changing configurations of personality, being a new person one day, garlanded with barbed wire, was surrounded by British police, some mounted.
and sinking back into the old self on the next, only to find that Behind that fence were armed US military police, behind them rolis of barbed wire,
/ bebind them, the US soldiers and behind them, the bunkers where the Cruise
some minor episode puts the new organisation of self again in a
position of regnancy. (ibid: 77) missiles, the weapons of mass destruction, were housed.
The imagery of this arnassed power of the two states was stark and very powerful,
The experience ofconnection, relatedness with Spirit, the Source, God/dess, whatever ali the more so given the male presence of the police and soldiers in contrast to the
name we might give to the Other, can cause such radical re-organisation of self, of femaie presence of the protestors. The permanent presence of those women who
the self-structure, ifwe ailow it to be symbolised into awareness. 1 believe that for had left bornes, partners, families, jobs, to camp at the gates of Greenham and keep
many of us, men and women, fear is present when it comes to articulating our most the peace vigil was regularly augmented by hundreds and thousands ofwomen who
personal spirituai experiences and belief systems, and that there are specific potentials carne for specific actions. Specific actions would take the forrn ofcreating a human
for it to be particularly fearsome for women. chain around the base, of weaving photographs, picrures, poems into the wire of
In her book Silencing the Self Dana Crowiey Jack researches the experiences of the fence, of singing songs, of trying to engage in dialogue with the men guarding
women diagnosed with depression, and investigates the interface between the the fence. Sometimes word would go round that there was to be an attempt to
experiences and the diagnosis. She explores the ways in which women will silence climb one of the gates or to bring the fence down at such and such a time and that
themselves rather than risk having their reality denigrated or denied: -would be where we would ali gather. Or we would simply come together in silence,
If a woman's authentic self has been devalued in her relationships, or with aoise-makers or with ululation, the sounds rising and dying away through
in childhood learning, and in impoverished stereotypes of some internal shared rhythm. Such actions would happen with no prior planning,
femininity, the authentic self becomes silent to protect the integrity no agenda, no leaders, no hierarchy, no haranguing.
of its own vision. In ali of this; there was a sense ofsomething arising, a power from within which
The origins of these fears are ubiquitous. As female, one inherits communicated itself as the power of presence, the power of ritual, the power of
an ancestral, coliective feeling of vulnerability that is linked with sound, the power of silence. 1 had a felt experience of a depth of relatedness and
centuries of economic dependence and physical violence against interconnectedness which arose spontaneously from a shared sense of purpose. 1
women. (Jack, 1991: 139) had never experienced this before but in later years it carne to feei very familiar as a
characteristic of being in groups in various settings, but particularly in person-
Given that spiritual experience emanares from, or to, the core of our authentic selves centred groups.
and that there have been centuries of physical and emotional violence against women
in the name of religion then the fear of speaking our spiritual truths is inevitably
going to be great. Particularly when added to the fear of being perceived as mad.
When reading Cari Rogers on Personal Power (Rogers, 1977) and A Way ofBeing
(Rogers, 1980) in preparation for my training there was a sense of coming home.
The phiosophy, vaiues and beliefs which were being expressed fek familiar, know,
When 1 began the preparatory reading for the training in person-centred counsel- even whiist they were being read for the first time. Within my training, which wâs
ling that 1 embarked upon in the mid-eighties, 1 was actively involved in the wom- deepiy experiential, there was the opportunity to experience these values as prac-
en's movement. 1 had for some while been a member of a women's consciousness- tised, to be immersed in the offering and receiving of the core conditions.
raising group where 1 experienced the power of deep listening and sharing stories During the next two and a halfyears of the training my walis fell down and 1
from the heart. 1 had also been involved in various nationai actions, including re-entered some of the akered states that 1 had experienced around the birth of my
Greenham Common, the central focus of the British women's peace movement. son, but this time 1 could know them as visionary rather than as pathological and 1
Short visits and stays at Greenham had given me further experiences which 1 could could draw healing from them rather than make them into sickness. This was a
only frame in terms of the spirituai. profound knowing of the transformative power of the Person-Centred Approach.
Women from all walks of life and ali parts of the United Kingdorn were The year after my training ended my mother died. She chose to stay at home
motivated to converge upon this spot to protest their horror at the presence and rather than be admitted to hospital and 1 was with her and my father for the last

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mo weeks of her life. In the eariy hours of a Friday morning just before Christmas but with its overbalancing thrust toward growth, ifthe opportunity
1 awoke from a dream where 1 had been at her funeral. The dream ended with me for growth is provided. (Rogers, :951: x-Xi)
having a conversation with my mother and my ex-mother-in-law in the aisle of the
church where the service had been held. My mother was saying to us that her world This is a profound statement, which contains within it the very essence of the
had been her home and children and husband, that was her domam; the outer values of the Person-Centred Approach. 1 see the birthing that Rogers rcfers to as a
world had been my father's, all the things that went on out there were his realm. two-way process because my experience is that 1 am also a recipient of healing in
As! awoke from this dream, at 4am, 1 knew that my mother's death was imminent each exchange that 1 have. And in each experience ofhealing, another part of me is
and went into the bedroom she was still sharing with my father. She was awake and in birthed, is given new life.
some discomfort and asked me to help her to get more comfortable then slipped into Belia was a young woman that 1 worked with in the context of my being a staif
a deep sleep from which she left us some five hours later, surrounded by her family. counseilor in a large organisation. During the time that we were meeting we had
In my sleep 1 had still been deepiy connected with my mother. Though the sometimes worked with visualisation, a phenomenon which arose from the
symbolism of the dream was mine, the knowledge when 1 woke that her time was combination of her searching for ways ofkeeping herself emotionally safe within her
coming arose from the deep connectedness that had grown between us, and from work setting and my famiiarity with this way of working. Belia was an artist and
an instinctual, intuitive knowing, not rational, discursive reason. The symbolism of exploring and working with this realm of the imagination was something that was
the dream spoke of the feminine and masculine principies, inner and outer, being powerfully effective for her. In terms of our relationship it felt as though we connected
and doing, the private domain and the public. In terms of my own situation as a at these times at a profound levei. It would feel as though we were meeting in a place
single parent it was speaking of my attempts for internal balance, as a feminist it where thcre was a mutuality of empathy which brought an interconnectedness where
was speaking of my experience of the world, as a daughter it was speaking of.my our separate selves were still present yet also somehow transcended.
experience of my parents. This was strongly present in our final session, an ending which was brought
The chosen manner of my mother's death, the decision to stay at home, to about by the fact that Beila was leaving her job, a decision that she had come to
have her family with her, to have no further medical interventions meant that she through the course of the work we had done together.
had been able to claim her own domain at this crucial stage in her life. It was a Towards the end of the session Beila referred to the fact that when she had
.111,
womanly way to die. ended with a previous therapist she had been given some affirmations to work with.
The experience of living this last two weeks of my mother's dying brought the She said that these had been helpful for her and asked whether 1 had anything
most tangible, constant knowing of love that 1 have ever had. Being with her through similar that she could take with her. 1 said that 1 didn't but that if we spent some
the time of her leaving her body brought the knowing that what 1 was partaking in time with it maybe something would emerge. As 1 was saying this 1 found a phrase
was another forni of birthing where, rather than welcoming a soul, 1 was witnessing coming into my mmd which persisted throughout the ensuing exploration of what
its moving on. it was that Bela was looking for. 1 was wary of offering the phrase, partly because of
not knowing where it had come from, partiy because 1 felt embarrassed by the
words that were with me, and pardy because of the knots that 1 can tie myself into
in my concerns not to take power in the relationship. However it was so strong and
As a person-centred practitioner 1 believe that what 1 am doing is partaking in and T persistent that 1 finaily offered that something had come into my head and 1 didn't
witnessing the work of the soul. Rogers says in the preface to C12!ent-Centered Therapy know whether it might mean anything for her but the words were 1 sing my own
It [this book] is about me as 1 rejoice at the privilege of being a song and it is beautiful to hear'. At this Beila squealed with glee, grabbed my foot
midwife to a new personality—as 1 stand by with awe at the and shook it up and down saying 'That's it! That's exactly it; whcre's my pen, let me
emergence of a self, a person, as 1 see a birth process in which 1 write it down'.
have had an important and facilitating part. It is about both the In the moment of saying the words 1 knew exactly what they meant. They spoke
client and me as we regard with wonder the potent and orderly of the essence ofso much of our work together; of the way that Beila had come to feel
forces which are evident in this whole experience, forces which about herself in the world, and her decision to leave work and to go freelance as a
seem deeply rooted in the universe as a whole. The book is, 1 believe, manifestation of that. And simultaneously 1 knew that the phrase was also about me,
about life, as life, vividly reveals itself in the therapeutic process— or rather for me. The words had arisen from the synergy that our relatedness created,
with its blind power and its tremendous càpacity for destruction, a gift of our interconnection and, some would say, a gift ofgrace.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM DEB STEELE
1 •:

Another such gift of interconnection carne in different circumstances, at a means to facilitate growth and heaiing, in others and in ourselves. He manifested a
time when 1 was going through a period of intense change which was creating inner respect for the potential of the human being which borders on reverence. He placed
turmoil and triggering a capacity for powerful self-judgement. As 1 stood one ali of this in the context of a wider environment; the universe, the cosmos for which
morning at my kitchen sink, the inner judgements reached a point which felt 'he felt wonder and awe. He had a profound concern for social justice, recognised
unbearable when suddenly into my mind's eye carne the face of one of my clients, by the nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize which was submitted, unknown to
Jane, who had been struggiing with her own self-judgement. In the moment of him, just before bis death. And he was a spirituai teacher who resisted the role of
seeing her face 1 was flooded with the unconditional positive regard and compassion guru, as he says in Cari Rogers on Fersonal Power.
which 1 felt for her. As 1 felt the truth of that 1 knew the sarne acceptance and Over the years 1 certainly could have become a guru with the
compassion for myseif and ali judgements receded, leaving oniy peace. Akhough 1 always ready help of loving admirers. But it is a path 1 have
was not in the physical presence ofJane when this happened, it was the relationship avoided. When people are too worshipful 1 remind thern of the
with her which enabied my own inner shift. Zen saying 'If you meet the Buddha kill the Buddha.' (Rogers,
This recognition of the gifts that 1 receive through being in person-centred 1977: 184)
relationship with others brings me a sense of wonder at the vast inner resources and
potential for growth which Cari Rogers affirmed that we ali possess as human beings. In other words, the source of wisdom, and the rightful focus for loving devotion
It reminds me that 1 am there in the therapeutic relationship as another person who resides within ourseives. Our subjective experiencing is a potential source of truth
wili also be changed by the encounter 1 am engaged in, in ways that 1 may not expect. and knowledge and a tremendous power for transformation ofourselves and others
It reminds me that whilst as human beings we are ali uniqueiy different, and in that and the planet. When we can symboiise our experiences, axticu!ate them, have
way separate, we are also deeply interconriected. We are both alone and ali one. them heard and honoured and understood, we are enabied to go deeper and broader
into our humanity. When we are priviieged to have others sharing their experiences
with us we are simiiar!y taken deeper into our own humanity as weii as theirs. And
the more that we are ab!e to be ali of our fuil humanity in its wisdom and fol!y, its
There are many other experiences that 1 could cite, of times when material reality brokenness and wholeness, its darkness and iight, its measuring by birth and death,
has been both deeply affirmed and simultaneousiy transcended. Times when 1 have the more possibie it becomes to glimpse our divinity. The divinity which is the
been present to my own individual uniqueness and that of the other(s) 1 was with ground of our embodied being and of ali beings—animai, vegetable, minerai—the
whiist also experiencing our depth of connectedness. And this is also reiated to creation which gives us life and which we also know as 'iove'.
environment, whether human-made or natural. A fundamental of feminist spiritu-
ality and the Person-Centred Approach is the awareness of the primacy of relation-
ship and the inclusion of relatedness with the natural world as a part of that. Per- REFERENCES
sonai relationship with landscape, with place, is a primary relationship, both ex-
plicitly and imp!icitiy. Explicitly, in terms of a conscious awareness of loving or Bancroft,A (1989) Weavers ofWisdom: Women mystics ofthe20th century. London: Penguin.
having an aversion to particular places. Impiicitly, in terms of place giving an added Christ, CP (1997) Rebirth ofthe Goddess: Finding meaning infeministspirituality. New York:
dimension to what happens between two ou more people, an added synergy which Routiedge.
happens between people and place. By place 1 mean buildings,landscape, the planet, Clarke, 1 (ed) (200 1) Psychosis and Spiritualüy: Exploring the newfrontier. London: Whuir.
and the universe, the cosmos of which we are part. Our perceived, lived-in environ- Eisier, R (1993) The Chalice and the Biade. London: Harper and Row.
ment and that which spans beyond. Flinders, CL (1998) At the Root ofthis Longing: Reconciling a spiritual hunger and afeminist
Matthew Fox, the Dominican priest who was ex-communicated because ofhis thirst. New York: Harper Collins.
refusai to stop working with the feminist social activist witch Starhawk says 'the Fox, M (199 1) Creation Spirituality—Liberating gifis for thepeoples of the earth. New York:
universe loves us unconditionaliy every day the sun rises'. This is the universe as HarperColiins
Creator, God, Mother Earth. She from which ali aries and to which ali shall return, Garcia, G and Maitland, S (1983) Walking on the Water: Women talk aboutspirituality. London:
what Rogers called 'the formative tendency', the 'potent forces of the universe'. Virago.
1 regard Cai! Rogers as a spirituai teacher. In identifring the core conditions he Goodison, G (1990) Moving Heaven and Earth. Sexuality, spirituality and social change.
identified the core components of love. He explicated a way of being which is the London: The Women's Press.

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ENCOUNTERJNG FEMJNISM

Grey, MC (1997) Prophecy and Mysticism: The heart ofthepost-modern church. Edinburgh: T
and T C!ark.
TOWARD CONVERGENCE:
Harvey, A (1995) The Return ofthe Mother. Berkeley: Frog. CLIENT-CENTERED AND FEMINIST
Ingerman, S (2000) Medicine for the Earth. New York: Three Rivers Press.
Jack, DC (199 1) Silencing the Self New York: HarperCoilins. ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT EPISTEMOLOGY
Jamal, M (1987) Shape Shfkers: Shamen women in contemporary society. London: Penguin. AND POWER
Long, AP (1992) In a ChariotDrawn by Lions: The search for thefemale in deity. London: The
Women's Press.
Macy, 1(1993) World as Lover, World as Self London: Rider.
Miles, R (1988) The Women's History ofthe World. London: Paladin.
Rogers, CR (1951) Client-Centered Therapy: lis current practice, implications and theory.
London: Constable. CAROL WOLTER-GUSTAFSON
Rogers, CR (1977) CarlRogers on PersonalPower: Innerstren,ih and às revolutionary impact.
London: Constable.
Rogers, CR (1980) A Way ofBeing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Client-centered theory and feminist theory have each evolved over the past haifcentury
as mo separate streams running parailei to each other. Each has developed with scant
attention or accurate knw1edge of the other. Each has written cogent critiques of the
dominam psychoanalytic paradigm. Ofgreater value, howevet are the fresh frameworks
they offer in several significant areas. These include: restructuring power reiationships,
reassigning epistemological authority, the centraiity of relationality and intersubjectivity,
and the historical contextual nature of ali knowledge. This radical reconstruction
offers a truly inclusive, emancipatory, and ega!itarian vision for the practice of
psychotherapy and ofail human relationships. My intention is to lift some common
themes from feminist and client-centered theory to suggest points ofconvergence. It
is my contention that the increased power generated by the convergence of these
streams will serve to create the change both envision.
In order to create that possibility, we must increase our mutual understanding of
these mo theoreticai movements, examine the inte!lectual milieu and historicai context
in which each developed and carefuliy consider the existing critiques of each movement.
These modeis developed independentiy of each other, separated by several
turbuient decades ofthe twentieth century. What is the legacy of these mo powerful
attempts to radicai!y re-conceptualize psychotherapy? Theory is aiways influenced
by the conditions which shape it, thus, it is important to ask the foliowing:
• What are the implications of feminist theory emerging in reaction to Freudian
psychoana!ytic theory?
• What are the implications of client-centered theory emerging from Rogers' early
empiricai training, and bis evolution toward an existential/phenomenoiogical
perspective?

What follows is a contribution to answering these questions and building connections

between these theoretical viewpoints.

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 ENCOUNTE1UNG FEMINIsM CAROL WOLTER-GUSTAFSON

CARL R ROGERS: CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY source. Rogers had some interest in Freud's former coileague Otto Rank.2 Nat Raskin,
Chicago Counseling Center author of 'The developrnent of non-directive therapy,
ROGERS' EMPIRLCAL ORIGIN noted that Rogers was 'quite fascinated' with Rank's description of bis approach in
'which the client had 'creative powers of bis own', and in which the person becomes
Rogers' approach to theory buiiding was methodological rather than ideological. the 'central figure ia the therapeutic situation' (Raskin, cited in Kirschenbaum,
Practical problem-soiving results mattered more to him than any particular pet 1979: 91).
theory. His introduction to the scientific method carne from studying modern But it was Rank's student Jessie Taft that had the greatest influence on the early
agricuitural techniques on bis family's farm. Rogers' academic lineage must be traced development of Rogers' theory. He cailed her book 'a small masterpiece ofwriting
though John Dewey and the Pragmatists, rather than through Sigmund Freud and and thinking' (Rogers, cited in Kirschenbaum 1979: 92)1 Rogers' own experience
the Psychoanaiysts.' The experience-based educational phiosophy of Dewey and had led him to 'distrust therapist interpretation ofpast or present events'. Taft went
William Heard Kilpatrick perrneated Rogers' education at Columbia Teachers beyond Rank when she chose to 'abandon interpretation altogether' (ibid.: 92). For
Coilege in New York. Taft, the therapeutic relationship itself was a microcosm of a person's relationship
Ali of Rogers' early experiences taught him to give pragrnatic attention to to ali of life. What Jessie Taft called 'relationship therapy resonated with Gari Rogers'
processes and outcomes regardless of belief structures. His training in empirical growing edge of 'non-directive therapy.
psychology confirmed for him the fairness of this open-ended scientific attitude. Rogers' early acadernic track of empathic iistening instead of expert diagnosis
He often said, 'The facts are friendiy. was synchronistic with the anti-authoritarianism of the historical moment. He had
His preference for discovery and his skepticism of established knowledge was already learned from his clients the futiity of the expert/dominance, power-over
evident from the start of his career in Rochester. In bis first twelve years ofworking stance.4 Lessons from the risc of Nazism and Fascism reafflrmed for him the
with desperate and impoverished chiidren at the Rochester Society for the importance of strengthening the individual voice and coilective resistance in the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children, Rogers 'discovered that even some of the most face of strong social forces.'
elegant theories he had previously embraced faiied to stand up to the test ofreality In their exploration ofvoices of cynicism and hope, Arnett and Arneson offer
(Thorne 1992: 9). this summary:
When asked how his non-directive, client-centered work carne about, he never Rogers' work became conceptual at the conclusion of the Nuremburg
failed to describe his encounter with one troubled family. The psychoiogists at the trials, where individual conscience was called as the alternative to
clinic decided ia a conference that the problem was the mother's rejection of the blind institutional commitment. Working in an historical moment
boy. When the teenage boy failed to improve despite ali Rogers' best efforts with of increasing distrust toward institutions, it is not surprising that
the boy and bis mother, Rogers suggested that despite their best efforts, they should Gari Rogers' practice wouid lead him to look for alternative ways
acknowledge their lack of progress and terminate the relationship. The mother readily to support and guide lives Questioning narrative guideiines of
...

agreed, but before she had gone many steps away, returned and asked Rogers whether institutions, cuiture, and religion lead him to trust in the self.
or not he ever saw adults. Surprised, he said yes and she sat down with him and (Arnett and Arneson 1999: 85)
began pouring out her deepest problems with her husband and her desire for heip.
It was nothing like the reat history he had previously taken. What Rogers did was 2.
The split between Freud and Rank carne after the publication in 1925 of Otto Rank's book,
to listen, 'instead of trying to nudge her toward a diagriostic understanding 1 had The Trauma ofBirth.
already reached' (Rogers, 1980: 37). Over the next months the boy showed the The book, The Dynamics of Therapy in a Controlled Relationship was published in 1933. 1
improvernents in his behavior that had lcd the family to seek heip. Rogers describes remember hearing her poetic prose read to me with tenderness and excitement, by Rogers' co!-
himseif entering into a 'more personal relationship' which continued occasionally league lutes Seeman, some fifty years later.
Humanistic psychotherapist and author RoIo May's intriguing book Power and Innocence: A
even after the boy had gone to coilege. Rogers trusted the power ofhis own experience
search for the source of violence (1972) investigares the meaning of power and names five kinds of
with clients over the prevailing mandate that 'psychiatrists know best'.
power: exploitive, manipulative, competitive, nutrient, and integrative. Integrative power is power
Rogers' experienced-based practice was supported through a seemingiy uniikeiy with another person.
Coileagues Drs Reinhard and Anne-Marie Taush, David Aspy and Flora Roebuck dedicated
1
There was, however, one related link. Jessie Taft who Rogers admired, was a student of Freud's their professional careers to humanizing the way children were raised ar home and at school. See
former coileague, Otto Rank. Taft's influence on Rogers is discussed shordy. Rogers, 1983: 197-224.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM CAROL WOLTER-GUSTAFSON

Rogers' study of 'the self was never about an isolated individual seeking 'his' own base his work on either so-called objective science, or on speculative expianations of
needs. It was always about how that selfwas created, sustained, and sometimes damaged behavior. His own experience and research had always led him to pay faithful
by its relationships with others. He always saw the self as a self-in-relation. As a result, attention to what pbenomenologists cali 'iived-experience'.
he studied the therapy relationship itself by audio taping actual client sessions in For postmodernists, the universaliy agreed upon cultural story that has defined
order to gather data. By studying these recordings Rogers discovered that the more our historical moment, the meta-narrative, is shattering. Arnett and Arneson note
precisely he followed, as opposed to directing, his clients' communication, the more that Rogers' insights did not come from postmodernists Michel Foucault, Jacques
he observed signiiicant change in their lives. From that time on, he centered his Derrida, or Jean-Francois Lyotard. Instead he 'discovered what we term "narrative
formal empirical studies on that interaction and its role in constructive change. decline" in the practice of therapy with his clients concerns of patients moved
...

What is the nature of the relationship in which constructive change towards him intuitively to conclusions about the loss of meta-narratives'. They conclude,
well-being occurs? 'The healthy nature of his patients' personal values emerged when the seif, not
Rogers now had significant data and direct clinical experience in which to meta-narratives became the focus' (Arnett and Arneson, 1999: 85).
create a tentative hypothesis for empirical investigation. He asked whether or not Rogers' affinity toward postmodern skepticism is evident throughout bis writing.
the relationship, in which the core conditions of empathy, unconditional positive In his 1967 book Person to Person: the Problem ofBeing Human, Rogers writes:
regard, and congruence were provided by the therapist and perceived by the client, Instead of universal values 'out there' or a universal value system
was sufficient for change to occur (Rogers, 1957).'This hypothesis precipitated imposed by some group—philosophers, rulers or priests—we have
over three decades of research on these core conditions and yielded overall support the possibility of universal human value directions emerging from
for Rogers' proposition. The American Psychological Association awarded its first the experiencing of the human organism. Evidence from therapy
Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award to Rogers in recognition of his indicates that both personal and social values emerge as natural,
academic rigor. and experienced, when the individual is dose to his [or her] own
Everything in his life led Rogers to this point ofclarity: it is through relationships organismic valuing process. (Rogers, 1967: 27)
in which respect, empathy, unconditionality, and congruence are alive and embodied,
that constructive change will occur. This hypothesis was confirmed by successful Rogers' experience led him to a world-view at odds with the status quo regarding
application of the theory in larger systems. The possibility of affecting larger systems epistemological authority, conceptions of power, and social visions. Epistemological
intrigued Rogers increasingly throughout his life and led to his nomination for the authority and power are inseparabie for Rogers. Like phenomenologist Herbert
Nobel Peace Prize in 1987. Spiegelberg, Rogers acknowledges prejudice throughout ali academia, and its
Rogers' attention to the power in relationships, and of intrapsychic and tendency to silence less powerfui voices.
interpersonal processes, continued throughout his life. His keen observation of He often used his professional credibility to draw attention to social issues of
processes and their role in change convinced him to refuse any fixed dogmatic conflict and oppression. In 1977 he published On Personal Power: Inner Strength
thesis. Instead, he turned to cutting-edge scholarship to inform bis theory. and its Revolutionarylmpact ad.mitting that he had only recently grasped the politicai
nature of his work. He quickly adopts the'new use' of the term, as in 'poiitics of the
RoGERS' EPISTEMOLOCICAL POSITION: EX[STENTIAL/PHENoMENoLOGICAL EXPANSION family or 'sexual politics' and concludes that all of our institutions take the view
that the person cannot and must not be trusted, that he/she 'must be guided,
Rogers' fascination with students in every field in the knowiedge revolution lcd instructed, rewarded, punished, and controiled by those who are wiser or bigher in
him to become: conversant with existential philosophers, Eastern religion, status [with] hp service to a democratic philosophy in which ali power is vested
...

phenomenological methods, quantum mechanics, and more. No longer could he in the people' (Rogers 1977: 8-9). He acknowiedges that to describe 'the fundamental
premise of Ciient-Centered Therapy is to make a challenging politicai statement'
6, See J Bozarth's Empathy from the Framework of Client-Centered Theory and the Rogerian (ibid.: 9). This was accompiished through bis insistence that authenticity was an
Hypothesis' in Bohart and Creenberg (1997). inextricabie element of the core conditions.8
This includedworking for change in the public school systeril ofLouisville, Kentucky, whcre 71%
of students were below the national average, and the conflicts in Northern Ireland, South Africa, 8 Authenticity or congruence, is an essential element of the core conditions. Any understanding
Latiu and Central America, Hungary and Russia. The Nobel Prize nomination was the result of bis of CCT that includes empathy and unconditional positive regard, but omits congruence is in~
work in Central Axnerica sponsored by the Peace Project he created with Gay (Swenson) Barfield. complete, and thus, inaccurate.

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While Rogers began in empirical research, he did not remain entrenched in subcategorizing, the inherent trouble of labeling is revealed. 1 will come back to this
logical positivism and scientism. Rogers maintained a radical doubt of given point after 1 have set some feminist theory into a highly seiective historical context.
narratives without slipping into a value-free moral reiativism. Being a white woman from the East Coast of the United States born after
Like Einstein, Rogers found the quest for understanding reality enormous, World War II, 1 choose to start this academic linage with Naomi Weisstein. 1 had
but Rogers held out for the possibiiity of discovering a unifving human theory. He just started graduate studies in the Department of Humanistic and Behavioral
reiied on empirical data when appropriate as in medical research, but held no meta- Studies, when 1 was given an article to read titled, 'Psychology Constructs the Female
narrative sacred with a claim of capital 'T' truth (Rogers, 1964). Rogers describes or The Fantasy Life of the Male Psychologist (with some attention to the fantasies
our Universe as fihied with Imultiple realities where consciousness is shifting. of his friends, the male biologist and the male anthropologist)' (Weisstein, 1972:
For Rogers, authentic knowledge must come when narratives, 'stock of 178-97). 1 read that she already held a PhD in psychology from Harvard, had
knowledge at hand', stereotypes and biases are not accepted as fact, but rather are completed her NSF (whatever that meant) postdoctoral fellowship in mathematical
acknowledged and bracketed. Rogers' resonance with Lao-tse is evident in the biology ar the University of Chicago and played in a 'women's liberation rock band'.
foliowing quote cited by Rogers: 'It is as though he iistened and such listening as his She had earned my fali attention as she chronicled the pervasive ruie of 'theory
enfolds us in a silence in which at iast we begin to hear what we are meant to be' without evidence' throughout psychology, the poor use of science, 'jumping from
(Rogers, 1980: 41). This mode of listening is infused with the open and acceptant hard data to ideological speculation' in biologically-based theories and the total
valuing and respectfi.d 'letting-be' characteristic of unconditional positive regard. disregard for the social context in which these 'findings' are seen as inevitabie. Her
Ali phenomena presenting themselves must be received and regarded original question was what a 'true' liberation ofwomen wouid mean. She concluded
unconditionally in Rogers' theory. This feature is of great importance in by saying that until we provide respect for both men and women and until social
phenomenology, 'that we consider ali the data, real or unreai or doubtfui, as having expectations for both are equal, our answers will 'simply reflect our prejudices'. 1
equal rights, and investigate them without fear or favor. This will help as to do
...
have learned that this essay is characterized as having started the discipline of the
justice to ali of them, especially to those which are under the handicap of initial psychology ofwomen, and has been reprinted over 42 times in six different languages.
suspicion as to their existential claim' (Spiegelberg, 1969: 692). This state of alert Jean Baker Miller's work developed in the feminist academic milieu of Boston
Ietting-be confers epistemological authority9 to marginal voices and thus provides a University and Harvard in the late 1970s, in a climate challenging the misogyny
bridge to feminist and other non-dominant groups. embedded in every academic field and in society in general. In contrast to the
upstart fiery graduate students launching their feminist critiques in the social sciences,
Miller's iegitimacy was already established. She was a medical doctor, had already
FEMINIST THEORY edited Psychoanalysis and Women in 1973, and held a position as Clinical Professor
of Psychiatry at Boston University School of Medicine.
AcArnrvllc ROOTS IN THE UNITED STATES POST WORLD WAR II In 1976, Boston's Beacon Press published a bright pink volume entitled Toward
a New Psychology of Women by Jean Baker Miller, MD. This book quicldy became a
Feminism is a multifaceted phenomenon. Feminists may identify themselves/ classic and standard-bearer for the growing feminist critique of traditional academia.
ourselves as Postmodern, Green, Radical, Spiritual, Socialist, Marxist, and Humanist, Jean Baker Miller saw the big picture. Her images ofpsychological and societal
among other descriptors;Among feminist thrapists, primary orientations include: health are founded on values of respect and equality. She writes, 'humanity has
Psychoanalytic, Humanistic, Behavioral, Assertiveness Training, and Jungian, and been held to a limited and distorted view of its self—from interpretation of the
even those may be divided further. most intimate of personal emotions to its grandest vision of human possibiiities—
For example, 1 identify myself as primarily a client-centered practitioner and a precisely by virtue of its subordination of women' (Miller, 1976: 1).
feminist, closely aligned with postmodern/sociai constructivist and some humanistic She observed and displayed the details of women's and men's lives and their
strands, who is at home with some features ofsocialist/spiritual 1 will stop here!
...
complex relationship to each other and to society. It was Miller who iilustrated how
It is clearly only going to become more messy. In the process of categorizing and the schemas 'given' to explain gender roles were not in fact given, but were rather a
product of the marriage of patriarchy and hierarchy, supported by psychoanalysis
In a previous paper, Wolter-Gustafson, (1999), 1 have traced how Rogers' embodirnent of and existent economic structures. 'Women have played a specific role in male-led
unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding is a way of bracketing the natural society in ways no other suppressed groups have done. They have been entwined
attitude, loosening our habitual ties with the world. with men in intimate and intense relationships, creating the milieu—the famiiy-

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINIsM CAROL WOLTER-GUSTAFSON

in which the human mmd as we know it has been formed. Thus women's situation Dífferent Voice as lending a 'new authority' for women's viewpoints and values in
is a crucial key to understanding the psychological order' (ibid.: 1). which the ethic of care and the importance of connection are seen as characteristic
It is no wonder that the feminist community latched onto this book. In light of women's moral reasoning.
of the traditional psychodynamic dogma that exalted the separate self and autonomy The third wave is called either the 'feminist postmodern' or 'postmodern
as the measure of psychological health, Milier and her coileagues provided the feminism'. It incorporates assumptions from the social constructionists' frame of
appropriate social corrective by emphasizing relational empathy and mutual reference. Gergen describes its epistemological core as 'Knowledge is situated, local,
empowerment. contingent and temporary, inextricably intertwined with a situated nature of the
Steeped in her psychoanalytic roots, she recognizes the need to develop a community of knowledge makers' (Gergen, 2000: 21). She sees this postmodern
relationaily mutual, interpersonally empowering psychology)° We knew that 'the frarne as an emancipatory one and writes 'With the constant shuffling and re-stacking
Personal is Political' and Jean Baker Miller showed us how this is true. What Milier of the decks of the Real, options for synthesis and change, for new configurations of
provided was a complete conceptual whole into which others could contribute parts. power, and for new potentials are created' (ibid.: 1). In this sphere, the scholar,
She pioneered and became devoted to the development of the Stone Center for therapist or researcher puts her/himself into the picture. -

Research on Women, the nation's largest women's research center. Julia Kristeva, radical scholar and innovator, also posits three waves offeminism.
The first wave attempted to join patriarchy. A second wave in the late 1960s
FEMINIST EPISTEMOLOGICAL POSITIONS attempted to withdraw from patriarchal culture 'to give a language to the intra-
subjective and corporeal experiences left mute by the culture in the past' (Ermarth,
In order to gain an understanding of the feminist epistemological landscape, 1 have 1989: 43). Instead of identification with the symbolic and patriarchal functions,
turned to Philosophy Professor Sandra Harding's 1986 work on The Science Question attention and honor were placed in the semiotic and maternal functions. The third
in Feminisnz as discussed by Mary Gergen (2000). Harding delineates three distinct wave moves beyond the duality implied in both preceding positions. They argue
feminist epistemologies which correspond to the more general categories within that these pseudo-akernatives merely served to preserve 'the sarne dichotomy between
the social sciences. gendered functions. Thus the association of particular values with gender prevents
The first is called the 'feminist empiricist position' and has its origin in the feminist theory from reaching the premises it seeks' (ibid.: 38). The third wave
Enlightenment. It is readily recognizable to anyone who learned that the modern seeks to mix patriarchy, associated with linear time and projects, with matriarchy,
empirical revolution freed us from earlier more primitive reliance on understanding associated with being outside of linear time and projects. This most promising step,
reality through superstition, or whatever the Deity of the time might reveal to those to go beyond structure to process, may be the most difficult.
He ordained, primariiy His priests and learned scholars. Observable, measurable In a study of the politics of women's caregiving, 'Feedirig Egos and Tending
experimental data would produce objectivity and replace mere beliefs or 'soft' Wounds: Deference and Disaifection in Women's Emotional Labor', Bartky goes
subjective ways of knowing. It is this split between hard and soft knowledge, with beyond, or perhaps, underneath ideological party lines, while remaining lucid about
one subordinate to the other, that feminist scholars challenged. Genevieve Lloyd power and our habitual relation to it. She writes:
(1993), Mary Briody Mahowald (1994) and others examined philosophical writing In order to develop an effective politics of everyday life, we need
from Plato to Descartes to Simone de Beauvoir and beyond. They revealed the to understand better than we do now not only the processes of
embedded coupling of rat'ionality with maleness. Their work pl,ayed one part in the personality development, but the 'micropolitics' of our most
creation of the second position. ordinary transactions, the ways in which we inscribe and reinscribe
This is the 'feminist standpoint position', which moves away from objectivity our subjection in the fabric of the ordinary. (Bartky, 1990: 118-19)
and gender-neutral assumptions in which masculine traditions are replicated de
facto. The 'standpoint position' moves toward a more woman-centered value base. This detailed attention to process and meaning is the norm in client-centered work
Mary Gergen sees the publication of Carol Gilligan's ground-breaking book In a and is consistently evident in Bartky's work. In her diligence and faithfulness to the
facts, and her attention to the specificity of the smallest moments, the greater pattern
lO.
Her coileagues included Freudians and Neo-Freudiaria incluling early Feminists such as Nancy is inexorably revealed. She shows us that the way out is through. Put simply, the
Chodorow and Frieda Fromme-Reichmann. It also included sex-role stereotype researchers such most personal is the most universal.
as the Brovermana and Harrietr Lerner, and sociologists Jessie Bçrnard, David McClelland, and 1 am in fundamental agreement with Mary Gergen's and Julia Kristeva's work
Elizabeth Janeway. within the social constructionist postmodern field. Writing about our 'turbulent

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Transmodern era', client-centered author and Saybrook Institute President Maureen and cail it Reality is not compatible with the Rogers framework. In an interview
O'Hara suggests that 'The postmodern discourse offers contemporary psychology with Richard Evans, Rogers says, 'The human organism immediately attaches a
the potentiai for reconciling and surpassing the iimits of both objectivism and For me, perception is reality as far as the
meaning to whatever is perceived ...

subjectivism' (O'Hara, 1997: 12-13). This third feminist perspective, which is also individual is concerned, 1 don't even know whether there is an objective reality.
shared by client-centered clinicians, is the place from which we may finally break Probably there is, but none of us will really know that' (Evans, 1975: 9). This
free of our dualistic traditions.
causes Rogers to say again and again that he has no interest in labels, 'I'd rather
[they] observe the phenomena themselves' (ibid.: 8). And again, we hear the need
REGARDING ENSTEMOLOGy AND POWER
to suspend the natural attitude, evident in our own internal frame of reference,
with an unconditional regard and empathic understanding of whatever presents
In the introduction to their book FeministEpistemologies, Linda Alcoff and Eiizabeth
itself as reality.
Potter acknowledge that in the recent past, feminist epistemology was an oxymoron. My client-centered belief in the creative persistence of the developing person
They acknowledge that their use of the term represents an uneasy alliance between suggests that although gendered binarism is deeply encoded and habituated in us,
feminism and philosophy. Since classic feminist analysis insists on an historic it is not the final word on who we may become.1'
particularity in the context of theory, many doubt the possibility of anything In the development of both feminist and client-centered thought, we see the
resembling a universal account of the nature ofknowledge. The contributing writers tendency to continue to explore and be open to the growing and fluid nature of
vary widely in their perspectives. But it was Alcoff and Potter themseives who scholarship. Serious errors in our understanding of both theories can be made when
interested me most. They suggest that feminist investigations ofpolitical relationships we consider outdated theoretical formulations to be current, and fail to attend to
that are impiicated in theories of knowledge have led schoiars to the conciusion more recent scholarship. This requires carefiul attention to the assumptions we make.
that gender hierarchies are hardly alone in influencing the production ofknowiedge.
Rather race, class, sexuality; culture and age determine cognitive authority as weli.
FEMINIST CRITIQUES OF HUMANISTIC THERAPY AND A CLIENT-CENTERED RESPONSE
Further, they state that recent developments in feminist theory demonstrate
that 'gender as a category ofanalysis cannot be abstracted from a particular context Critiques are based on assumptions that may, or may not be accurately attributed.
while other factors are heid stabie' (Alcoff and Potter, 1993: 3). This reasoning However, even in cases where the assumption can be challenged or corrected, there
replicated Heisenberg's uncertainty principie that it is impossible to measure both still may be a concern worthy of more careful attention. 1 believe such is the case
the position and momentum of a particle with precision. Rogers notes the limitation regarding the most fundamental critique ofhumanistic therapy, with some attention
to the 'frozen moment' that such objective research yieids as opposed to the to Cliexit-Centered Therapy in particular.
'understanding of the ongoing movement' research which he saw as preferable,
a!beit, more difficult to conduct (Rogers, 1961: 127).
1. It's not ali in your head
Alcoff and Potter report a strong consensus among feminists that the project of This most frequently raised critique of Humanistic therapists is that humanistic
€eminism be more inclusive. They write, 'The ontological status of women has
...
psychology in essence biames the victim. They te11 a client that she is responsible for
shifted for academic feminists in light of the influential arguments showing that women, her own oppression. Minam Greenspan, in 'The Unsuccessful Marriage ofHumanist
per se, do not exist. Therê exist upper-caste Indian little giris; older, heterosexual Therapy and Feminism' (Greenspan, 1993), acknowledges that Rogers went against
Latinas; and white, working dass lesbians' (Alcoff and Potter, 1993: 4).
the prevaiing emphasis on correct diagnosis and interpretation as the key feature in
This point represents the dearest path toward convergence for feminist and therapy, and writes 'Rogers insisted that it was the therapeutic reii#ionshzp itself that
client-centered scholars. While ever mindful of each individual's particular contextual
was crucial. In contrast to the medical stress on individual pathology and its cure,
reality, that 'reality' is always mediated by the idiosyncratic meaning structure within
Rogers introduced the idea ofpersonal growth through therapy (ibid.: 122). But the
any particular person. To understand humans, listen long and with great care to the core conditions can 'only go so far if they do not take place in the context of a therapy
unique, irreducible, irreplaceable person. Rogers writes, 1 believe that this way of that is based on a political understanding ofwomen's problems' (ibid.: 135).
knowing is limited only by the Iimits of our capacity for empathy, and to the degree
of our ingenuity in getting at the internal frame ofreference of the organism' (Rogers, '
Martine Rothblatt, author of The Apartheid of Sex and attorney for the Human Genome
1964: 116).
Projecti suggests that we will eventually move beyond being Homo sapiens, Iiterally the wise man,
The tendency to project our own meaning out beyond our own perception and will become Persona creatas, the creative person.

106 107
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM CAROL WOLTER-GUSTAFSON

She continues, 'But because the humanistic approach to therapy falis to see One of the core conditions of Client-Centered Therapy is unconditional
the relationship between the personal psychic lives of clients and the social values positive regard, in which the therapist creates a relationship free from the
and institutions which shape these lives, it ends up severely hampered in its use of imposition of the therapist's, or society's, conditions ofworth. For the client to be
the very skills proposed by Rogers' (ibid.: 135).
prized unconditionally by the therapist, she must feel that she is the sole author
From a client-centered perspective, the problem is that there is something in
determining what is right for her and what is not. As Carol Gilligan describes in
ali our heads about gender, power, and epistemological authority that does hold the first phases of women's moral reasoning that in choosing whether or not to
many peopie back. There are also economic, structurál and legal realities that daily
terminate her pregnancy, she is often conflicted between hurting her parents or
destroy women's lives throughout the world. Ir is here that we need our post-dua!istic the fetus or others. Seeing her own self as a person of care and worthy of not
understanding of reality most of ali.
being hurt is an achievement. Ir is this process of reclamation of herself as a
As Maxine Hong Kingston declares at the end of her play The Warrior Woman,
source of knowledge, as worthy and legitimate in her own right, that is at the
'We must make rooni for Paradox'. Great minds have made room for this heart of client-centered theory and practice.
encompassing embrace of reaiity throughout the ages. As an example, Albert
Einstein's encompassing mmd reconciled the apparent paradox ofhis time regarding Rogers is his radical respect for the client as the author of her own story. Without
the interactions of iight and matter. The development of his theory on the the principie of non-directivity, the respect for the client sought in feminist theory
may be rendered weak. In Feminist Counsdiing in Action, Jocelyn Chaplin writes
'photoelectric effect' showed that the argument was moot, as light, being comprised that the 'Client-Centered Approach fits well with feminist approaches to counseling'
of photons could have properties of both a particie and a wave, thus revealing the
paradox to be non-existent. (Chaplin, 1999: 18) because the powers of empathy and warmth are more developed
in women than in men. However, she sees the fundamental non-directivity ofCCT
•While 1 mãe no claims for Einstein's levei of clarity, 1 believe the apparent as relevant only in the first stage of therapy. Chaplin sees non-directivity as just a
paradox of the individual person versus the social realities to be similarly non-existent strategy for understanding 'inner hierarchies', which she can then use to explain the
as these concepts are distinct pieces ofthe larger phenomenon of'beingintheworid'.12
world to her client. In so doing, the feminist counselor becomes one more person
What feminists often call 'internalized oppression' clearly exists. Feminist from whom the client needs to learn. Client-centered scholar Barbara Brodley states
phiiosopher Sandra Lee Bartky describes the phenomenon in her articie 'On
that non-directivity will 'preclude the therapist from experiencing the mental set of
Psychological Oppression' (Bartky, 1990: 22-32). Gari Rogers describes this
using means to achieve ends while doing therapy' (Brodley, 2000: 1).
phenomenon in his theory of personality as 'internalized conditions ofworth'. Parents Non-directivity is essential in every interaction with a client, in order to express
(or primary caregivers) often supply conditional positive regard to children. The
unconditional positive regard. Unless the therapist has a radical respect for the
child is only 'lovable' when he/she adopts the behaviors and attitudes consistent
directionality of the client and trusts the client to name her own reality, the conditions
with those accepted by those aduks and/or the dominant cukure. In order to achieve
of worth that have been used to undermine her epistemological authority in the
positive regard, the child introjects the desired values, making them his/her own,
and acquires conditions ofworth (Rogers, 1989). The developing past will once again be replicated by the therapist. For the client-centered therapist,
child loses her/his the client's epistemological authority is aftirmed.
authentic self in order to gain that positive regard. The self-concept then becomes
Empathy is another core condition of Client-Centered Therapy. Greenspan
based on these standards of value rather than on organismic evaluation. When a
writes that it is 'not enough' to mirror the clients feelings as Rogerians do. That is
child receives unconditional positive regard, they are free to honor their own voice
and experiencing as a source ofepistemological authority. precisely Rogers' point as well. Goff Barrett-Lennard writes that empathic
understanding requires
My response to this critique inciudes a discussion of the central role of
an active process of desiring to know the fuil, present and
unconditional positive regard (IJPR) in both judgment of the client and respect for changing awareness of another person, of reaching out to receive
the 'up to something-ness' of the client. The role ofempathic understanding carnes his/her communication and meaning, and of translating his/her
with it the implicit assumption that the organism is acting as a unified whole. The words and signs into experienced meaning that matches at least
person's 'whole organism' includes de facto their situatedness in historic, economjc
and social rea1ity. those aspects of awareness that are most important at the
... ...

moment. (Barrett-Lennard, cited in Rogers, 1980: 143-4)

My use ofl-leidegger's phrase 'being-in-the-world' does not connote sny cai-te bianche accept-
12.

ance of bis philosophical system. Dave Mearns echoes this necd for working in relationai depth (Mearns, 1996).
Cleanly, it is not enough to skim the surface of the client's narrative wave.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINIsM CAROL WOLTER-GUSTAFSON

Since the initial deveiopment ofCiient-CenteredTherapy, empathy has required being completely private except in a very few selected relationships But we pay a
...

taking the whole person into account. The socio-economic and politicai reajities of price' (Rogers, 1980: 198-9).
the client's life are always received by the client-centered therapist as core elements Another element of the Stone Genter's critique is rooted in a misunderstanding
in their empathic understanding of the client. Starting with Rogers' work with ofhow Rogers' theory of development came into being. The focus on the individuated
World War II veterans, the geo-political, physical, and cultural conditions were self modeled afrer the autonomous male self has, in fact, dominated developmental
empathically received by the therapist, whether or not the client expressly named and clinicai psychology. Judith Jordan and Janet Surrey assert that Rogers' focus on
those influences on his/her present condition. Gari Rogers and the coileagues who the 'self' represents adherence to the developmentaily gender-bound lineage of
have carried on his work have consistently sought out piaces and people suffering Erikson.
under oppressive or socialiy perilous conditions.13 Rogers had never stepped into the developmental theory of personality
originating with Freud's psycho-sexual stages, with subsequent modifications made
2. Rogers is too individualistic, we need relational power by Erikson, Horney, and Chodorow. Nor did it originate with Piaget's developmental
In the fali of 1988, reading the Boston Giobe Magazine, 1 was excited to see the schemas for cognition and moraiity further developed by Kohlberg. Rather, Rogers'
titie 'A Theory of Empathy featured on the cover. 1 expected to see an article tracing theory of personality evoived secondarily afier his significant contribution to the
Rogers' haif-century of work. Instead, 1 found an article about the Stone Center for theory of psychotherapy. This was made explicit in his most scholarly work (Rogers,
Research on Women at Wellesley Coilege. 'What 1 didn't expect to read was that 1959). Rogers writes that a theory of the development of personality foliowed from
psychology had ignored empathy until its theoretical articulation by the Stone Center. their attempt to order their perceptions of the client as sfhe appeared in therapy.
1 carne to understand that these researchers believed that Rogers promoted the The very first heading in this theory reads 'Postulated Gharacteristics of the
standard Western view of the self as being highiy individuated, and that shared Human Infant'. He writes of the 'goai-directed attempt of the organism to satisfy
power was absent from the psychologicai literature. the experience needs for actualization in the reality asperceived (ibid.: 222, original
One element in this critique is that Rogers did not see a need for mutuality in itaiics). A portion of the infant 'individual's experience becomes differentiated and
reiationships and shared power. Stone Center scholars Judith Jordan and Janer Surrey symbolized in an awareness of functioning' (ibid.: 223, original itaiics). Rogers says
write, that as this awareness of self emerges, so does the needforpositive regard. He writes,
An alternative concept of personal power as inner strength and seif- 'This need is universal in human beings, and in the individual is pervasive and
determination has appearecl throughout the psychologicai iiterature persistent' (ibid.: 223, original italics). Note that Rogers is not constructing a separate
(e.g., Rogers, i'; Maslow, 1954), but this concept stiii evokes the developmental track for the male infnt in contrast with the female infant. 'The
image of the highly individuated self-actualizer We have needed
...
healthy development of the new hurnan depends on a relationship with caretakers
a different concept to suggest power with others, that is, power in in which particular qualities in relation are essential. These qualities include
connection or reiationai power. Thus we have taiked about mutual understanding, respecting and trusting the phenomenological frarne ofreference of
empowerment (each person is empowered) through relational that new human' (Woker-Gustafson, 1999: 210). This relational emphasis echoes
empowerment (the relationship is empowered). (Surrey, 1991:163) Rogers' earliest writing, Client-Centered Therapy. The index to this book shows eight
separate references for 'Self-in-relationship'.
This critique is accurate in describing the idominant psychological paradigm.
However, humanistic psychology and the existential-phenomenological strand often RELATIONALLTY AND SHARED POWER
stand in opposition to that paradigm. Glient-Gentered Therapy has a unique voice,
even within the humanist world. Gari Rogers warns, 'We in the West seem to have The primary research the Stone Center supports is of great value. Their explicit
made a fetish out of complete individual self-sufficiency of not needing help, of language and the publications their scholars generate shed a strong beam of light
on the relationship. 1 believe that the sarne emphasis exists and has been described
To 'understand' a wonian in South Africa, you have to know whether she is black or white. in person-centered literature for several decades, but it has not been available in the
Rogers had refused invitations to lecture in South Africa under Apartheid until an invitation public domam, nor has it been featured with such strength and clarity. Two exceptions
carne in 1982. He agreed to go to Johannesburg under the condition that he would be able to can be seen in the published work of Peggy Natiello and Jules Seeman.
work with men and women from the traditionai black comniunities. He also met with profes- Since the early 1970s, person-centered and feminist schoiar Peggy Natiello has
sionais regarding Afro-Centrism at a black university in Soweto. concentrated her work and writing on these issues. Chapter titles in her book The

110 111
 ENCOUNTEmNG FEMINISM CAROL WOLTER-GUSTAFSON

Person-CentredApproach: A passionatepresence include 'For a Quality Relationship, process, since it is continually knitting together a community iii
Include Equality', and 'Coilaborative Power and Social Change', and 'The which every soft voice, every subtie feeling has its respected place.
Relationship that Heals'. (Rogers, 1980: 196)
In 'The Relationship that Heals', Natielio writes that decades of research
document the tie between a positive outcome in therapy and the quality of Finaily, Rogers quotes a participant's description of the experience:
connection between client and therapist.14 So it is not a question of treatment 1 felt the oneness of spirit in cornmunity We breathed together,
...

strategies and techniques. Rather, we need new questions about: felt together, even spoke for one another without the usual
...

Our ability to enter into an intimate, authentic, trustworthy barricades of 'me-ness' or 'you-ness'—it was like a meditative
relationship with another Ir is really about who we are—the
...
experience when 1 feel myself as a center of consciousness, very
spiritual, emotion, attitudinal characteristics that we embody as much a part of the broader, universal consciousness. And yet with
persons, our ability to make a deep connection, to tolerate intimacy, that extraordinary sense ofoneness, the separateness ofeach person
and to offer a climate of safety. A relationship-oriented approach present has never been more clearly preserved. (ibid.: 196-7)
to therapy requires us to step down from the throne of expertness
and collaborate with our client rather than 'cure' him, or even tell
him how to cure himself. (Natiello, 2001: 2-6, original italics)
TOWARD CONVERGENCE
Jules Seeman recently explained that bis entire career, from the early days of the 1 believe that we can work to create sustainable bridges between client-centered and
Chicago Counseling Center to his recent study in psycho-immunology, has been feminist strearns of theory and practice. While we are quite sophisticated in our
devoted to understanding the depth of our human connectedness and understanding of the core conditions of empathy, congruence, and unconditional
communication. For Seeman, the latest research reaffirms what he and Rogers always positive regard, it is rare that we apply them with academically diverse kindred
knew: the organism always operates as a whole and is busy at any given moment spirits. We have worked to communicate across cultures, but not enough across
separating the 'me' from the 'not me'. He notes that Although the early emphasis in disciplines. Too often, traditional conference formats stifle spontaneity and take on
humanistic theory was tilted toward the development of the self as an entity an an 'us-versus-them' tone. The prevalence and danger of that tendency is quite visible
emerging emphasis has been the increasing focus on the intersubjective and relational in today's political climate. 1 am proposing creation of a sustainable bridge between
aspects ofpsychotherapy' (Seeman, 2002: 621).
the client-centered and feminist worlds.
In keeping with Rogers' insistence on lived-experience as the source of his Ours are distinct voices that need to be heard. Our shared commitment to
work, he and bis coileagues created a series of residential, often cross-cultural empathic relationships and shared power fundamentally challenges the dominant
workshops, to see how we can deal with power in a large group setting. 1 was a paradigm. We struggle against marginalization. Divergent strearns become more
participant in a 12-day residential experiment called 'Releasing Personal and powerful when they flowinto the sarne river.
Community Power through the Person-Centered Approach', with Rogers and a
staif of person-centered therapists in 1978. Our aim was to find an alternative to
'the traditional way of dealing with problems', i.e., 'to attempt to control the other REFERENCES
person or people'.
Here is Rogers' description of the process in his own words. In 1980, he Alcoff, L and Potter, E (eds) (1993) Introduction: When feminists intersect epistemology,
described the power sharing model for decision making in this way:
in Feminíst Epistemologies. New York: Routiedge, pp. 1-14.
When one observes this process at work, its awesome power
Arnett, RC and Arneson, P (1999) Dialogic Ci vility in a CynicalAge: Communiiy, hope, and
becomes increasingly apparent Slowly, beautifully, painstakingly,
..
interpersonal relationships. Albany, NY State University of New York Press.
a decision is crafted to take care of each person The process seems
...
Bartky S (1990) Femininity and Domination, Studies in the phenomenology ofoppression.
slow, and participants complain about 'the time we are wasting'. New York: Routledge.
But the larger wisdom of the group recognizes the value of the
Bohart, A and Greenberg, L (1997) Empathy Reconsidered: New directions in psychotherapy.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
`4 See also Bohart and Greenberg (1997).
Brodley, BT (2000) Client-Centered An expressive therapy. Chicago: Illinois School of

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINIsM CAROL WOLTER-GUSTAFSON

Professional Psychology, Press, pp. 109-40.

Chaplin, J (1999) Feminist Counseiing in Action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Rogers, CR (1967). Toward a modern approach to values: The valuing process in the mature
Ermath, ED (1989) The solitude ofwomen and social time, in FJ Forman (cd) Taking Our person, in C Rogers and B Stevens (eds) Person to Person: Theproblem of being human.
Time: Feminist perspectives on temporality. New York: Perganon Press, pp. 37-46. Lafayette, CA: Real People Press, pp. 13-28.
Evans, R (1975) CarlRogers, The Man and His Ideas. New York: EP Dutton & Co. Rogers, CR (1968) Some thoughts regarding the current presuppositions of the behavioral
Forman, F (1989) Taking Our Time: Feministperspectives on temporality. New York: Pergamon sciences, in WR Coulson and C Rogers (eds) Man and the Science ofMan. Columbus,
Press. OH: Charles E Merrili Publishing, pp. 55-83.
Fox-Genovese, E (199 1) Feminjsm Without lilusions, A critique of individualism. Chapel Rogers, CR (1975) Empathic: An unappreciated way ofbeing. The CounselingPsychologist,
Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. 5(2): 2-10.
Gergen, M (2000) The emergence of feminist postmodern psychology. Feminist Rogers, CR (1977) On PersonalPower: Inner strength and its revolutionary impace. New York:
Reconstructions in Psychology: Narrai-ive, gender, andperformance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Delacorte Press.
Sage Publications. Rogers, CR (1980) A Way ofBeing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Gilligan C (1982) In a Different Voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Rogers, CR (1983) Freedom Co Learn for the 80s. Columbus, OH: Charles E Merrili Publishing.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Rogers, CR (1989). A theory of therapy, personality; and interpersonal relationships, as
Greenspan, M (1993) A NewApproach to Women and Therapy. (2nd cd) Blue Ridge Summit, developed in the client-centered framework, in H Kirschenbaum and VL Henderson
PA: McGraw Hill. (eds) The Gari Rogers Reader. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 236-57.
Kirschenbaum, H (1979) On Becoming Cari Rogers. New York: Delacorte Press. Rothblatt, M (19 95) The Apartheid ofSex, A manifesto on thefreed.om ofgender. New York:
Lloyd, G (1993) The Man ofReason: 'male' and female' in western philosophy. (2nd cd) Crown Publishers.
Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Seeman, 1(2002) in D Cain and J Seeman (2002) Humanistic Psychotherapies: Handbook of
Mahowald, MB (cd) (1994) Philosophy of Woman: An anthclogy ofclassic to current concepts. research andpractice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
(3rd cd) Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company. Spiegelberg, H (1969) The PhenomenologicalMovement:An historicalintroduction, The Hague:
Maslow, A (1954) Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper. 1 A,11 Martinus Nijoff.
May, R (1972) Power and Innocence: A search for the source ofviolence. New York: Norton and Surrey, J (199 1) Relationship and empowerment, in JV Jordan, AG Kaplan, JB Miller, IP
Company. Stiver and JL Surrey (eds) Women's Growth in Connection: Writingsfrom the Stone Center.
Mearns, D (1996) Working ar Relational Depth with Clients in Person-Centred Therapy. New York: The Guilford Press, pp. 162-80.
Counselling, 7(4): 306-11. Thorne, B (1992) Gari Rogers. London: Sage Publications.
Milier, JB (1973) Psychoanalysis and Women. Baltimore: Penguin Books. 41 Weisstein, N (1972) Psychology Constructs the Female. Revised and cxpanded version of:
Milier, JB (1976) Towarda New Psychology of Women. (2nd cd) Boston: Beacon Press. (1968) Kinder, Kuche, Kirche as Scientfic Law: Psychology constructs rhefemaie. Boston:
Natjeljo, P (200 1) The Person-CentredApproach: A parsionatepresence. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS New England Free Press.
Books. Wolter-Gustafson, C (1999) Power of the premise: Reconstructing gcnder and human
Nicholson LJ (cd) (1990) Feminism/Postmodernjsm. New York: Routiedge. development with Rogers' theory in 1 Fairhurst (cd) Women Writing in the Person-
O'Hara, M (1997) Emancipatory therapeutic practice in a turbulent transmodern era: a CentredApproach. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 199-214.
work of retrieval. Journal ofHumanistic Psychology, 37(3): 7-33.
Rogers, CR (1957) Tle necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change.
Journal of Consulting Psychoiogy, 21(2): 95-103.
Rogers, CR (1959) A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships, as
developed in the client-centered franiework, in S Koch (cd) Psychology: A Study of a
Science. Vol3. Formulation oftheperson and the social context. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rogers, CR (1961) On Becominga Person:A rherapist's view ofpsychotherapy. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.
Rogers, CR (1964) Toward a science of the person, in T Wann (cd) Behaviorjsm and
Phenomenology, Contrasting basesfor mod€rnpsychology. Chicago: University of Chicago

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TRUSTING OUR CLIENTS: KEY CONCEPTS OF THE STONE CENTER'S MODEL OF

THERAPY'
THE STONE CENTER MODEL OF
According tu Stone Center theorists, starting at a very young age, we ali form internal
THERAPY ENCOUNTERS A images or schemas ofwhat relationships are about. They are called relational images
NON-DIRECTIVE ATTITUDE (Miller, 1988; Miller and Stiver, 1995; Miller and Stiver, 1997). These images are
formed as we interact with others around us. The images, along with the meanings
we attach to them, continue to evolve throughout our lives, and we continue to add
new ones as we have different kinds of encounters with those with whom we interact.
Whether these images are positive and empowering or whether these images are
restricting and seif-condemning depends upon the amount and quaiity of
MARY BETH NAPIER connections and disconnections characteristic of the significant relationships in a
person's life. In addition to the images themselves, we also construct, at the sarne
time, a set of beliefs about why our relationships are the way they are. These
constructions determine our beliefs about others and ourselves in ali arcas of our
Feminist therapy has many different 'faces' and there are many theorists who have lives.
advanced our understanding and notions ofwhat feminist therapy is. A prominent Relational images and meanings, formed in the context of a relationship
group offeminist theorists in the United States are the clinicians and professors at characterized mainly by connections, have certain characteristics. A connection is an
the Stone Center of Wellesley Coilege. The Stone Center group have developed a interaction that is mutually empowering and one in which each person creates
model of feminist therapy they cail 'the relational-cultural model of therapy. In something new together through their interaction. Reiationships that are
this chapter 1 will attempt to demonstrate how incorporating a client-centered non- characterized by connections are growthfostering relationships in which both people
directive attitude into the Stone Center's model of therapy will transform the therapy are enlarged and grow from the experience. As a result, the relational images we
into a phenomenologicai model to mãe it more congruent with feminist principies create from these interactions are characterized by relationships that are mutually
of client self-determination and empowerment. empathic and mutually empowering; that is, they give us the means and motivation
The Stone Center's model of relational-cultural therapy (also called relational to act, iead us to more self-knowledge, allow us to feel more worthwhile and leave
therapy) rests on the belief that therapy has to provide the client with a new relational us yearning for more connections with others. The meanings we construct for why
experience and that the particular quality of the therapist-client relationship is the relationships are this way include a belief that we are valuable, worthwhile,
key to healing (Miller and Stiver, 1997). According to Stone Center theorists a knowledgeable and active people.
healing therapeutic relationship is one in which the therapist is with a client in ways Reiational images and meanings formed in the context of a relationship that is
that promote a growing sense of mutuality between them. It is this connection mainly characterized by disconnections have certain characteristics also. A
between the client and the therapist that produces psychological healing for the disconnection happens when an adult or child is prevented from participating in
client. 1 propose that a key way for the therapit to stay connected to the client is by mutually empathic and mutually enhancing or empowering relationships. It does
adopting a client-centered non-directive attitude. An attitud of non-directivity nor mean leaving or ending a relationship. Rather, it means a break in the
rests on the values ofrespect and trust in the client's process tu heal and grow when psychological connection accompanied by a sense of being emotionaily cut off from
given an environment that is free ofjudgments and conditions ofworth, and when the other person. Disconnections occur when an adult or child is grossiy abused or
the therapist avoids behaviors and attitudes that disempower the client (Brodley, attacked but can also occur when the people in the person's relational world are
1997). 1 propose if these changes are made to the Stone Center model, therapists unresponsive to the aduir or child's expression of his or her experience. Hence, the
using this model will maintain a better and more consistent connection with the degree of disconnection can vary from a very minor feeling of being out of touch
client, thus promoting the client's natural inclination tuwards connection and growth with a significara other to a major trauma and violation.
fostering relationships.
1The information in this section primarily has been taken from Miller, 1988 and Milier and
Stiver, 1997.

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 ENCOUNTERJNG FEMINISM MA1x BETH NAPIER

From disconnections, we form very different relational images than we do It is the therapist's job to monitor the levei of connection and disconnections
from connections. These images of relationships include not being heard, or that happen and to actively engage with the client to bring their relationship to a
understood in a mutually empathic way. The meanings that a person attaches to stronger reconnection after a disconnection. In fact, Stone Center theoreticians
relational images like these are that her relationships are the way they are because believe that this is where the real work of therapy happens, in navigating and
she is ineffective, deficient, defective or blameworthy. Because the most important
transforming the inevitable disconnections (Miller et ai., 1999).
people in her life do not seem to care about or value her experience, she comes to
In addition to monitoring the times of connections and disconnection between
believe that she is an undesirable person?
them, the therapist's job is also to work with the client's strategies of disconnection.
In order to avoid fiirthcr and complete isolation, the person will devise strategies She does this by 'honoring both sides' of the client's strategy. Miller and Stiver
for remaining in connection while keeping large parts of herself out of the (1994) explained, 'It is not only a question of "understanding" the strategies but
relationship. These strategies are called strategies of disconnection. People use these also a question of the therapist really being able to "get with" the feeling ofthem' (p.
strategies to limit their sense of vulnerability, and in extreme cases, they use these
4), not just in an intellectual way but emotionally as well by understanding the
strategies for survival (Jordan and Dooley, 2000). Strategies of disconnection do reason for these strategies through the client's eyes. In order to be able to honor a
not permit the fuli range of experiences, thoughts or emotions. The strategies begin 19 client's strategies of disconnection, the therapist must be authentic in her relationship
as the form through which psychological problems are expressed. As soon as people with the client. As the therapist does this, the client will experience a decrease in her
create strategies for staying out of relationships, they are contributing to the need to use strategies that keep para of herself out of the connection with the
disconnections that cause psychological distress and lead to inauthentic relationships.
therapist.
Stone Center theoreticians believe that people can learn to be in authentic In addition to these tasks, the therapist must also engage in mutual empathy
relationships and give up the protection of extreme strategies of disconnection by with the client, and she must be perceived by the client as authentic. In terms of
being in a 'growth fostering relationship'. Any relationship has the potential of
mutual empathy Jordan (199 1) explains:
being a growth fostering relationship inciuding a therapy relationship.
Mutual empathy occurs when two people relate to each other in a
context of interest in the other, emotional availability and
responsiveness, cognitive appreciation of the wholeness of the other;
THE THERAPY RELATIONSHJp the intent is to understand li is not simply a static mirroring
...

process but an expansive growth process for both. In the exciternent

A good therapeutic relationship will create a new relational image for the client that of exploration, getting to know one another—who are you? who
is based on mutual empowerment. This relationship will help to counteract the am 1? who are we?—there is the opportunity for new seif-definition;
damaging effects of relational images and meanings that are based on past
new aspects of self are expressed and each provides that opportunity
disconnections characterized by nonmutual, destructive panerns of relating. The
for the other. (p. 89)
therapist is committed to trying to understand the client's experience through
emotional resonance (Jordan, 1997). The therapist conveys to the client that what It is experiencing and seeing a situation through the eyes of the other. Mutuality in
was unbearable to the client alone can become bearable when they deal with it therapy rests on the assumption that real growth of an individual can only occur in
together. As they are engaged in this kind of emotional resonance, both client and the context of a real, murually responsive relationship (Jordan, 1997). In the Stone
therapist come to understand and appreciate the meaning systems that have grown Center's model, the capacity to engage in mutual relationships is the goal of
around the pain, and how it has shaped the person's life, giving meaning to the psychological development, and the growth of mutuality and enlarged connection
relational images that the person holds.
in the therapy relationship is the core of therapy (Surrey, 1997).
According to Jordan (1993), mutuality in therapy also implies a responsiveness
2.
The model of relational cultural therapy grew out of the Stone Center's clinicians experiencing to the client rather than control of the client on the part of the therapist. 'When the
and honoring women's psychological experience. Over time, Stone Center theorists realized that therapist is empathic to the client she is being present, vulnerable, open, responsive
the concepts they presented also held truth for men's psychological growth and development and concerned. The therapist must be open to the client so that she can be
(Miller and Stiver, 1997). The original Stone Center group was comprised ofwomen discussing emotionally impacted by the client and open to growth herself as a result this impact
and writing about women. To honor these beginnings, when the text reflects the gender of the When the therapy relationship is working well, both client and therapist have a
therapist or client, they are referred to as female.
shared sense ofworking together, a shared commitment and emotional investrnent

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in the relationship, an openness to change because of the relationship (Surrey, 1997). Milier and Stiver (1997) explained:
'When the therapist can be this in tune with the client, the client can begin to Most traditional approaches to therapy focus on increased
explore shameful and frightening affect, bringing those feelings into connection independence, greater self-knowledge or insight, or a stronger sense
and finding that someone can be with her as she does this. This allows the client to of self as endpoints of therapy. In contrast, we see the greater
explore her capacity to move and influence another person as she explores her own capacity for engaging in mutually empathic and mutually
inner reality. A stance of power and control on behalf of the therapist will impede empowering connections as the goal. Out of this increased
this effort, but a spirit of respect and empathy will allow this exploration to unfold. connection, the person becomes a fuiler, stronger person as she
Authenticity refers to a quality of emotional presence and responsiveness that simultaneously becomes more connected to her experience. (pp.
one person shows to another. Ir is the person's ongoing ability to represent herself izx-z)
more genuinely in relationships (Miller et ai., 1999). Authenticity is ever evolving
and grows and changes over time as the relationship between the therapist and
client grows. A therapist's authenticity leads to growth of mutual empathy in the EXPERT AND TRUST ELEMENTS IN THE STONE CENTER'S
therapy relationship. MODEL
Qhen the therapist can remain authentic, in tune to the moment-to-moment
interactions between herself and her client through empathic attunement, she can There appear to be contradictory elements in the Stone Center theory regarding
respond to the client in a way that allows the client to freely explore her inner world. how the goals of relational therapy are achieved and the therapist's role in achieving
This exploration does not depend upon the client's ability to verbalize her experience them. The Stone Gemer theorists suggest that the therapist's job is to create a growth
in a dear, understandable way. The therapist shares the responsibility for achieving fostering relationship with the client. To do this:
clarity, thus, diminishing the sense of shame the client experiences when she cannot • The therapist is a real and genuine person in the relationship. She engages in
easily articulate her experience (Jordan, 1997). It is each moment-to-moment mutual empathy with the client rather than serving in an expert role.
interaction with a client that either allows her to grow or diminishes her sense of • She monitors and works with connections and disconnections in the moment-to-
worth and feelings of competence in the world. Therefore, it is essential that the moment relationship.
therapist provide the client with a relationship in which the moment-to-moment • She helps the client to identify and then work with strategies of disconnection and
interactions are characterized by mutual empathy and authenticity. This is the most old relational images that are based on disconnections.
crucial way the therapist establishes and maintains a connection to the client (Jordan,
1992, 1995, 1999; Jordan and Dooley, 2000; Miller and Stiver, 1997). There are elements in the theory that 1 have termed trust elements and elements that
1 have termed expert elements. The trust elements are concerned with aliowing the
client to feel empowered through her relationship with the therapist. The therapist
A PARADIGM SHIFT is not seeking to impose meanings on the client's experience. Rather, she attempts
to set aside her own interna1 frame of reference in order to experience the client's
The Stone Center's model of relational therapy emphasizes the nature of the internal frame of reference as deeply and accurately as possible (Jordan, 1991).
relationship between thé client and the therapist as the key to psychological healing. 1 suggest that these elements are based on the foliowing assumptions:
In this respect, the relational model of therapy comes out of an entirély different • Ifthe therapist provides a relationship for the client that is characterized by mutual
therapeutic appoach than does a traditional psychodynamic model (Milier et ai., empathy, the client's own need and desire for connection can be trusted to move
1999). Ir is not a model that places the therapist in a position ofauthority over the the client towards deeper connection with her therapist, which then has the
client as an all-knowing expert who acts on a sick person. Instead, both the therapist benefit of changing relational images based on disconnections.
and client try to counter the destructive effects that a patriarchal, power-over society • The client can be trusted to move towards connection when she is provided an
has on the life ofthe cljnjcjan as well as the client. In order to counter these destructive environment in which her interna1 experience is heard and respected, not judged,
elements, the therapist needs to have and be able to learn èertain abilities, interpreted or changed.
responsibilities and knowledge, the most importam of which is for the therapist to • Healing does not occur through therapist intervention but when a therapist can
learn how to participate in the therapy relationship in a way that allows her to deeply understand the necd for strategies of disconnection and can respect the
facilitate 'movement in relationship.' times when the client needs connection and disconnection. The client can be

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trusted to gíve up her strategies of disconnection when she continues to experience and how and when she responds to the client .3 The process (and often times content)
high and consistent leveis of mutual empathy by a therapist who is genuine. between them becomes controlled by the therapist's goals.
The client, not the therapist, is the expert on the client's experience. In order for the therapist to be successful in moving the relationship, she must
focus on her own inner thoughts and feelings, then study the client's communica-
1 suggest that the goal of ali of the trust elements is for the therapist to €freply tion to see where and how it fits with the theory of psychological health and pathol-
understand the client's experience through the client's internaiframe of reference rather ogy. This kind of mental activity on the part of the therapist is the exact opposite of
than to serve as an expert on her experience. The thérapist then communicates her the therapist attempting to see the client's experience through the client's inner
understanding to the client and aiso shows the client that the client's experiences, world.
thoughts and feelings do affect her. •When the therapist is engaged in mutual empathy with the client, she is
The other elements, 1 refer to as expert elements. These elements rely on the attempting to get out of her frame of reference and to experience the client's frame
therapist's expertise in the relational-cultural model and place her in the role of of reference as deeply as possible. However, ifthe therapist is using mutual empathy
being responsible for moving the relationship between herself and the client in a to gain enough knowledge about the client to use her expertise to guide the client's
specific direction. The therapist's responsibilities or expert elements are as follows: process, then the goal of mutual empathy is not to provide the client with a different
• The therapist is responsible for moving the relationship with the client in a particular kind of relational environment; instead it becomes a tool used in the service of
direction: towards mutual empowerment, and to increase the client's ability to other expert elements. The client may begin to feei like the therapist is isp to something
engage in mutual empathy. because the therapist is using her understanding of the client's experience to assist
• The therapist is responsible for, understanding and recognizing strategies of her in doing something to the client. In this case the doing something is moving their
disconnection in her client. This means that the therapist uses her expertise to relationship by highlighting times of connections, disconnections and strategies of
view the client's experience through the relational-cultural lens and looks for disconnection; and looking for and working with old relational images.
behaviors, thoughts and feelings in the client that match the concepts of this There are problems with the Stone Center's emphasis on the therapist's expert
model. ability to move the relationship (and, therefore, the client) in a certain direction.
• The therapist is responsible for highlighting, for the client, specific events that Even ifthis direction seems like a desirable one (towards mutual empowerment), it
happen in the client's experience within and outside of therapy in order to still assumes the following:
emphasize connections, disconnections, and strategies of disconnection. - • The therapist knows that this is the best direction for every client because it is
• The therapist is responsible for providing tentative interpretations for the client assumed that every client should be assisted towards the sarne goals.
about her experiences to assist the client in making connections in her own • The therapist is responsible for moving the relationship because the client is incapable
experiences, especially to uncover old relational images and their meanings that of doing so (this is especially true at the beginning of therapy).
are preventing the client from participating in growth fostering relationships. • The success of the therapy rests on the ability of the therapist to correcdy identify
• The therapist is responsible for recognizing when and how to present an certain elements of a client's experience (connections, disconnections, strategies
interpretation or chailenge to a client to maximize the receptivity of the client to of disconnection and reiational images) and to use her expertise about these
the therapist's intervention. concepts to foster a particular type of change in the client (change in relational
images, growth in client's relational awareness and competence).
The kinds of attitudes, thinking and assumptions of the two types of elements
cause the therapist to engage in behaviors that can be contradictory. If the therapist When 1 speak of expert elements, 1 am not referring to the 'power-over' concept of
is focused on the expert elements, she cannot aiso be focused on trying to understand power delineated in the Stone Center's work (Miller and Stiver, 1997). 1 am not
the client's internal frame of reference and respond to the client through mutual suggesting that the Stone Center's model of relational-cultural therapy aims to
empathy. Consequently, when the therapist is engaged in an expert task she is perpetuate dominance of one group over others, or that it suggests that therapists
responding to the client through her own internai frame of reference and not the have the right to define the reality of their clients. On the contrary, their work is in
client's. The therapist is seeing the client's experience through her own filter that the service of working against such oppression and forms ofpower. However, 1 ain
predisposes her to look for specific things in the client's experience and to disregard suggesting that expert elements do place the therapist in a position ofpower because
other aspects. In fact, when the therapist is operating from her own frame of reference,
it drasticaily affects what the therapist looks for, what she points out to the client, In social psychology this is referred to as confirmation bias (Aronson, 1995, Chapter 5).

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inherent in these elements is the assumption that the therapist's role is to facilitate It appears that the expert elements of the relational-cultural model are remnants
'movement' within the relationship—and this movement is in a particular direction— ftom psychodynaznic models that work against mutuality and connection between
the direction that the therapist believes is in the best interest of the client. This is a the therapist and client. 1 suggest a further paradigm shift from psychodynamic
paternalistic way to view the relationship and is contrary to the idea that the client models and concepts to a phenomenological approach to therapy that places the
has the ability to be self-directed, responsible and autonomous in selecting desirable client's experience, rather than adherence tu particular theories, at the center of the
goals for herself. When a therapist acts out of the expert elements of this theory, she therapeutic enterprise. The therapist must be able to join the client in her world
may create many more disconnections between herself and her client because she is without imposing outside standards onto the client's experience, which also serve
focused on her own internal frame of reference rather than on the client's internal to distance the therapist from the client.
frame of reference. This prevents her from staying more connected tu and Jordan (1997) addressed this kind of relationship between client and therapist:
understanding the client's experience through the client's eyes. Therapy cannot be a mechanistic eriterprise but must take the
It is my contention that although it is extremely iniportant for a therapist to therapist as well as the client to deep places of vulnerability Unlike
...

address disconnections in a way that bullds mutual empowerment and relational many professions that count on definable skills or taking particular
awareness and competency, the attitudes and behaviors that stem from expert elements roles, psychotherapy calis upon the presence of the whole person
of the Stone Center's theory create disconnections between the therapist and client of the therapist. How we do therapy is a lot about who we are as
that could be avoided. Consequently, 1 do not believe that working through people. Therapy is importantly about being. It does not depend on a
disconnections between the therapist and the client has to be a major way for the • clear and easily mastered set of skills. We, too, must struggle to
client to build relational competence or awareness because 1 do not believe that there stay in connection in the face of vulnerability. (p. 152)
are necessarily many times of disconnection between the therapist and the client.
Instead, 1 suggest that there is a way for a therapist to maintain almost constant Jordan (1997) also made the following plea to anyone writing about therapy: 'Please
connection with her client throughout the therapy process—that is, by operating say what is actually happening in the therapy relationship, not what theory prescribes
almost exclusively within the trust elements of this theory. Additionally, 1 propose or what sounds smart or dever or theoretically formed' (p. 152). Client-Centered
that if the Stone Center incorporates what is called a 'non-directive attitude' from Therapy, with its backbone of the non-directive attitude, is based on research about
client-centered therapy into its theory, that its theory will be more internally what actually happens in the therapeutic relationship and is informed by over 60
consistent and that therapist behavior will be more congruent with the Stone Center's years of clinical experience with clients presenting many kinds of concerns. Ir is a
beliefs and values about what constitutes good therapy. That is, it is mutual emp athy therapy concerned about the quality of the relationship between therapist and client
that leads to mutual empowerment and relationships that are characterized by as well as the whole being of the therapist. It is about the therapist being with the
connections. Consequently, the therapist's attempt to engage in mutual empathy client through a deep sense of connection to the client's experience and being
and remain connected to the client's frame of reference is what provides an authentic. It is in this spirit that 1 suggest that a client-centered attitude of non-
environment that is conducive to change and growth in the client, not the therapist directivity can allow the therapist to establish and maintain a growth fostering
working with any particular part of the client's experience or attempting to move relationship with the client, a relationship that can consistently provide the client
the client in any particular direction. with a relational experience rich in mutual empathy and empowerment.
Mutual empathy and therapist authenticity are trust elements in the Stone
Center theory because they are what allow the therapist to provide an environment
for the client togrow. 1 suggest that ifone believes a person's basic motivation is to HOW CAN THIS BE ACCOMPLISHED?4
seek connections with others, it follows that ifthe right conditions are provided by
the therapist (a growth fostering relationship), then the person's own drive towards 1 am not suggesting that the relational-cultural model become another version of
connection will move the person toward mutual empowerment and relational client-centered theory and practice. The Stone Center's theory of human
competency in her relationship with the therapist. No other planned therapist development and model of therapy represent unique contributions to the fields of
intervention is needed. The therapist must be an expert in providing the right psychological and human development. Their model has evolved from an analysis
relationship that facilitares the client's own movement towards connection. The
therapist does not have to be an expert on the client's inner world or on knowing For a more thorough explanation ofhow to incorporate a non-directive attitude into the Stone
how to move the client in a particular direction. Center's model, see Napier, 2001.

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ofgender and places its emphasis on the importance of relationship and connection REFERENCES
as the means to psychological health or pathoiogy. It also emphasizes the role culture
plays on an individual's psychoiogical development, health and distress. Aronson, E (1995) The SocialAnimal. (7th ed) New York: WH Freeman and Company.
Both client-centered and Stone Center theoreticians propose that the way to Brodley, BT (1997) The non-directive attitude in client-centered therapy. The Person-Centered
shift a person's relational images or to dissolve conditions ofworth that the person Journal, 4(1), 18-30.
has internalized is through a particular kind of relationship. In client-centered work Brodlley, BT (2000) Ciient-centered: An expressive therapy, in J Marques-Teixeira and S
that kind of relationship is provided to a person in therapy by a clinician who can Antunes (eds) Client-CenteredandExperientialPsychotherapy. Linda a Velhas, Portugal:
provide consistent leveis ofthe facilitative attitudes along with a non-directive attitude Vale & Vale, pp. 133-47.
(Rogers, 1959, 1986). Jordan, JV (199 1) The meaning ofmutuality, in JVJordan, AG Kaplan, JB Miller, IP Stiver
In the Stone Center's work that kind of relationship is provided through mutual and JL Surrey (eds) Women's Growth in Connection. New York: The Guilford Press, pp.
empathy by a therapist who is perceived by the client to be genuine and authentic. 81-96.
Mutuality is not defined as sameness or equality, rather it is a way of relating, a Jordan, JV (1992) Relational resilience (Work in Progress No 57). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley
shared activity in which each (or ali) ofthe people involved are participating as fuliy Coilege, The Stone Center.
as possible. They explain that it is not a matter of equal reciprocity—I give to you Jordan, J (1993) Chailenges to connection (Work in Progress No 60). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley
and then you give to me—but it describes a quality ofrelationality, a movement or Col!ege, The Stone Center.
dynamic ofthe relationship. They stress that, The capacity toparticipate in mutually Jordan, JV (1995) Relational awareness: Transforming disconnection (Work in Progress No
empathic relationships can replace the concept of the need for or need to provide 76). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley Coilege, The Stone Center.
empathy' (Miller and Stiver, 1997: 43). This statement suggests to me that perhaps Jordan, JV (1997) Relational development: Therapeutic implications of empathy and shame,
the Stone Center theoreticians have picked up on the instrumental attitudes of in JV Jordan (ed) Women's Growth in Diversity: More writingsfrom the Stone Center.
most other therapies when they refer to empathy as a tool used by the therapist on New York: The Guilford Press, pp. 138-61.
the client rather than empathy as, a characteristic of the relationship itself. Jordan, J (1999) Toward connection and competence (Work in Progress No 83). Wellesley,
The ramifications ofincorporating the non-directive attitude into the relational MA: Wellesley Coilege, The Stone Center.
model is that the actual practice of the therapist would be transformed from an Jordan, JV, and Dooley, C (2000) Relational Practice in Action: A group manual. Wellesley,
instrumental therapy to an expressive therapy.' To incorporate the non-directive MA: Welles!ey Coliege, The Stone Center.
attitude into the relational model, the therapist would have to believe in the client's Miller, JB (1988) Connections, disconnections and violations (Work in Progress No 33).
basic motivation towards connection, and trust that a therapeutic relationship that Wellesley, MA: Wellesley Coilege, The Stone Center.
is characterized by consistently high leveis of mutual empathy will provide an Miller, JB and Stiver, IP (1994) Movement in therapy: Honoring the 'strategies of
environment where mutual empowerment can grow. The therapist wouid have to disconnection' (Work in Progress No 65). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College, The Stone
believe that her only goal is for herself—to understand the client's internal frame of Center.
reference as deeply as possible and then to communicate that acceptance and Miller, JB and Stiver, IP (1995) Relational images and their meanings in psychotherapy
understanding to the client. The therapist would have to believe that she is not an (Work in Progress No 74). We1lesle MA: Wellesley Coilege, The Stone Center.
expert of the clienti experience and hold a deep respect for the client's Miller, JB and Stiver, IP (1997) The Healing Connection: How womenform relationships in
phenomenology. therapy and 1. Boston: Beacon Press.
1 believe that the Stone Center's theoretical positions are already very dose and Miller, JB, Jordan, JV, Stiver, IP, Wa!ker, M, Surrey, JL and E!dridge, NS (1999) Therapist's
at times already embody these beliefs. 1 suggest that by incorporating a non-directive authenticity (Work in Progress No 82). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley Coliege, The Stone
attitude into the model, the therapist will be abie to form a deeper, richer and more Center.
consistent connection with the client. And, ultimately as Stone Center theoreticians Napier, MB (2001) Staying Connected: Incorporating a nondirective attitude into the Stone
suggest, it is the quality of the relationship and connection—the experience of the Center's Model of Relational-Cultural Therapy. Unpublished dissertation.
client seeing that she has an effect on the therapist and vice versa—that is the key to Rogers, CR (1959) A theory of therapy, persona!ity, and interpersonal relationships as
healing and growth. developed in the client-centered framework, in S Koch (ed) Psychology: A study of a
science: Vol. 3. Formul.ations ofthe person and the social context. New York: McGraw
See Brodley (2000) for more information about expressive versus instrumental therapy. Hill, pp. 184-256.

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Rogers, CR (1986) Client-centered therapy, in IL Kutash and A Wolf (eds) Psychotherapist's

Casebook. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 194-208. WHAT CAN PERSON-CENTRED
Surrey; JL (1997) What do we mean by mutuality in therapy? in JV Jordan (ed) Women's
Growth in Diversity: More writings from the Stone Center. New York: The Guilford
THERAPY LFARN FROM FEMINISM?
Press. pp. 42-9.

GILLIAN PROCTOR

In this chapter, 1 argue that personcentred therapists (PCTs) could benefit from an
understanding of feminism in their therapy practice. 1 do not argue that therapists
should educate their clients about feminism or aim to direct their clients in any way
as a result of learnirig about feminism. Instead, 1 argue that this understanding will
affect the therapist's ability to understand their clients, and understand their
explorations and difficukies both from a unique phenomenological perspective,
and also from a societal understanding of gender roles, sexism and other oppressions.
In addition, an appreciation of fcminist theory would help person-centred therapists
in their understanding of the dynamics of power in the therapy relationship and
also help therapists to understand clients not just as individual, autonomous selves
but as people constantly in relation.

POWER

Feminist theory helps us to understand different aspects of power and how relations
of power affect psychological distress and therapy. Feminist theory is the most
developed body of theory concerning structural inequalities. Feminism reminds us
of our own and our clients' structural embodied positions reflecting inequalities in
society. This may help us not by assuming how particular positions or identities
affect any one individual, but to learn about how oppression works and can affect
people. This awareness may also help us to learn about our own assumptions and
prejudices that prevent us from understanding or accepting particular others.
Most feminist theories of power' are based on a structural model of power

'See Proctor (2002) for detailed discussion of structural and post-structural power and feminist
theory.

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(assuming power is a possession held by a person or group over others in a negative therapist's power-over the client and it is revolutionary in the extent to which it
way). Feminism concentrares on the power given to men over women in a patriarchal manages to do this.2 But however the therapist behaves as an equal person in the
society, although it also theorises class, 'race', age, sexuaiity and other oppressions. therapy relationship, therapy is still an institution and the role of 'therapist' still has
However some feminist theorists have extended the notion of power from a purely power attached to it in society. However transparent, therapy is siali institutionalised
structurai notion to a more post-structural (relational and dynamic) notion ofpower. within a particular mode of practice (Lowe, 1999).
For French (1985), power is an interaction not a substance. She distinguishes between Feminist authors also help us to understand the power in the institution of
'power-to' and 'power-over'. Power-to refers to abi1ity, capacity, a sense of strength therapy. Chesler (1972) reminds us that the therapeutic encounter needs to be
of the individual and is achieved by communities supporting the individual. Power- understood as an institution beyond how individual therapists are with individual
over is domination, coercive authority. However, 'power-over' is still relational— clients and how this institution re-enacts the relationship of giris to their father
power is not possessed but granted to the dominator by others and this is not figure in a patriarchal society. Although individual PC therapists chaiienge this
unretractable. She suggests the reappropriation of pleasure, the core of which is hierarchicai expert-based idea of therapy, therapy itself as an institution remains
mutuality and freedom as the basis of a new morality beyond power. unnoticed, which is likely to be a major factor in clients not perceiving the therapy
Similarly Starhawk (1987) distinguishes three types of power: 'power-over', relationship as equal however the therapist behaves. There is a clear inequaiity in
'power-from-within' and 'power-with'. Again, power-over refers to domination. the roles of therapist and client which is not removed by any kind of therapist
Power-from-within comes from the root of the word power (pouvoir in, French) behaviour as a person.
meaning to be able—an inner strength from the sense of one's own ability and - Buber and Rogers had a debate about this very point discussed by Bozarth
innate value and from a sense of connection with other humans and the environment. (1998). Bozarth (1998 21) quotes Rogers saying 'There is something immediate,
Power-with is the power of an individual in a group of equals to suggest and be equal, a meeting of two persons on an equal basis, even though in the world ofl-It,
listened to; this is only possible if ali in the group recognise they are equal. The it could be seen as a very unequal relationship.' Bozarth suggests and 1 agree that
distinctions between the concepts of power-over and power-from-within are this disagreement represents different definitions of power used by Rogers and Buber.
represented in the German language by mo distinct words—Macht and Krafi. Krafi Whereas Buber seems to be referring to the concept of power-over in the institution
ofren refers more to inner physical and mental strength, similar to the concept of of the roles of therapist and client, Rogers definition refers to being ali one is capable
power-from-within. Macht often refers more to power-over. of being (the German Kra,/è) This is like Starhawk's power-from-within, power as a
.

1 argue that there are three aspects to power in the therapy relationship: role positive force incorporating respect for others and their own power-from-within.
power, historicalpower and societalpower (Proctor, 2002). Role power is the power Natiello (2001: 11) describes this as Rogers' concept of 'personal power'—' the
inherent in the roles of therapist and client resuking from the authority given to the abiiity to act effectively under one's own volition rather than externai control
therapist to define the client's problem and the power the therapist has in the where individuais are acutely aware of and can act upon their own feelings, needs
organisation and institutions of their work. Various micro-environments also affect and values'. The difference in paradigms of power is the effect of the therapist's
how much role power a counsellor/therapist has in any one situation or work power in each case. The more power-over exerted by the therapist, the less power
environment. This aspect of power is also dynamic and relational; each individual the client has. However the more 'personal power' or power-from-within feit by the
that the counsellor/therapist interacts with wiil have different views about this role therapist, the more a client is enabled to feel their personal power.
power. Historicalpow?r is the power res41ting from the personal histories of the The ethics of the PC approach are to resist power-over as much as possible.
therapist and client and their experiences of power and powerlessness. The personal However there are still dangers in ignoring the power of the therapist's role. IfPerson-
histories and experiences wiil affect, and to some extent determine, how individuais Centred therapists ignore the power in the role of therapist, we risk missing the
are in relationships and how they think, feel and sometimes behave with respect to opportunity to help clients from our positions of power. We may also fail to give
thepower in the relationship. Societalpower is the power arising from the structural clients information that we have access to from our position of power. We may risk
positions in society of the therapist and client, with respect to aspects of identities underestimating or misunderstanding the effects of structural power on the lives of
associated with power including gender, age, (dis)abiiity, sexuality,etc. our clients. Finaily we are in danger of misunderstanding the client's perception of
our attitudes, assuming they see the relationship as equal because of how we behave as
RoLE POWER people but the client is still well aware of the power in the role of therapist.

There is a clear political agenda in Person-Centred Therapy (PCT) to eliminate the 2.

See Proctor (2002) for a detailed discussion of power in person-centred therapy.

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HISTORICAL POWER PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS AND THE DEFINITION OF

MADNESS
1 argue that historical power can be theorised in PCT by the internalisation of the
conditions of worth (Proctor, 2002). However, feminist theory can add to our Rogers' personality theory theorises that psychological distress arises from conditions
understanding of conditions of worth by reminding us how there are also societal of worth. This analysis can be usefully supplemented by an analysis that looks ar
conditions of worth that are gendered. 1 argue that gender role socialisation can be society and what society deerns 'mad' or 'dysfunctional'. Rogers' theory assumes an
understood to be part of conditions of worth, arising not just idiosyncratically internal individualised basis for the decision about whether one is psychologically
from individual parenting but also structurally on each child from interactions distressed or in need of therapy, which seerns to be a rather naïve position, assuming
with wider society such as the media, books and other adults. The inscription of we are unaffected by society's ideologies of'normality or acceptability. To understand
gender roles is one way of ascribing conditions of worth to giris and boys, but this the societal ideology of madness and who is defined 'rnad', we need a sociological
process needs to be understood as a societal and structural process, affecting understanding of the construction of psychological distress to supplement Rogers'
individuais. individualistic conditions of worth theory.
The awareness of gender role socialisation can help a therapist to understand Feminist theory can provide this analysis. Phyllis Chesler (1972) exposed the
their own conditions ofworth in a social and political context and how their current gendered nature of who is defined mad in our society and how this is related to
behaviour and ways of relating are likely to be influenced by gender role expectations. gender conformity. Her thesis was that 'What we consider "madness", whether it
Also this awareness may help us as therapists to be aware of how we may affect appears in women or in men, is either the acting out of the devalued female role or
clients in concordance with our gender roles. For example, a male therapist who the total or partial rejection or one's sex-role stereotype' (Chesler, 1972: 93). She
explains to a client that they feel annoyed or ler down by a late payment for therapy argues that psychiatry perpetuates the 'normality' of sex-role stereotypes. 'Mental
may have a different impact on the client than a female therapist saying the sarne health' is described by clinicians as characteristics which are associated with
thing. 1 am not saying that the differing impacts can be predicted or generalised. 'masculinity', and most theories of madness or mental health are based on biological
However, gender (as with other aspects of our structural identities) has a big irnpact essentialism. Women are pathologised for extreme conformity or non-conformity
on who we are and how we relate to people. Understanding society's messages about with gender roles, particularly concerning caring for others, being emotionai,
gender and how these are internalised (although responded to differendy) by everyone mothering and being sexually passive.
may help us to understand an individual more accurately as situated within their She further argues that the treatment ofwomen in asylums paralleled women's
cultural context. As society's messages about gender expectations are for the most experiences in the patriarchal family, being treated as helpless, dependent, sexless
part implicit and often denied, ir is likely to be difficult for clients to be able to and unreasonable. She suggests that 'crazy women may be looking for the nurture
explain their impact on their way of viewing the world and themselves. If these they never received as female children as they were encouraged to take on the role
messages are not understood as part of the implicit context in each of our lives, we of nurturing others from a young age. She asserts that men have a wider range of
run the risk of taking for granted gender socialisation as an unquestioned part of 'acceptable' behaviour than women. Akhough women seeking help are tolerated
our culture. more than men, they are still treated (Chesler, 1972: 78) 'with disbelief and pity,
emotional distance, physical brutality, economic and sexual deprivation, drugs, shock
SocIETAI. POWER therapy and long term psychiatric confinement.' She considers Szasz' idea about
'siave psychology and suggests that (Chesler, 1972: 80) 'women's psychological
Rogers focusedmuch of his later work on structural inequalities and oppression. identity consists in exhibiting signs and "symptorns" ofslavery'. Similarly (Chesler,
Feminist theory can educate us about the effects of oppression (particulariy 1972:288) 'Modern female psychology reflects a powerless and deprived condition'.
concerning gender) and help us to understand the self-in-social-context. There are Hysteria—described by Showalter (1985: 128) as 'the essence of the
huge variations in the prevalence of psychological distress dependem on structural "feminine"—occupies a central position in the history ofwomen's madness. Long
positions. Kearney (1996) suggests that PCT can and should include awareness of used to indicate behaviours which are disapproved of, and specifically employed as
the social constraints ou people's lives to undérstand the socially positioned a male term of abuse for 'difficult' female behaviour, ir has, more recently, been
individual. Ifwe are unaware of our own internalised ideologies, we will neither be theorised as a response to powerlessness; a reaction to expectations ofpassivity and
congruent nor accurateiy able to understand the way.others see themselves. an attempt to establish seif-identity (Showalter, 1985). These analyses establish
hysteria as a diagnosis which is centrally implicated in the pathologisation ofwomen's

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responses to oppression. Shaw and Proctor (2004) argue that the diagnosis of for women' (Keily, 1988/9: 15-16). It is this recognition of the extent and impact
Borderline Personaiity Disorder is the latest manifestation of this historical attempt of sexual abuse of women and giris, and the central position that potential and/or
to explain away the strategies which some women use to survive and resist the actual sexual violence, abuse and harassment occupies within our culture, which is
oppression and abuse they experience, by describing these strategies as symptomatic effectively obscured by the psychiatric labeiling of perpetrators and survivors.
of a disturbed personality/pathoiogy. The history ofsocietal responses to childhood sexual abuse is a history of denial
These feminist analyses are also backed up by other critiques of psychiatry. and distortion. Masson (1985) documents the role that Freud piays within this.
Szasz (1972) traces the history of the modern concept ofmadness to the pre-modern Freud took a particular interest in women with the diagnosis of hysteria, and tried
discourse of witchcraft. He describes how this discourse positioned as 'witch' and to understand their experiences through the process of analysis, during which many
'outsider' the woman whose deviant behaviour threatened social norms. As he women disclosed experiences of sexual abuse as children. Freud chose to conceal
described, a woman positioned in this way could be contained and punished for these revelations by presenting them as memories of fantasies, rather than memories
her deviancy, and the threat that she posed to social norms could be controlled and of actual experiences. Whilst this explanation was no doubt more acceptable to
neutralised. In tracing the movement from this pre-modern, religious worldview to Victorian society, the result was that the extent and impact of childhood sexual
the current scientific, rational paradigm of modernism, Foucault (1967) describes abuse was again obscured for nearly a century
the emergence of a scientifically determined and contràlled concept of insanity. When the endemic prevalence of childhood sexual abuse began tentativeiy
This is reflected in the shift from 'witchcraft' as the primary discourse applied to to re-enter the public consciousness in the 1970s and 1980s, it met with a similarly
women's deviancy—as described by Szasz—to the emergence of the concept of distorting response in the form of the concept of 'false memory syndrome': a
'hysteria' in the nineteenth century. term constructed by the founders of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation in
The system of mental heaith and psychiatry and society's ideology of 'mental the USA in 1992 to refer to 'memories of sexual abuse they believe are not real
health' perpetuates our existence as therapists and our clients' willingness to define and which have been planted by a therapist or which have been "borrowed" by
themselves as mentaily unheaithy. Therefore, we need to expand Rogers' idea of the person hearing accounts of sexual abuse' (Follini, 1995: 12). This syndrome
mental distress caused by conditions of worth to include a societal notion of who gained considerable media attention within a relatively short space of time, and
and why individuais are diagnosed as 'mad' (by others or by themselves). doing so graphically iliustrated the backlash against any recognition of the extent
and the impact of the sexual abuse of women and children. Our own analysis
o
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN echoes Herman (1997) in recognising the similarity between the strategies of
distortion and denial which characterise Freud's theory and the 'false memory
Sexual violence against women is a key focus for feminist analysis as one of -the syndrome': strategies which were in both cases sanctioned and encouraged by the
results of a patriarchal society. However, sexual violence has also been co-opted by political climate of the time.
the industry of psychiatry and called 'madness', both in survivors and perpetrators. Having examined the historical tendency towards the denial of the extent and
This pathologising focus ou individual perpetrators and survivors of abuse prevents impact of childhood sexual abuse, Shaw and Proctor (2004) argue that the diagnosis
an understanding of abuse as causally and consequentially related to inequalities of of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a powerful new manifestation of this
power, particuiariy in respect to gender. Statistics which show that one in four tendency. Briere (2002), for example, describes how the 'symptoms' which define
women have experiencéd rape or attempted rape (Painter, 199 1), and that one in BPD can be better understood as memories, thoughts and feelings associated with
two giris have been subjected to some form of unwanted sexual experience before early relational traumas and activities that survivors have used to cope with these
they are eighteea (Kelly, Regan and Burton, 199 1) suggest that inale sexual violence experiences. The decontextualisation of the distress and coping strategies associated
against women does not represent a deviation from the norm. Female survivors with abuse has been reflected in their experiences within services. Whereas in the
have not experienced an anomalous event, but rather a violent example of gender early 90s there was a focus in psychiatry in the UK on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
relations within society. The effects of this violence on women are often pathologised (PTSD), services for survivors of abuse, and calls for training for ali mental health
and diagnosed as mental illness. professionals about issues of trauma and abuse, this has been replaced by a focus ou
The sexual abuse of women and giris is centraliy implicated in gender BPD or Personaiity Disorder, (PD), and cails for training by mental heaith
inequalities. 'Feminist practice begins from the recognition that most women are professionais on how to deal with people with this diagnosis. Whereas the diagnosis
survivors of sexual violence, that ali women are potential targets for abusive meu, of PTSD or complex PTSD (Herman, 1997) certainiy individualised and
and that coping with the threat and reality of men's violence is an everyday reality pathoiogised survivors, at least in its acknowledgement of the aetiological importance

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of trauma, there was a degree of recognition of context. In contrast, BPD completely chalienges the notion of an 'essential self' that is not context- and relationship-
decontextuaiises distress from its social causes, locating ali distress within the dependent (e.g., see Tong, 1997).
individual. This shift from the recognition of the extent and impact of sexual This lias implications for PC theory and therapy. Even our feelings that we
violence—limited as it was in extent and by the constraints of an individuaiising strive to be aware of, to be congruent, in PCT are not pure experiences but originate
and pathologising medical modei of mental distress—serves to conceal sexual abuse from our socio-political context and how our social experiences have taught us to
and instead biame and treat' the survivors. evaluate the world. As we strive to be more and more aware of our inner experiencing
This shift has been paralleled by the move from the category of 'paedophile' to (congruence), there is a danger in assuming these 'organismic experiences' are a
the diagnosis of 'antisocial PD'. More recently, the UK goverriment's diagnosis of pure expression of an inner self unaffected by the context. For example, this stance
'Dangerous and Severe PD' (Home Office/Department of Health, 1999) is still could lead to us taking for granted feelings based on prejudice or stereotypes. Even
being considered despite most professional bodies (such as the Royal Coilege of though the notion of the actualising tendency includes for humans a prosocial
Psychiatrists and the British Psychological Society) questioning its validity and tendency (Brodley, 1999), i.e., ir acknowledges the self-in-relation, 1 contend that
meaning. This produces a situation in which a perpetrator of sexual abuse may have Rogers' (1959) notion of the organisrnic self is less acknowiedging of how even
his behaviours and motivations expiained by the diagnosis of antisocial PD; whiist perceptions and feelings are at least partially socially constructed.
a survivor of abuse may find that their strategies of survival, coping and resistance
attract a diagnosis of BPD. THERAPY
Clearly, feminist analyses of violence against women can supplement Rogers'
hypotheses of the causes of psychological distress. The impact of sexual violence Chesler (1972) suggests that both psychotherapy and white or middle-class marriage
could be theorised as a particular extreme example of conditions ofworth, but this isolate women from each other, both emphasising individual rather than coliective
analysis would be reductionist and ignore the place of gender relations in society. A solutions to women's unhappiness. Both are based on a woman's helplessness and
feminist analysis can improve a therapist's understanding of the potential irnpact dependence on a stronger male authority figure; both may, in fact, be viewed as a
on clients of sexual violence as well as increase their understanding of the dynamics re-enactment of a little girl's relation to her father in a patriarchai society. Both
of power relationships involved in such experiences. control and oppress women similarly, yet ar the sarne time are the two safest (most
approved and familiar) havens for middle-class women in a society that offers thern
few, if any, alternatives. She suggests that the institutions of therapy and marriage
THE RELATIONAL PERSPECTIVE support each other and encourage talk and defusing emotions rather than action.
Even in radical psychiatry or therapy, she suggests there is a danger in 'viewing
PC theory has been accused of being focused ou the individual autonomous 'self' humans' basic needs for security and communication as "therapy" rather than as
as opposed to a 'self-in-relation'. Schmid (1998b, 2003) argues that PC theory normal human needs and rights' (Chesler, 1972: 143).
encompasses both these aspects ofwhat being a person means. Feminist theory has Given the negative potential of the power relations involved in therapy, it
long focused on the relational perspective and can add to our understanding of this would seem sensible for PC therapists to consider how working in groups, or in
aspect of being a person. This is relevant to both PC theory, in terms of the notion more overtly political ways, could aileviate some of the negative power implications,
of the 'self', and practice, in terms of therapy and PC groups. whilst at the sarne time, maxirnising the chances of the positive power ofcollectivity
or 'power-with'. Indeed, Schmid (1996, 1998a) suggests that the radical
TFIE ESSENTIAL 'SELF' implications of PC theory are of 'social therapy, i.e., groupwork where ali learn
from each other.
The idea of the essential individual self is chalienged by post-structural feminists.
An early example of this was Gilligan's chailenge to Erikson's ideas of moral GENDER ROLES IN GROUPS
development being about progress towards autonomy, by suggesting this idea was
steeped in male ideas of morality and suggesting that women's morai deveiopment 1 have come across in person-centred groups what seems to me to be a
prioritised relationship. Feminism lias challenged the male notion of 'being myseif' rnisunderstanding of Unconditional Positive Regard in gendered ways. Power and
as a pure idea of self separate from the social context. Within the post-structural/ ways of relating in groups result pardy from gender role socialisation. For me, the
post-rnodern chalienge to the notion of an essential self, post-structurai feminism full implications of UPR are about being in relation. 1 have often experienced UPR

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being misused to imply passive acceptance in PC groups with a loss of the warmth Brodley, BT (1999) The actualizing tendency concept in client-centered theory. Person-
and prizing aspect that Rogers talked about. For example, when a group member Centeredjournal, 6(2), 108-20.
has been upset or offended by something another group member has said, the Bozarth, J (1998) Person-Cenrered Therapy: A revolutionaryparadigm. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS
member who said sornething which caused offence has 'accepted' how the offended Books.
group member feels, but without seeming to care about their distress. It bas been Chesler, P (1972) Women and Madness. New York: Doubieday.
said explicitly '1 accept other peoples' feelings and reactions and want my behaviour Follini, B (1995) 'FMS: Fraudulent, Misogynist and Sinjster', Trouble and Strift, 31:12-14.
or expressions to be similarly accepted.' This seems to be the use of the concept of Foucault, M (1967) Madness and Civilisation—A history of insanity in the age of reason.
UPR to justify prioritising being oneself and being accepted however we express London: Tavistock.
ourselves, above thinking about and caring about how we affect others. 1 am not French, M (1985) Beyond Power: On women, men and morais. London: Jonathan Cape.
comfortable with people in a PC group abdicating responsibility from considering Herman, JL (1997) Trauma and Recovery. US: Basic Books.
how they affect others, by a plea for acceptance of their individuality. This leaves Home Office/Dept of Health (1999) Managing Dangerous People with Severe Personality
unexamined two different ways of relating in groups, one traditionally masculine (1 Disorder: Proposais for Policy Development, UK Government.
am me and you should accept how 1 am being) and one feminine (I'd like to be me Kearney, A (1996) Counseiing, CIass and Politics: Undeclare'd influences in therapy. Ross-on-
but am worried how that will affect other people and 1 don't want to hurt people). Wye: PCCS Books.
The traditionally rnasculine view represents the focus on the autonomous individual, Kelly, L (1988/9) From politics to pathology: the medicalisation of the impact of rape and
whilst the feminine represents the focus on the relational. Feminist theory and childhood sexual abuse, Radical Community Medicine 14-18.
practice reminds us to chalienge traditional gender roles and to not neglect the Kelly, L, Regan and Burton (199 1) An Exploratory Study ofthe Prevalence ofSexualAbuse in
relational aspects of this personhood. a Sample of 1244 16-21 year-olds, Final Report to the Economic and Social Research
Council.
Lowe, R (1999) Between the 'No longer' and the 'Not yet': Postmodernism as a context for
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION critical therapeutic work, in 1 Parker (cd) Deconstructing Psychoiherapy. London: Sage,
pp. 71-85.
In this chapter, 1 have identified many reasons why PC therapists would benefit Masson, J (1985) TheAssaulton Truth: Freud's suppression ofthe seduction theory. UK Penguin.
from an understanding of feminist theory Without it, therapists are in danger of Natielio, P (2001) The Person-CentredApproach: A passionatepresence. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS
perpetuating unthinkingly the power relations in a patriarchal society and continuing Books.
the sex role expectations which disempower women. With a feminist understanding Painter, K (199 1) Wfè Rape, Marriage andLaw: Survey report, keyfindingsandrecommendations.
of how women and men are labelled mad, and how women suifer from the effects Manchester: Manchester University Department of Social Policy and Social Work.
ofpatriarchy and in particular sexual violence, PC therapists will be better equipped Proctor, G (2002) The Dynamics ofPower in Counseiing and Psychotherapy: Ethics, politics
to provide help for clients suffering from a patriarchal society in ways which are and praceice. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.
most likely to empower people to change society. At the sarne time, PC therapists Rogers, CR (1959) A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships as
would do well to consider ways ofworking outside therapy where there is less danger developed in the client-centered framework, in S Koch (cd) Psychology: A study af a
ofperpetuating the pa&iarchal power relatibns institutionalised in individual therapy. science, Vol. III Formulations ofthe Person and the Social Context. New York and London:
McGraw-Hill, pp. 184-256.
Many thanks toBill Wood for helpfiil discussion about an earlier draft of this chapter. Schmid, P (1996) Probably the most potent social invention ofthe century: Person-Centcred
Therapy is fundamentally group therapy, in R Hutterer, G Pawlowsky, PF Schmid,
and RStipsits (eds) Client-CenteredandExperientialPsychotherapy Aparadigm in motion.
REFERENCES Frankfurt/M: Peter Lang, pp. 611-25.
Schmid, P (1998a) 'Face to face': The art ofencounter, in B Thorne and E Lambers (eds)
Briere, J (2002) Treating adult survivors of severe childhood abuse and neglect: Further Person-Centred Therapy. A European perspective. London: Sage, pp. 74-90.
development of an integrative model, in JEB Myers, L Berliner, J Briere, CT Hendrix, Schmid, P (1998b) A person-centred understanding of the person, in B Thorne, and E Larnbers
T Reid and C Jenny (eds) The APSAC Handbook on Child Maltreatment (2nd cd). (eds) Person-Cenred Therapy, A European perspective- London: Sage, pp. 38-52.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Schmid, P (2003) Keynote speech at PCE conference, Egmond-und-Zee (www.pca

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onhine.net).
Shaw, C and Proctor, G (2004) Wornen at the Margins. Asylum, 4(3): 8-10. SEXUAL ABUSE: THE PSYCHIATRIC
Showalter, E (1985) The Female Malady: Women, madness and English cufrure, 1830-1890. RESPONSE AND THE CONSTRUCTION
London: Virago.
Starhawk (1987) Truth or Dare: Encounters withpower, authoriy, and mystery. San Francisco: OF BETTERALTERNATIVES
Harper & Row.
Szasz, T (1972) The Myth ofMentallllness. London: Paladin.
Tong, R (1997) Feminist thought—A comprehensive introduction. London: Routiedge.

CL Sw

INTRODUCTION

Feminist research and activism has repeatedly shown the value of working with
women survivors of sexual abuse in an empowering and validating way, constructing
a response which prioritises the expertise of the survivor and which understands her
1 distress in the context of her life circumstances. Given this, the psychiatric response
of pathologising and labeling women does not seem particulariy helpful, grounded
as it is upon an unproved assumption of physiological illness as the root of the
distress; and focusing as it therefore does upon a medical response ofhospitalisation
and medication. The cail therefore must be for therapists and other professionais to
avoid the pathologisation, individualisation and depoliticisation of abuse which
characterises the psychiatric response. 1 will draw from my own experience of sexual
abuse and the psychiatric response, to construct an understanding of how Person-
Centred Therapy (PCT) may—or may not—form part of an empowering, healing
response to sexual abuse.
Throughout this chapter, 1 use the term 'sexual abuse' to refer to ali acts of
abuse which have a covert or overt sexual element. 1 propose to limit my focus to
the sexual abuse of women by men, as 1 will be approaching sexual abuse as a
political process which is centrally located in the oppression of women, by men. It
should not need to be stated that 1 am aware that men and boys also—to a lesser
extent—experience sexual abuse by men, and less commonly, by women: however,
1 don't accept that this fact undermines my conviction that the actual and potential
sexual abuse of women by men plays a major factor in women's lives and in the
coilective life of our society. 1 am drawing here from a major strand of feminist
theory (e.g., MacKinnon, 1983; Dworkin, 1974) which argues that sexual abuse is
both a cause and a consequence of the gendered inequalities which characterise this
society This theory points out that the primary dynamic of rape and sexual abuse is

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power, rather than sexual gratification. The prevalence ofmale sexual violence against analyses ofmainstream understandings ofwomen's distress. These analyses suggest
women reflects the fact that men hold disproportionate economic, legal, political, that the unequal gender relations of wider society are firmly implicated in our
coercive and other forms of power in this society. Male sexual violence against experience and understanding of distress. Women's experiences of distress and
women works to confirm and perpetuate this imbalance of power: as Monica Hill madness are framed as responses to gendered oppression—'Women's position in
points out in Chapter 18 in this book, 'Rape and the fear of rape affect the way society may be particularly conducive to madness' (Busfield, 1996: 5), and diagnostic
every woman lives her life and the choices she makes' so that 'as well as being a categories are understood as gendered responses to women's ways of surviving and
devastating attack on an individual woman, sexual violence is a means by which ali coping in an oppressive context, rather than as objective scientific statements about
women are socially controiled'. It is because 1 am drawing from this specific politicai the existence of a 'mental illness' or 'personality disorder'.
argument that 1 am focusing solely on the abuse ofwomen and giris by men. Like the anti/post-psychiatry argument, feminist challenges to psychiatry have
pointed out that, despite psychiatry's claims to scientific validity, there in fact exists
no direct evidence of the existence of a physiological basis for mental illness/disorder/
FEMINISM AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM distress. Readers may be interested in the recent hunger strike held in North America,
in which hunger-striking survivors of the psychiatric system challenged the American
It should come as no surprise then that 1 approach this issue from a feminist Psychiatric Association to provide evidence of a single study which proved the
perspective, and from the belief that this society is characterised by gendered physiological-basis argument which is so central to the psychiatric response. The
inequalities of power, money, status, safety and other important resources. It might APA responded but failed to provide evidence, leading the Scientific Panel of the
also be usefui for me to c1ari17 that 1 write from an explicitly social constructionist strikers to conclude 'There is not a single study that provides valid and reliable
perspective, and to explain what this means. evidence for the "biological basis of mental illness" (see Shaw, 2003). Feminists
Social constructionist approaches have one or more of these assumptions at and other critics have argued therefore that, far from being grounded upon an
their foundation (Burr, 1995): objective, scientific basis, the dominant medical model of psychiatry is, in fact, a
• A critical stance towards taken-for-granted ways of understanding and explaining culturally and historicaliy specific approach to mental distress; one which has some
the world and ourselves very negative consequences for women and other oppressed groups whose
• Anti-essentialism (the theory that people, and hence the social world, are shaped perspectives, behaviours and opinions are subjected to psychiatric diagnosis.
by social processes rather than having pre-determined natures/essences) Having briefly outlined the feminist/social constructionist chailenge to the
• Historical and cultural specificity (ways of understanding and explaining the world psychiatric model of mental distress, 1 will move to consider how this approach can
are specific to, and produets of, time and place) be applied specifically to the issue of sexual abuse.
• A belief that social knowledge is inseparable from social action

Social constructionist approaches have underlaid many of the important theoretical FEMINISM AND SEXUAL ABUSE
and practical developments of feminism—many of which have depended on
challenging and deconstructing previously taken-for-granted aspects of the gendering One of the major achievements of feminism was to bring about a recognition of the
of our society. Femirists have attempted to deconstruct 'taken-for-granted' extent and impact of sexual abuse. Most research confirms that a significant
assumptions about gender, e.g., that a woman's rightfui place is in the home. They proportion of women will experience some form of sexual abuse at some point in
have exposed the historical and cultural specificity of such assumptions, pointing their lives. The Women's Support Project (1990), for example, found that two out
out how other eras and cultures have centred around very different understandings of every five women have survived rape or sexual assauk and that this experience
of the role of gender. They have critiqued how such assumptions are backed up by can have dramatic implications for a woman's emotional wellbeing.
social processes and structures, such as unequal pay and insuíficient childcare. Finally, As well as exposing the prevalence of sexual abuse, feminists sought to
they have shown how changing our awareness of a situation is inseparable from deconstruct some of the ideas which surrounded it. For example, most readers will
changing that situation. So, once women (and meti) began to recognise that women be familiar with the feminist rallying call of 'The Personal is Political' which
are not predestined for a life of homemaking and childrearing, society began to challenged the previously taken-for-granted division between public and private
slowly change, almost as if that knowledge was social. action in itself. life; a division which had allowed men to beat and abuse their partners and children
Social constructionist approaches have also characterised many of the feminist with impunity in the privacy of their own homes. Women fought and continue to

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ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM CLARE Sw

fight to have sexual abuse and violence recognised as a crime and as a significant regard, offers a marked alternative to the psychiatric response.
political issue, rather than as an individual event which takes place in the apolitical When 1 was abused within my family, the message that was given to me by this
sphere ofhuman relationships. abuser was Sou are only valued and loved because you meet my sexual needs'.
These recognitions lie behind the feminist response to sexual abuse, which is When no-one challenged this behaviour, this condition was confirmed. When 1
most clearly defined in the Rape Crisis movement which is explored in more depth was violently attacked outside of the family, it was confirmed further. When no-
by Monica Hill in this volume in Chapter 18. Drawing from a feminist analysis of one talked to me afterwards, 1 learnt to be silent about my distress and to deny it to
rape and abuse, 'the goal was to create feminist institutions in which women could myself and other people. Throughout my childhood and adolescence, 1 learned
work collectively to help one another' (Koss and Harvey, 1991: 123). Given that that 1 was valuable as a sex object. 1 learned not to say no. This stood me in good
the loss of control of your own body and self is a defining aspect of the experience stead for some pretty abusive relationships in adulthood, and so on. In person-
of abuse, empowerment through resumed control and through informed choice is centred terms, by the age of twenty 1 was living in a state of excruciatingly painful
a central aspect of the feminist response, and a direct inversion of the dynamic of denial and distortion. 'Breakdowil carne at the point where 1 could no longer
abuse. Rape Crisis and other feminist services exist as alternatives to rigidly maintain the illusion that life was bearable. Things needed to change. How would
hierarchical mainstream responses such as psychiatry, which 1 will now go on to a person-centred therapist have responded to me at that point in my life?
describe. A ciassicaily trained person-centred therapist would not be aiming to formulate
my condition in terms of the conditions of worth whiist being with me, although
THE PSYCHIATRJC MODEL they may be using Rogers' personality theory to help them understand my situation.
However, the aim during therapy would be to be with me in my experiences of
As 1 described earlier in this chapter, the current psychiatric system is characterised myself and life at that time, to aim to understand my experiences as well as possibie
by a medical model approach. 'The phrasc "medical model" implies primary concern from my perspective (empathy), in the context of not judging me or any aspects of
for the health status of individualpatients, and the credentiated practitioner's expert my experience, and prizing me as a unique person (unconditional positive regard).
application of medical arts and skills. Foremost arnongst those arts are diagnosis, At the sarne time, the person-centred therapist would be aiming to be aware oftheir
prognosis and treatment'. (Koss and Harvey, 1991:248). When applied to the impact own feelings and experiences in their relationship with me (congruence) and to be
of abuse, this approach transiates in practice into the expectation of, for example, a person in that relationship, without a professional façade or distance. From Rogers'
'greater severity of overail symptomatology amongst women with a history of theory of personality, this relationship is theorised to help me because whilst
childhood abuse, more severe and psychotic-Iike symptomatology, more diagnoses experiencing the therapist's attitudes of empathy, UPR and congruence, 1 would, in
of borderline personality disorder, and a greater likelihood of pharmacological reciprocity, develop more positive self-regard, more self-understanding and more
treatment' (Surrey et aI., 1990: 412). confidence to be myself. Thus 1 would begin to value myself as a unique, valuabie
When 1 approached the psychiatric system as a severely distressed woman of person in my own right, as opposed to being there to fuiflil the needs of others. 1
twenty years old, 1 was diagnosed with clinical depression and told that 1 would would be able to reclaim my feelings at the time and as a resuk of my experiences of
improve if 1 took my medication. For the next ten years, the psychiatric response abuse, and to stop denying these experiences, in the context of a relationship where
followed the sarne pattern, though with different diagnoses, prognoses and these experiences were not judged, and where 1 and my, therapist could increasingly
treatments. 1 spent coniderable lengths of time in hospital as a 'voluntary' patient, understand my life and the impact of my experiences on me.
sometimes being threatened with the Ioss of my voluntary status if 1 tried to leave.
As my primary diagnosis is now Borderline Personality Disorder, my prognosis is
bleak, and 1 am considered to be untreatable—although it's hoped that 1 may 'grow EVALUATING THE RESPONSES
out of it' or develop 'a more stable personality disorder' if 1 reach middlle age! (See
FinleyBelgrad and Davies, 2004) Having outlined how a response to sexual abuse might be constructed within
psychiatric and PCT principies, 1 will now evaluate these two different responses,
THE PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH with reference to what women say that they want from the services to which they
turn in times of distress.
Akhough Rogers fails to specifically address the issue of sexual abuse, the Person- The medicaiised approach of the psychiatric response can be critiqued on a
Centred Approach, with its emphasis on empathy and non-judgemental positive number of grounds. From the outset, through the act of diagnosis, attention is

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focused onto the individual response of the individual survivor with the consequence success in constructing an empowering and healing response to sexual abuse: a powerful
that 'damage and dysfunction' is iocated 'not within the system that produces it but alternative to that offered by mainstream psychiatry. Yet this would be to ignore some
within the individual who experiences it' (Penfold and Waiker, 1983: 31). Thus the serious flaws. 1 am going to go on to explore how much PCT has yet to iearn from
survivor becomes the 'emotionai scapegoat' (Ussher, 1991: 142) whilst a social systeni feminism in constructing a truly helpful response to the issue of sexual abuse.
of endemic sexual abuse goes unexamined and uncriticised.
The survivor also experiences a profound loss of control over her own life as
power—induding the power to define the survivor's distress and how it should be CRITIQUING THE PCT RESPONSE
responded to—is assumed by the psychiatric professional (johnstone, 1995). This
loss of control can be heavily critiqued on the basis of theories and accounts about INDIVIDUALISATON
how important it is for survivors to feel a sense of regaining power and control
foliowing the experience of sexual abuse, theories which are at the centre of the Within the PC approach, sexual abuse would probably be theorised in terms of the
feminist response to sexual abuse (Keily, 1988). Indeed, it can sometimes mean the conditions of worth and how these impact upon the individual personality. This
psychiatric interventions are experienced as abusive in and of themselves (Breggin, means that the focus of the therapy is kept at the individual levei, looking at how
1991), especially practices such as control and restraint, forced medication, ECT the abuse affected the individual woman rather then acknowledging how expectations
and hospitalisation. In short, psychiatric responses can actually worsen the impact and conditions are constructed and enacted at a societai levei.
of abuse by 'denying to victims the healing experience of informed consent. They 1 would argue that conditions ofworth must also be understood at this wider
reinforce her status as victim, ignore her capacity for survival, and undermine her societal leveI. The sexual abuse which 1 experienced should not be understood as an
recovery' (Koss and Harvey, 1991: 133). individual event which happened to have an impact upon my personality—it should
The development of the Rape Crisis network described earlier in this chapter be understood as something which happened as part of a society which is deeply
grew out of a feminist critique ofmainstream responses to sexual abuse. 'Feminists influenced by the belief that women exist to service the needs of others, primarily
articulated the emotional and physica! trauma of rape and the extent to which this men. Ifwomen's distress is explained away as an isoiated set of experiences, or as an
was ignored and exacerbated by medical, mental health and criminal justice individual woman's failure to cope, we deny her the opportunity to locate her own
institutions' (Koss and Harvey, 1991: 123) developing instead a model of response experiences amongst those of countless women. Importantiy, we once again
which is based upon principies ofempowerment, mutual support and politicisation. depoliticise the issue of abuse, in much the sarne way as psychiatry has historicaily
Qualitative research has illustrated how such modeis meet with what women say hidden the effects of abuse through the diagnoses of hysteria, and more recently,
that they want—to be iistened to, accepted and supported, and to have practical BPD (Shaw and Proctor, 2004).
issues dealt with appropriateiy. In the Bristol Crisis Service Survey (Arnold, 1995)
women identifiect those services which criticised, dismissed and controiled as being DE/CONSTRUCTJNG DSTRESS
amongst the most unhelpful service responses. Treatment approaches failed to address
underlying issues and focused just on 'symptoms' such as seifinjury. On the contrary; As Proctor (Chapter 11 in this volume) points out, 'Rogers' theory assumes an
the main point of a helpful intervention was being heard and supported. Service internal individualised basis for the decision about whether one is psychologically
could mãe a huge difference 'simply by being accepting and supportive, listening distressed or in need of therapy, which seems to be a rather naïve position, assumiig
and taking seriously the person's experience and needs' (Arnold 1995: 21) and we are unaffected by society's ideologies of "normality" or acceptability.' Her
responding appropriately to each individual, providing practical heip, crisis support, argument that PCT needs to be suppiemented with a sociological analysis of how
and ongoing, regular contact where it was needed. psychological normality and abnormality are understood is applicable to the issue
To an extent, these principies are evident in the PC approach to women who of how PCT responds to sexual abuse.
have survived sexual abuse. The response is characterised by listening and acceptance. Feminist theory has documented how women who have survived abuse and
AlI feelings are given room. A woman is offered the space to interpret her own violence are subject to many social judgements about how they should and should
experience and control her own response. PCT empowers through the concept of not behave. Women are often defined as 'mad' for behaving in ways which could
empathy: the value is placed upon the internal frame of reference of the woman, be understood as entirely appropriate to their situation (e.g., Chesier, 1972;
rather than on 'professional' sources of knowledge.
Busfield, 1996; Ussher, 1991). For the purpose of this discussion 1 will use anger
It would feel comfortable at this point to congratulate the PCT model for its as an example.

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Historically, it has not been deetned appropriate for women to express anger, as Discourses about what is 'unacceptable' work to exciude people in some very
this clashes with expectations offeminine passivity. Angry women have been punished profound ways. Equally, unchallenged discourses can actas some of the most powerftil
throughout the centuries with methods ranging from the scold's bridie, to forces for oppression and privilege. Rogers' assumption about the individual, internal
cliterodectomy, ECT, imprisonment and hospitalisation. Women who act angrily are basis for decisions about whether a person is in need of therapy fails to recognise
still likely to be judged and labelled (Proctor, 2004). A powerfiul contemporary example that our understandings of feelings and behaviour are socially constructed,
is the BPD diagnostic criteria of 'inappropriate intense anger' (APA: DSM IV 1994)— profoundly shaped by societal conventions of what is normal and abnormal. Given
ajudgement which is predominantlymade by male psychiatrists against female patients. the power of these conventions, when therapists fail to recognise that their
However, women who turn their anger against themselves—in the form of self understandings—and their clients' understandings—are socially constructed, they
harming behaviours, for example—are also likely to be judged. When given the can unwittingly find themseives upholding structures of oppression and exclusion.
opportunity to voice their experiences, women explain how self injury acts as a And when therapists fail to question their attitudes to their own and other people's
vaivable coping mechanism which has enabled them to survive overwhelmingly behaviour, the result can sometimes be that women who have survived sexual abuse
painful feelings, often connected with the experience of abuse (Arnold, 1995). Yet are yet again pathoiogised, stigmatised and exciuded.
self injury is a highly stigmatised form of behaviour: women who self injure are Ifthe counseilor that 1 described above had been aware of some of the feminist
likely to encounter responses ofshock and disgust; and can be subjecteci to highly theories of society and of mental distress which 1 oudined earlier in this chapter, 1
controlling service responses. This acts as a powerful iliustration ofChesler's 'double expect that she would have understood my behaviour very differently. Because she
bind' (1972) by which women are condemned for living up to expectations of not have access to—and did not inform her actions with—these theories, she
femininity; and are also condemned for failing to meet these expectations—ifwomen added to the stigmatisation and exciusion of women who self injure. As person-
direct their anger at themselves through self injury,they are likely to be highly centred theory does not include feminist analysis of society or of distress, it is therefore
stigmatised both within services and wider society; yet ifwomen direct their anger possible for therapists to end up being part of the probiem faced by people in
externally, they are also subjected to judgemental, stigmatising attitudes and labeis. distress.
This is an exampie of how judgements about who is in need of therapy are made on
the basis of social judgements about what is and is not socially acceptable. POWER
Women often internalise these social judgements about their 'inappropriate
behaviours'. When 1 first started to self injure, 1 was sure 1 was one of the only Gillian Proctor, (in Chapter 11 this volume and 2002) addresses many of the issues
people engaging in such an insane and shocking behaviour. 1 was disgusted and of power and power imbalance within PC therapy. 1 am going to add to this by
ashamed of my actions and spent years trying to hide my injuries. Luckily 1 was examining the assumptions around mental health which are at the basis of the PCT
able to meet with other people who self injured and understood this as a coping approach to sexual abuse.
mechanjsm. One woman 1 interviewed, whose self injury was very much connected My experience of a person-centred therapy reiationship in which 1 was located
with her experiences of abuse (Shaw, 1999) described how her first encounter with as 'the client' was one of reiative powerlessness. 1 was present in that relationship as
a person-centred counselor who had no knowledge or experience ofselfinjury left 'the participant with the probiem'. This contrasted strongly with my experience of
her feeling more isolated and self-ioathing than ever before 1 encountered similar self-help and mutual support groups, in which everyone was at once the heiper and
attitudes at a university (person-centred) counseling service which refiised to display the heiped. In these groups, there was no automatic assumption that any participant
posters advertising our self-heip group, on the grounds that self-help encouraged was more able to heip than any other. Instead, groups were based on the belief tht
competition—'who could inflict the worst injuries'. We asked one of the counsellors having shared the experience ofhaving survived sexual abuse, we were ali in a position
on what evidence she based her approach, and she told us how she had met a to iearn from and support each other. This seemed to be based on a profound
member of our group who was wearing short sleeves and flaunting her 'terrible valuing of our strengths and expertise.
scars'. That was me. 1 had attended that university that day as a visiting lecturer. In contrast, PCT is based upon the assumption that the client is more
Like nearly everyone else in the city that day, 1 was wearing sbort sieeves as it was vuinerabie, anxious and incongruent than the counsellor. This sers up an immediate
hot and sunny. To me, these are not simply two isoiated examples of PC therapists power reiationship, and a judgement about the mmd states of both participants
failing to show unconditional positive regard. Rather, these two incidents show which in some ways mirrors those which characterise the psychiatric reiationship
what happens when even the most well-intentioned therapist fails to deconstruct (critiqued by feminist writers such as Burstow (1987). Proctor (Chapter 11 this
dominant discourses about which behaviours are acceptable and unacceptabie. volume) points out how the PCT industry gains from dominant, psychiatric

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discourses of mental health and illness according to which the client is located as about a change in her concept of herself to recognise her own terriingvuinerabiiity
the rnad, and the counselor as the sane. As we have already acknowledged, that and the inescapable threat posed by other peopie? Is it not possible that to remam
experience of being judged and disempowered is particularly unhelpful for women undistressed by these experiences and the realisations that they involve would actually
who have survived abuse. For some theorists, this Ieads to the conclusion that be indicative of greater psychoiogical denial? Thus a person-centred therapist must
individual therapy relationships are inherently disempowering (Masson, 1997; Smail, start from the recognition that women's feeiings and behaviours may be entireiy
1987; Chamberlin, 1988). Instead, they argue for a group/self-help model of appropriate within the context of their lives. To fali to recognise this would mean
response: given 'the humiliating and disempowering nature of rape, the sense of that a therapist may pathologise a woman's distress in much the sarne way as the
powerlessness that rape trauma entails and the empowering potential of rape survivor psychiatric system.
groups the need for group treatment modeis which, by virtue oftheir egalitarian
... Couid it not also be true that the fact we live in a society which tolerares the
structure and respectfui, supportive progress, counter a disempowering socialization daily murder, brutalisation and abuse of women and giris is actually the greatest
ofwomen' (Koss and Harvey, 1991: 212). example of denial? That no greater exampie of distortion can be found than the
What can the person-centred therapist who does not yet wish to abandon the apathy and the structurai institutions of law and psychiatry which support, or at
individual therapy model learn from this argume'nt? Most simply, to make an ieast fail to acknowiedge, the normalisation of abuse within our society? Is it not
awareness ofpower dynamics within the therapy relationship a priority; and above
ali, not to set themselves up as experts who can offer help to poor damaged survivors
of abuse; but rather to recognise the expertise and strength of the women that they
1 psychological maladjustment to fali to acknowledge what is going on around us?
And how much is a PC therapist perpetuating this denial by having therapy with
individual women and not working towards changing society?
have the privilege to work with and learn from. Why does PCT focus on the coping mechanisms of individual women rather
than on the structures and processes which cause distress in the first piace? Is it
enough to seek to support women afrer they have been attacked and hurt? Or
PCT AND POLITICS shouid we be working to prevent that hurt from occurring in the first place?

By approaching sexual abuse in terms of its individual psychoiogicai impact, PCT

falis to locate the issue in its wider social context, and so fails to understand sexual CONCLUSION
abuse as a hugely significant political issue. In doing so, PCT fails to locate itself
within the emancipatory framework of theoretical and activist movements such as Throughout this chapter, 1 have iilustrated how much feminism and social
feminism. It also fails: the individual -client by offering her a limited, individualised constructionism offer to our understanding of sexual abuse. 1 have drawn from
understanding of abuse, and not offering her the opporrunity to locate her experiences both of these approaches to examine how the mainstream psychiatric response to
within the wider social and political context of her life. For myseif, an understanding sexual abuse has worked to pathoiogise and depoliticise the issue of sexual abuse. 1
of the political context of my own experiences is key to my abiiity to live comfortably iooked at the irnpact this has on the individual survivor who is left feeiing isoiated,
with myseif and my own life. In simple terms, without that understanding 1 would invalidated and disernpowered—confirming, in fact, the central dynamics and
only have haif of the story. 1 would not be able to locate myself within a history of consequences of sexual abuse. In contrast to the psychiatric response, 1 looked at
women. 1 would not have the incredible, ipportant sense of myseif as a collectively how PCT might offer a more empowering, validating alternative, which meets much
empowered part of a different ftsture. more ciosely what women say that they want.
Politicising the issue of sexual abuse within PCT does not just change the However, 1 argued that the PCT response is fundamentally undermined by
individual woman's experiences of therapy. It changes the therapy itself, widening two aspects of its approach, both of which can be critiqued on therapeutic and
the focus from the distress of the individual woman to inciude the whole of society, political grounds:
and rewriting our expectations of how we shouid respond to that distress, whether • it sets up a hierarchy of mental health between therapist and client;
as members of society or more specificaily, as person-centred therapists. If we • it individualises the experience of sexual abuse.
understand sexual abuse as an important element of the way that women experience
society; we are faced with some very different, sometimes disconcerting possibilities. It is simpiy not appropriate to see abuse as an individual issue. The sexual abuse of
Is it not possible, for exampie, that an abused woman's distress displays women and giris needs to be located within a framework of understanding of the
congruence with her experience, which was humiliating, frightening, and brought endemic abuse and violence which is both cause and product ofwomen's oppression

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 ENCOUNTEPJNG FEMINISM CLAU Sww

in society, otherwise PCT risks repeating the sarne individualisation and Burstow, B (1987) Humanistic psychotherapy and the issue ofequaliry.JournalofHumanistic
pathologisation that characterises the psychiatric response (see Shaw and Proctor, Psychotherap 27: 9-25.
2004). Busfield, J (1996) Men, Women and Madness: Understanding gender and mental disorder.
1 described how much social constructionism has contributed to the Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd.
development offeminism and the critique of psychiatry. This social constructionist/ Chamberlin, J (1988) On Our Own. London: Mmd.
feminist approach also has much to offer PCT In order not to impose our own Chesler, P (1972) Women and Madness. New York: Doubieday.
frameworks of understanding, we need to know what they are. Therapists need to Dworkin, A (1974) Woman Hating. New York: EP Dutton and Co.
be aware of the gendered structures and discourses that make up systems of gendered Finley-Belgrad, EA (MD) and Davies, JA (MD) (17.2.2004) PersonalityDisorder: Borderline:
inequality in society. We have been brought up in a heavily gendered reality and it's www.emedicine.com.
11 impossible that this will not have affected us in some way: for example, in the Johnstone, L (1995) Selflnjury and the Psychiatric Response, BCSW National Conference
conditions ofworth that we apply to ourselves and to other people; in the standards on Self Injury, 8th November.
by which we make our judgements about what is acceptable/unacceptable; and Kelly, L (1988) Surviving Sexual Violence. Cambridge: Polity
who needs or doesn't need therapy. To deny this, or to fail to act upon this awareness, Kelly, L (1988/9) From politics to pathology: The medicalisation of the impact of rape and
could mean that a therapist is implicated in upholding the very institutions and childlliood sexual abuse. Radical Communiey Medicine, 1988/9: 14-18
attitudes which have caused the client's distress. Koss, M and Harvey, M (1991) The Rape Victim—Clinical and communiey intervention.
To conchide then, my own experiences of the psychiatric response to sexu London: Sage Publications.
abuse serve as a powerful pointer for what is not helpful, and conversely, what is. Mackinnon, C (1983) Feminism, Marxism, Method and the State: Towards feminist
PCT meets many of the requirements of a helpful response to sexual abuse; crucially, jurisprudence, Signs:Journal of Women in Culture and Society 8(4): 635-8.
however, it fails to provide those things which have been central to my regai ning of Masson, J(1997) Againse Therapy. London: HarperCoilins.
a sense ofpower and well-being. These include: a socially contextual understanding Penfold, P and Waiker, G (1983) Women and the Psychiatric Paradex. UK: Eden Press,
of my experiences; the opportunity to develop a political understanding of these Proctor, G (2004) Responding to injustice: Working with angry and violent dients jil a
experiences; connection with the countless other wornen who have shared these person-centred way, in D Jones (cd) Working with Dangerous Peopk: thepsychotherapy
experiences; and the inestimable sense of empowerment in coming together with ofvioknce. Abingdon, UK: Radcliffe Medical Press pp. 99-116.
other women to enact a political response to our shared experiences. Bringing these Proctor, G (2002) The Dynamics ofPower in Counseiing and Psychotherapy. Ross-onWye:
aspects ofmy recovery' into the Person-Centred Approach to sexual abuse does not PCCS Books.
just cail for changein the practice of the individual therapist. It calls for changes in Shaw, C (1999) 'This is my experience and this is important'—women who self injure and
the theoretical bases of the PCT approach. Ultimately, it asks the PCT movement their experience of services. Liverpool Hope University, unpublished.
to expand its focus from the individual to take in the whole ofsociety; and in doing Shaw, C (2003) Hunger Strikers Expose Psychiatry, Asylum, 14(2): 18.
so, to ally itself with other social movements which work to address not only the Shaw, C and Proctor, G (2004) Women at the Margins: A critique ofBorderline Personality
impact of trauma and abuse, but also its causes. Without such a move, the efficacy Disorder. Asylum, 4(3): 8-10.
of PCT therapy is limited at best and negative at worst. Smail, D (1987) Taking Care:An alternative to therapy. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Surrey, J, Swett, C, Michaels, A and Levins, S (1990) Reported history of physical and
sexual abuse and severity of symptomatology in women psychiatric outpatienh,
REFERENCES American QrthopsychiatricAssociation, 60(3): 412-17.
Ussher, J (199 1) Women's Madness—Misogyny or mental illness? Hemel Hempstead: Harvester
American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual 1V Washington Wheatsheaf.
DC:APA. Women's Support Project (1990) ViolenceAgainse Women Survey, Women's Support Project,
Arnold, L (1995) Women and Selflnjury—A survey of 76 women. Bristol Crisis Service for Glasgow.
Women, Bristol.
Breggin, P (199 1) Toxic Psychiatry: Drugs and electroconvulsive therapy—The truth and the
better alternatives. London: HarperCoilins.
Burr, V (1995) An Introduction to Social Constructionism. London: Routledge.

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TAKING CONTEXT AND CULTURE of the inadequacies in old ways of perceiving, the experiencing of new and more
accurate and adequate perceptions, and the recognition of significant relationships
INTO ACCOUNT IN THE CORE between perceptions' (pp. 222-3). He further hypothesized that 'the client will
explore the arcas of conflict as rapidly as he is able to bear the pain, and that he will
CONDITIONS: A FEMINIST /

experience a change in perception as rapidly as that experience can be tolerated by

PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH the self' (p. 222). Thus, even if the therapist knew exactly what the causes of the
psychological maladjustment are 'it is doubtful that he could make effective use of
this knowledge. Telling the client would most assuredly not help. Directing the
client's attention to certain arcas is perhaps as likely to arouse resistance as to bring
nondefensive consideration of these arcas' (p. 222). Bozarth's (1998) summary of
the research on whether specific treatments work best for specific disorders suggests
RANDALL D EHRBAR that it is not necessarily helpful to treat clients diagnoscd with different disorders
differently. This analogy caís be extended to say there is no specific treatment X that
works best with an African-American that is different from that treatment bcst
used with a Native American.
A recent trend in psychology (Patterson, 1996), and especially feminist psychology, One problem with treating clients differently based upon group membership
is attending to cultural diversity and contextual factors in treatment. This paper that Patterson (1996: 229) points out is that often members of different cultural
will examine the three core conditions of Client-Centered Therapy (congruence, groups are portrayed as wanting or needing an 'active, authoritative, directive,
unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding) and how they relate to controlling counselor'.
contextual factors such as cultural diversity. Feminist and multicultural approaches Perhaps the greatest difficulty with accepting assumptions about
to therapy are concerned with providing treatment that is relevant, just, and useful, the characteristics and so-called needs of clients from differing
Client-Centered Therapy offers one way of providing such treatment. This paper is cultures is that they will lead to failure, or lack of success in
primarily an exegesis' of the existing client-centered theory, rather than an extension counseling. The active, authoritative, directive, controlling
of it. counselor, providing answers and solutions to the client's problems,
In difference based multicultural therapy (including many feminist approaches has not been considered competent or effective for many years. To
to multicultural therapy) there is the assumprion that clinicians need to trear people provide this kind of treatment (it would not be called counseling)
from different cultural backgrounds differently in order to be respectful oftheir culture, to clients from other cultures would be providing poor or second-
since not doing so caís reinforce existing social power.structures. 'Each cultural group class treatment. (Patterson, 1996)
requires a diffcrent set of skills, unique arcas of emphasis, and specific insights for
effective counseling to occur' (Pederson, 1976, cited in Patterson, 1996: 229). To provide poor or second-class treatment to members of other cultures is
discriminatory and paternalistic. On the other hand, ifpeople from other cultures;
actually do need or want something different in counseling, not to provide it would
CONCERNS WÍTH DIFFERENCE-BASED THERAPY FROM A be discriminatory and paternalistic. This is tricky but providing treatment knowh
CLIENT-CENTERED PERSPECTIVE to be less cifective certainly is not the answer. Patterson (1996) examines the data
supporting the idea that people from different cultures need something different in
What does client-centcred theory have to say about treating different categories of counseling and he Linds the data to be unconvincing.
people differently? Rogers (1951) proposed that 'therapy is basically the experiencing

Thanksto Dr Marjorie Witty and Dr Barbara Brodley who kindly gave copious feedback on this CONCERNS WITH CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY FROM A
paper in its various drafts. An earlier version of the paper was presented at the 2001 ADPCA FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE
meeting.
`A critical explanation or interpretation of a text. Politically active approaches to psychology such as feminist psychology and liberation

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psychology, argue that it is important to address issues of oppression directly. 'li is an externa! locus of evaluation as opposed to the internal locus of evaluation which
critical that our therapeutic theorizing and systems of intervention—with giris, Rogers sees as more useful. hooks (2000) articulates a feminist rejection ofideology
children of color, gay and lesbian youth—inc!ude the feminist critique, and that which 'teaches women that to be female is to be a victim', pointing out that this
this critique be inclusive' (Almeida, 1998: 9). This avoids a situation arising from 'mystifies female experience—in their daily lives most women are not continually
an unjust culture being treated as if it were a problem arising from individual passive, helpless, or powerless "victims" (p. 45). This highlights a potential danger
dysfunction. Baker (1996) gives an example of a working-class client who injured ofviewing client experiences from an ideological standpoint.
her back, and then thought she noticed people follõwing her. Her therapist thought Paradoxically the intent to instill an internal locus of evaluation in the client is
that she was delusional, and had her admitted to a hospital and treated with anti- directive and is thus inconsistent with Client-Centered Therapy (Brodley, 1995;
psychotic medication. What her therapist did not realize was that it is in fact common Grant, 1993)! 1 think this is an important point, because the desire to instill an
for employers to have injured workers followed (p. 18). internal locus of evaluation in a client is one of the ways in which Client-Centered
O'Hara (1996) raises some important points in her analysis of Rogers' work Therapy is said to reflect an individualistic Western cultural perspective. This is an
with Sylvia: she suggests Rogers' use of the term 'grown-up' (not a choice of words important objection that is easily overlooked if there is an underlying '(false) premise
originatingwfth Sylvia) as implying that Sylvia's previous sense of incompleteness was of (Western) cultural neutrality (Singh and Tudor, 1997: 32). It is important to
1.1
immature. O'Hara connects this word choice to 'the tendency of members ofdominant distinguish between the most general form of the hypothesis ofwhat Client-Centered
groups to see dominated groups as 'children' and their behavior as immature' (p. Therapy does and more specific hypotheses, such as increased internal locus of
288), O'Hara also takes issue with Rogers' use of the word 'risk' (this time the choice evaluation and to distinguish between descriptions of possible or likely process from
ofwords does originate with Sylvia). O'Hara sees this as Rogers and Sylviacreating 'a aims.
shared belief that her previous sexual experience had been limited because of her own The most general hypothesis is that Client-Centered Therapy provides beneficial
unwillingness to take risks—once again a dispositional or intrapsychic explanation' psychological conditions in which the person's own natural growth process operates
(p. 289), not taking into account cultural forces which encourae women to restrict more freely and that the positive effects of therapy are the resulr of this natural
their sexuality. This is an example that even a therapist who is very aware and sensitive growth process (actualizing tèndency). The specific hypotheses about how this
(which Rogers by ali accounts was) can have assumptions which he or she is unaware actualization might manifest itself reflect a particular view of human nature. Some
ofplay out in therapy. It is alio an example of how not taking contextual factors (such of the initial hypotheses Rogers (1989c/1959) proposed about changes that would
as social restrictions on women's sexuality) into account can diminish empathic 1 happen as a result of Client-Centered Therapy reflect an individual perspective,
understanding and potentially have negative consequences. such as the hypothesis that a client will come to have an internal locus of evaluation.
Some authors within feminist and liberation psychology also advocate teaching That these specific hypotheses about what happens when a person becomes more
the client about systems ofoppression within society and how that impacts the client's freely and fully him or herself come from an individualistic perspective does not
specific situation. For example, in the above mentioned situation in which Rogers invalidate other hypotheses about this from a communal perspective. Nor does this
and Sylvia taik about her sexual experience in terms of risk, O'Hara suests exploring invalidate the more general hypothesis that given certain conditions, people will
'where this sense of danger comes from, what kind of danger she envisions, and so ou' tend to express their natural growth processes.
(p. 289). This approach would help connect Sy!via's experience of risk to the actual Singh and Tudor (1997) cite Nobles to point out that while Rogers' theory
externa! social situaticín rather than reinforcing aview of herself as being unwilling to was originally based on an '1' self-concept, 'it is equally applicable to a "we" concept,
take risks. O'Hara suggests that 'one of the limits of a stricdy reflective, empathic a more relevant notion in many cultures' (p. 38). Schmid (2002b) argues that
therapy (p. 290) is not making this type ofeducative or reframing response. Alternately In its basic statements the PCA [Person-Centered Approach] is founded in the
such political educátion can be seen as unhelpful, just as it is unlike!y that telling a conviction that we are not merely a-contextual individuais, we only exist as part of
client the source of his or her troubles will result in relief. Instead, careful empathic a "We". Without stating it explicitly this is also inherent in Rogers' theory from the
understanding is likely to be more helpful. In the above situation, careflul empathic very beginning' (p. 2). A more relational or communal viewpoint might lead to the
understanding might have included asking Sylvia what she meant by risk, not in hypothesis that the client will come to have more and mote mutually satisfying
order to enlighten her but in order to better understand her exprience. relationships. For example, one might just as easily hypothesize that as a person
This education would be disruptive of the non-judgmental accepting self-actualizes and gains in maturity they would develop 'trust within the context of
atmosphere client-centered therapists attempt to create. Additionally, there is the familiarity and difference', 'interdependence within the context of multiple
possibility of the client experiencing this in such a way that he or she moves towards relationships', 'tolerance: diffcrentiation of the self', and 'expanded identity within

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 ENCOUNTEIUNG FEMINISM RANDALL D EHRBAR

the context of diversity' (Almeida, Woods, and Messineo, 1998: 24), elements of a and D Sue, 1990) can be very helpfiul' in communicating empathy and unconditional
mature development proposed from a feminist viewpoint. positive regard to the client, especially if the client differs from the therapist in
factors such as 'culture, race, socioeconomic class, age, and gender' (Patterson, 1996:
230). An example of a nonverbal behavior which varies cross-culturally is eye-contact.
THE OTHER THREE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT In some cultures, it is a sign of respect to make eye-contact with someone when
CONDITIONS talking to them and listening to them. In other cultures, not making eye-contact is
a berter way to show respect and making eye contact is actively disrespectfuL This is
Rogers (1989a11957) proposed six 'necessary and sufficient' conditions for an example ofhow understanding cultural differences may help therapists provide
psychotherapy, three of which (empathic understanding, unconditional positive the necessary and sufficient conditions.
regard, and congruence) have become known as the 'core conditions'. Before turning That the core conditions need to be received to be effective points to the fact
to the 'core conditions', the other three conditions will be briefly examined. These that therapy takes place within the context of a relationship. The therapist does not
are: (the first condition) 'Two persons are in psychological contact' (Rogers, 1989a/ simply radiate empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard in which
1957: 221); (the second condition) 'The first, whom we shall term the client, is in the client is then bathed, rather there is a connection between two human beings.
a state of incongruence, being vulnerable or anxious' (ibid.); and (the sixth condition) Rogers emphasizes the basic importance of the relationship when he says that contact
'The communication to the client of the therapist's empathic understanding and is the first of bis necessary and sufficient conditions for therapy (1951, 1989a/
unconditional positive regard is to a minimal degree achieved' (ibid.) 1957, 1989b/1958, 1989c/1959) and goes 011 to call it a precondition, without
In the arca of congruence, Rogers (1989a1 1957) assumed a necessary inequality, which none of the otherconditions can exist. The relationship is again emphasized
proposing that it is necessary for the client to be in a state of incongruence, while it in the final condition in which the empathic understanding and unconditional
necessary for the therapist to be in a state of congruence. Burstow (1987) on the positive regard of the therapist are perceived by the client. As Schmid (2002a) says,
other hand argues that in this arca, there is 'not necessarily equality ... neither is 'Presence is possible only from a We-perspective. It is the fundamental attitude
there a necessary inequality and where there is inequality it need not favor the therapist' which is at the root of the "core conditions", a way of being with, even more: a way
(p. 13, emphasis in original). Ir is not true that in ali therapy relationships at all of being together' (p. 33).
times the therapist is more congruent than the client, and while Rogers sees such an
inequality as necessary for change to occur (that is, at those times and in those
relationships when the therapist is less congruent that the client, change is not THE CORE CONDITIONS
being facilitated in the client), Burstow does not. Instead she says 'In any given
case, it is simply likely that the therapist's coping skills will be more highiy developed Now the three conditions which have come to be known as the 'core conditions'
than the client's' (p. 13, emphasis in original). Some of the reasons why congruence will be examined in a feminist multicultural context. These conditions are empathic
on the part of the therapist is important will be addressed further below. While it is understanding, unconditional positive regard, and congruence. Vontress (1976, cited
often the case that a person seeking therapy is in a state of incongruence, Brodley in Patterson, 1996: 229) says 'Few counselors ever ask what they can do to change
(personal communication, Juiy 2003) hypothesized that this condition is not themselves; few want to know how they can become better human beings in order
necessary but possiblyireflects the influençe of the psychodynamic drive-reduction to relate more effectually with other human beings who, through the accident of
model on Rogers. birtb, are racially and ethnically different.' The discipline of Client-Centered Therapy
The other, two conditions involve psychological contact between the client or the person-centered approach offers an avenue through which exactly this can be
and therapist and the client's perception of the therapist's empathic understanding done.
and unconditional positive regard. Simply holding the attitudes of unconditional Empathic understanding is described as:
positive regard, empathic understanding, and congruence will do no good if the the counselor's function to assume, in so far as he is able, the internal
client does not perceive them and thus does not have access to them. A simple (if frame of reference of the client, to perceive the world as the client
extreme) example of this is that there would be a definite limitation in psychological sees it, to perceive the client himself as he is seen by himself, to lay
contact and communication of the core conditions between a client and therapist aside ali perceptions from the externa1 frame of reference while
who do not speak the sarne language. Patterson (1996) points out that 'understanding doing so, and to communicate some of that empathic understanding
of cultural differences in verbal and nonverbal behaviors (DW Sue, 1989; DW Sue to the client. (Rogers, 1951: 29)

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM RANDALL D EHRBAR

Accurately ernpathically understanding another person's frame of reference requires that necessarily accompanies any effort to posit identity once and
taking into account the context in which she or he lives. Information about a person's for ali. (Butier, 1999: 182-3)
cultural position or context is not overly determining, that is: knowing X about a
person does not automatically imply Y and Z. Rather this is just one more piece of That 'etc.' leaves room for lots of individual variation and for hope, because we are
information the counselor combines with other pieces ofinformation shared by the not completely determined by our group rnemberships, even though they do have
client in a shifting mosaic to ever more accurately approximate the client's frame of an impact upon us.
reference. Bozarth (1998) describes empathy as 'the "vessel" by which the therapist
This is consistent with a feminist approach to therapy. In discussing a case cornmunicates unconditional positive regard in the most pure way The action of
...

vignette, Andres Nazario Jr, a feminist therapist, said, 'We must not assume that understanding the momentary frarne of reference of the client is an ultimate
just because Lucas is black or Shendi is biracial that we know anything about thern confirmation of the person by the therapist' (p. 46-7). O'Hara (1996) points to
other than what is given in those few lines 1 prefer to be curious about these
...
the relational aspects of empathy when she says 'Empathy becomes a term for how
issues rather than to have preconceived definitions of their realities' (Bepko et aí., one person's life can be touched, illuminated, altered in connection with. another's'
1989: 56). To ignore the context in which the client lives willfully restricts (p. 297). Empathic understanding does not exist in a vacuurn, rather it is part of a
understanding of the client's frarne of reference and makes it less accurate. Nazario relationship between whole hurnan beings.
advocates 'an oppression-sensitive approach in which gender, race, ethnicity, culture, Person-Centered Therapy can only be done out of deference to the
sexual orientation, spirituality, age, socioeconomic status, .ability, nationality, and otherness of the other and their mystery in the sense of enigma by
ecology are considered domains of existential meaning' (p. 57). Similarly, it is not Levinas. It means acknowledgement instead of knowiedge and is a
possible to fully empathically understand someone without taking into account pro-active way of being, unconditional, which can—correctly
these domains of existential meaning. understood—be termed 'love', as Rogers did in the meaning of
AlI clients belong to multipie groups, ali of which influence the
...
'agape'. (Schmid, 2002a: 34)
client's perceptions, beliefs, feelings, thoughts, and behavior. The
counselor must be aware of these influences and of their unique Part of recognizing our clients as whole is recognizing that they live in the world
1
biending or fusion in the client if counseling is to be successful. and taking that into account. The recognition ofourselves as whole human beings
(Patterson, 1996: 230) naturally leads into increasing congruence.
just as it is fruitfiil to take into account context in order to more fully understand
This is not possible except through understanding what the client shares of his or others, it is important to take into account context in order to more fully understand
her experience of belonging to these groups. For example, what it means to be an ourselves. Congruence involves the therapist's accurate representation of his or her
Arnerican woman is not the sarne as what it means to be a Mexican woman, what it experiences, 'the self acknowledgment of the therapist's organismic experiences of
means to be a heterosexual woman is not the sarne as what it means to be a lesbian any given moment' (Bozarth, 1998: 71) and especially the therapist is 'not denying
woman, is not the sarne as what it means to be a bisexual woman, and what it organismic experiences that persisted during the client/therapist relationship' (ibid.).
means to be born and raised as a biological female is not the sarne as what it means In the wider intempretation of the core conditions proposed, congruence includes
to be a transsexual wtiman. Each of these identities also shifts over time, as the the therapist's awareness of his or her own position in society and an awareness of
meaning of belonging to any of these categories is different today than it was fifty his or her own prejudice issues (a feminist perspective is likely to assume that anyone
years ago or will be fifty years from now. Additionally, what it means to be each of raised in a society based on prejudice is likely to have internalized that prejudice)
these is different for each individual. (Collins, 2000). Chalifoux (1996) suggests that clients are more likely to be able to
The theories of feminist identity that eiaborate predicates of color, trust that therapists can understand their experiences; and values if 'the therapist is
sexuaiity, ethnicity, class, and able-bodiedness invariably ciose with not only aware of their own class position and values, but is comfomtable with them'
an embarrassed 'etc.' at the end of the iist. Through this horizontal (p. 33). Singh and Tudor (1997) suggest that congruence applies not only to the
trajectory of adjectives, these positions strive to encompass a self but also to 'self-in-context, in relation to family, environment and culture' (p.
situated subject, but invariably fail to be complete what politicai
... 38). Related is Bozarth's (1998) view of congruence as a therapist's state ofreadiness
impetus is to be derived from the exasperated 'etc.' that so often to supply ernpathic understanding and unconditional positive regard. Thus Bozarth
occurs at the end of such lines? li is the supplement, the excess
...
(1998: 47) cites Rogers as he suggests 'that therapists participate in activities that

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help them to become more genuine or more "... freely and deeply him (her) self, lJnconditional positive regard toward the context or culture is a bit more
with his or her actual experience accurately represented by his awareness ofhimself" complicated, but also involves cherishing the context or culture for what it is and
(Rogers, 1959, cited in Kirschenbaum and Henderson, 1989). recognizing it as influenced by past circumstances. In some ways, unconditional
Singh and Tudor (1997) taik about the importance of the therapist's journey positive regard is similar to what Linehan (1993) calls 'radical acceptance'. She
'to come to terms with their positions in their society and the predicaments of life points out that 'acceptance of reality is not equivaient to approval of reality' (p. 96)
in relation to culture' (p. 39). Recognizing one's own privilege and prejudices can and that reality must be accurately perceived and accepted before effective action
be a threatening experience. This perspective is very much grounded in feminist can be taken to deal with it. Unconditional positive regard is a way of looking at a
theory. There is a strong condition ofworth that people shouid not be prejudiced person or situation without assigning biaine. This does not, however, mean that
and therapists most especially should not prejudiced, particularly not with respect there is no responsibility. For exampie, a therapist who has internalized prejudicial
to their clients. At the sarne time ifwe are prejudiced but deny this to consciousness beliefs is not at fault for having done so, but is responsible for dealing with them.
(are incongruent in this regard), we are less able to be effective therapists: 'To the Similariy, if there are aspects of our culture we are unhappy with, it is our
extent that he/she presents an outward facade of one attitude or feeling, while responsibility to work for change. Thus Client-Centered Therapy and the Person-
inwardly or at an unconscious levei he/she experiences another feeling, the likelihood Centered Approach can be consistent with feminist principies of activism. In fact,
ofsuccessful therapy will be diminished' (Rogers, 1956 èited in Bozarth 1998: 71). Schmid (2002b) argues that 'Psychotherapy without political awareness and without
-J
Bozarth (1998) suggests that the way to deal with this difficuit and threatening political conviction is naïve and often inefficient' (p. 2).
situation successfully is through unconditional positive se1f-regard. 'For threatening
experiences to be accurately symboiized in awareness and assimilated into self-
structure, there must be a decrease in conditions of worth and an increase in CONCLUSION
unconditional positive selJregard' (Bozarth, 1998: 45)
Bozarth (1998) describes congruence as 'an attitudinal development that enables This expanded conceptualization of the core conditions has the foliowing
the therapist to be more abie to experience empathic understanding and implications: (1) There is no need for the therapist to 'do' anything differentiy
unconditional positive regard toward the client' (p. 46). Once again we see the based on what categories a client might fali into. Indeed, trying to 'do' therapy
intricate inter-relationship of the core conditions and how incongruence on the differently with different clients based on their ethnicity or gender, for example,
therapist's part leads to the therapist being less abie to be empathically understanding leads to the possible pitfails of being inauthentic within the therapy reiationship
and to provide unconditional positive regard. If a therapist does not have an awareness and of offering second-rate treatment to members ofcertain groups. (2) As previously
of any- prejudice issues he or- she has, or is incongruent in this respect, it is possible understood in Client-Centered Therapy, the only demands being made are of the
(or even likely) that prejudice could contaminate the therapist's unconditional therapist to provide the core conditions at the highest possible levei, with no demands
positive regard. Prejudice implies that one is 'pre-judging' or judging ahead of the or expectations being piaced on the client. (3) This does not mean that client-
case. And any sort ofjudgment of the client will interfere with unconditional positive centered therapists need not attend to multicultural issues or contextual factors.
regard, since it is not possible to be both judging and unconditional at the sarne 'Rogers himself identified experientiai knowledge of cultural setting and influence
time. Also even more obviously, pre-judging will prevent empathic understanding. as irnportant preparation for the training therapist' (Singh and Tudor, 1997: 32).
Bozarth (1998) sees unconditional positive regard as 'the primary theoretical Ali of us are situated in contexts, and not taking these contexts into account (a)
condition ofchange in person-centered therapy' (p. 47). This attitude can be directed leads to the dilution of the core conditions, so that they are being provided in a
inward (unconditional positive self-regard, which Bozarth sees as the basis of iesser form and (b) might even mean that the core conditions are not perceived at
congruence), toward others (such as clients) and toward the context, which includes ali because our context impacts how we interact with others in relationships. For
the culture itself (Singh and Tudor, 1997). When applied towards others, the therapist to provide the core conditions at the highest levei possible, it is necessary
unconditional positive regard involves cherishing and respecting them as unique for the therapist to attend to the context ofhim or herself (including any of his or
human beings. Simi1ar1y, unconditional positive self-regard involves extending this her own prejudice issues), the client (including possible conditions ofworth based
sarne cherishing and respect towards ourselves. 'When combined with the concept on internaiized oppression or prejudice) and the therapeutic reiationship (including
of the actualizing tendency, unconditional positive regard suggests that while a person the culture in which it takes piace).
may be functioning in a way which is far from optimal, his or her functioning is the
resuk of the best available compromises under a given set of circumstances.

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REFERENCES change, in H Kirschenbaum and VL Henderson (eds) (1989) The Carl Rogers Reader.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 219-35. Original work (1957) published inJournalof
Almeidia, RV (1998) The Dislocation ofWomen's Experience in Family Therapy, in RV CounselingPsychology 21(2): 95-103.
Almeidia (ed) Transformations ofGenderandRace: Family anddevelopmentalperspectives. / Rogers, CR(1989b/1958) The characteristics ofahelping relationship in H Kirschenbaum
New York: Haworth Press Inc. pp. 1-22. and VL Henderson (eds) (1989) The Carl Rogers Reader. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
Almeidia, RV, Woods, R and Messineo, T (1998) Child Development: Intersectionality of pp. 108-26. Original work (1958) published in Personnel and GuidanceJournal37:
race, gender, class, and culture, in RV Almeidia (ed) Transformations of Gender and 6-16.
Race: Family and developmentalperspectives. NewYork: Haworth Press Inc, pp. 23-47. Rogers, CR (1989c/1959) A theory oftherapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships,
Baker, NL (1996) Class as a construct in a 'classless' society, in M Hill and ED Rothblum as developed in the dient-centered framework, in H Kirschenbaum and VL Henderson
(eds) Classism and Feminist Therapy: Counting costs. New York: Haworth Park Press, (eds) The Cari Rogers Reader. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp 236-57. Original work
pp. 13-23. (1989) published in S Koch (ed) Psychology: A Study of a Science, Vol 3. New York:
Bepko, C, Almeidia, RV, Messineo, T and Stevenson, Y (1998) Evolving Constructs of McGraw-Hill, pp. 184-256.
Masculinity: Interviews with Andres Nazario Jr, William Doherty and Robert Font: Schmid, P (2002a) The person in the center oftherapy: The ongoing chalienge ofCarlRogers
Commentary, in RV Almeidia (ed) Transformations of Gender and Race: Family and for psychotherapy. <http:l/pfs-online.atlpapers/pp-wcp3+1j2002-Dateien/frame.htm>.
developmental perspectives. New York: Haworth Press Inc, pp. 49-79. Schmid, PF (2002b) The unavoidable We in therapy. <http://pfs-online.at/papers/paper-
Bozarth, J (1998) Person-Centered Therapy: A revolutionaryparadigm. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS lajo11a2002-coll.pdf>.
Books. Singh, J and Tudor, K (1997) Cultural conditions of therapy. The Person-Ceneeredjournal,
Brodley, BT (1995) Client-Centered Therapy: Not a means to an end. Unpublished 4.32-46.
manuscript, Illinois School of Professional Psychology, Chicago. Sue, DW (1989, December) Cultural specific techniques in counseling: A counseling
Brodley, BT (July 2003) personal communication. framework. Paper presented at the Southeast Asia Symposium on Counseling and
Burstow, B (1987) Hunianistic psychotherapy and the issue ofequality.JournalofHumanistic Guidance in the 21 st Century, Taipei, Taiwan.
Psycholog 27(1): 9-25. Sue, DW and Sue, D (1990) Counseling the Culturally Dffi'rent: Theory and practice. (2nd
Butier, J (1999) Gender Trouble: Feminism and the subuersion ofidentiiy. løth anniversary ed) New York: Wiley
JIl
edition. New York Routiedge. Vontress, CE (1976) Racial and ethnic barriers in counseling, in P Pedersen, X'J Lonner
Chalifoux, B (1996) Speaking up: White working class women in therapy, in M Hill and andJ Draguns (eds) CounselingAcross Cultures. Honolulu HI: University Press ofHawaii,
EDRothblum (eds) Classism and Feminist Therapy: Counting costs. NewYork: Haworth pp. 42-64.
Park Press, pp. 25-34.
Collins, PH (2000) Black Feminiçt Thought: Knowkdge, consciousness, and the politics of
empowerment (2nd ed). NewYork: Routledge.
li Grant, B (1993) Principled and instrumental non-directiveness. Person-Centered Revi~,
5(1): 76-88.
hooks, b (2000) Femini!t Theory: From margh to center (2nd ed). South End Press Classics:
Cambridge, MA.
Linehan, MM (1993) Skills Training Manual for Treating Borderline Personality Disorder.
New York: Guilford Press.
O'Hara, M (1996) Rogers and Sylvia: A feminist analysis, in BA Farber, DC Brink and PM
Raskin (eds) ThePsychotherapy ofCarlRogers: Cases and commentary. NewYork: Guilford
Press, pp. 284-300.
Patrerson, CH (1996) Multicultural counseling: From diversity to universality Journal of
Counseling and Development, 74: 227-31.
Rogers, CR (195 1) Client-Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Rogers, CR (1989a1 1957) The necessary and sufficient conditions oftherapeutic personality

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JEFFREY CORNELIUS-WHITE AND PHOEBE GODFREY

CRITICAI. THEORIES OF SCHOOLING: LOOKING FOR GENDER AND THE ROLE OF

PEDAGOGICAL CROSSROADS: STUDENT AGENCY
INTEGRATING FEMINIST CRITICAL
Critical theories arose out of the Marxist Frankfurt School, which stressed critical
PEDAGOGIES AND THE thinking in 'the struggle for self-emancipation and social change' (Giroux, 1983:
8). The Frankfurt School asserted that critical analyses could iliuminate both 'what
PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH TO is and what should be', concerning societal contradictions and conflicts (Giroux,
EDUCATION 1983: 9). Early critical theorists of schooling like Bowies and Gintis (1977) identified

JEFFREY HD CORNELIUS-WHITE AND PHOEBE C GODFREY

1 capitalism as an oppressive and exploitative system, depicting the multiple ways in
which c!ass inequalities were reproduced through education.
However, these critical educational theorists did not sufficiently analyze the
role of patriarchy in education. For example, Bow!es and Gintis (1977) explored
giris and women in schools, but did not centralize gender nor question its

Both feminist critica! pedagogies (FCP) and the Person-Centered Approach to

education (PCAE) share an ethical imperative: to empower persons. Both theories
1 reproduction in schools. Furthermore, they neglected issues of 'consciousness,
ideology and resistance in the schooling process', (Giroux, 1983: 84) ail of which
form key tenets of FCP.
Many feminist critica! theorists have found the classroom application ofmale-
are reactions to traditional teaching practices that neglect the dignity of students. authored critical pedagogy highly problematic, critiquing their emphasis on teachers
Both aim to help students move towards pro-social goals (Rogers, 1977; Gore, as having the 'power' to liberate students through critica! pedagogy (Ellsworth,
1992). However, the two approaches have remained Iargely separate. This chapter 1992; Gore, 1992; Lather 1991). According to Ellsworth (1992), early Giroux
summarizes FCP and PCAE and attempts to discuss how both may contribute to 'leaves the implied superiority of the teacher's understanding unproblematized
...

each other. (Appendix 1 provides a hypothetical example of a traditional, FCP and and untheorized' (p. 98). ' Gore (1992) agrees that such works ignored 'the context(s)
PCAE classroom. Appendix 2 provides internet resources for both approaches.) of teachers'work [in that they] are constrained by, for example, their location
... ...

in patriarchal institutions and by the historical constructions of pedagogy as and

within, discourses of social regulation' (p. 57). Gore's critique evolves around the
FEMINIST CRITICAL PEDAGOGIES term 'empowerment' and its attribution of 'extraordinary abilities to the teacher'
(p. 57). This leads to an over-emphasis on what students should or should not do,
FCP has theoretical roots in critical pedagogy and feminist pedagogy. Some fornis as opposed to questioning one's own complicity in patriarchal pedagogy; and the
emphasize 'a criticá and social vision ofeducation' while others emphasize 'instructional students' influence on teachers. Gore asserts that many critical theorists have implied
practices' begun in women's studies (Gore, 1993: 7). We define FCP as seeking to that if students are not empowered, teachers (the majority ofwhom are female) are
unite these diverging strands by critically exploring in theory and practice what makes to biame.
education both feminit and critical. FCP try to create ernancipatory classrooms, Brazilian Paolo Freire (1970) developed a radically different type of pedagogy
cha!lenging individual and social oppressions, including the teacher's role, by ca!ling from the traditional 'banking' type of education, involving individual and coliective
for 'greater reflxivity and acknowledgement of the limitations of what "we" can do agency. Freire's Pedagogy ofthe Oppressed introduced 'conscientization', or teaching
for "you" (Gore, 1992: 69). In other words, FCP question the whole concept of for critical consciousness as a potential act of liberation (hooks, 1994). 'Whi!e he
education, recognizing that 'meaning is never guaranteed, fixed, or unproblematically maintained a Marxist critique of capitalism, Freire focused on the ways in which
shared among social agents' (Luke, 1996: 3). With increased ambiguity, the potential
for democratic, ega!itarian learning experiences likewise increases. FCP aim for •
See Giroux (Border Pedagogy in the Age of Postmodern, Journal ofEducation, vol. 170, no. 3,
coilective transformation ofinequa!ities by identifving them as manifestations ofpower 1988 pp. 162-81) and McLaren (Schooling the Postmodern Body: Critica! Pedagogy and Poli-
and ideology, woven into the subjective realities of students and teachers (Ellsworth, tics of Enfleshment,JournalofEducation, vol. 170, no. 3, 1988, pp. 53-83) for their responses to
1992; Gore, 1992). Nevertheless there are no quick fixes in FCP, since no regimes of Ellsworth's article 'Why Doesn't This Feel Empowering?' Also see Patti Lather (1991: 44-9) for
truth are beyond deconstruction, not even those of FCP (Lather, 1991). her analysis of ali three.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM JEFFREY CORNELIUS-WHITE AND PI-IOEBE GODFREY

schoois dehumanize students. To counter these oppressive tendencies, liberation Resembling Rogers, hooks recognizes that change can happen if teachers exhibit
pedagogy gives students a voice. Freires conscientization together with the Frankfurt genuineness: 'professors must practice being vuinerable in the class room, being
School's emphasis on critical thinking presented, 'a powerful agenda for emancipatory wholly present in mmd, body and spirit' (p. 21). However, Gore might question
education' that influenced FCP (Gore, 1992: 28). hooks' assertion by asking how a teacher knows ifstudents are empowered. Unlike
the critiqued works of Giroux and McLaren, hooks emphasizes the teachers own
FEMINIST ciu'ric4i. THEORIES AND PEDAGOGIES: FINDING GENDER, AGENCY AND 'self-actualization'. Teachers cará really empower students, but through their own
RESISTANCE process of seif-actualization, student self-empowerment becomes a possibility.
Therefore, 'engaged pedagogy' goes further than conventional 'critical or feminist
FCP recognizes 'gender as a basic organizing principie which profoundly shapes/ pedagogy,' paving the way for the integration between FCP and PCAE.
med iates the concrete conditions ofourlives' (Lather, 1991: 71). In bringing together
the personal and the political, feminism recognizes the reciprocal influence between
the researcher and the subject, showing 'a commitmerit to [relationa!] praxis' (Weiler, THE PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH TO EDUCATION
1988: 63). Like Freire's notion that pedagogy must lead towards liberation, feminist
theory has not lookec[ for abstract truth, but for progressive change without assuming, The basis of the Person-Centered Approach to education (PCAE) is the comm-
as does the 'banking' form of education, how exactly that change wili be unication and increasing reciprocity of empathy, congruence, and unconditional
accomplished. positive regard (Rogers, 1951, 1959, 1969). Empathy refers to the understanding
The women's studies strand has focused on 'how to teach and what to teach,' of another's perspective, congruence to authenticity or genuineness in interaction,
(Gore, 1993: 20) while FCP from education departments has focused on how to and unconditional positive regard to an acceptance of each person. These qua!ities
jJ make pedagogicai theory feminist while dismissing much criticai pedagogy as are seen as residing in the teacher and then reciproca!ly in the students as relationships
patriarchal. 'While both strands 'similariy address ciassrooms', their basic emphasis build. The theory is in an 'fthen' form. Ifeducators manifest the above interpersonal
remains distinct (p. 31). Our conception of FCP forms a dialectic between practice qualities, then student learning and growth wili emerge. No specific goal is posited
and theory, bringing the above two strands closer together by struggiing to engage in PCAE, oniy the general form. Ali students are theorized to have an actua!izing
in the classroom on a daily basis. tendency, which propeis them to maintain and enhance their organism. The
Feminist educators such as Ellsworth and Lather have taken critical theories to actualizing tendency is part of a larger formative tendency whereby their social
task after implementing them into their teaching practices with mixed results. Two systems are also maintained and enhanced (Rogers, 1980). Hence, empowerment
recurring results-seem to be-student resistance to being 'transformed' and teacher is based upon collaboration between students and teachers, facilitating the personal
doubts as to what being 'transformed' means or who is supposed to transform whom. power of each student (Rogers, 1977).
FCP are a practice in progress that may benefit from aspects of PCAE. In the foliowing sections, we will explain how PCAE is more practical and
bell hooks stands out as representative of our view of FCP. hooks has been validated than FCP but contains an assumption ofindividualism (Cornelius-White,
greatiy influenced by Freire, bringing to her work a recognition of the 'interlocking 2002, 2003a, 2004b; Cornelius-White and Cornelius-White, (unpubiished
systems of domination', especialiy racism and sexism (hooks, 1989: 22). Thus, for manuscript); Usher, 1989). The practicality stems from its clear methods ofreifying
hooks, education for the purpose of liberation, which she calis 'engaged pedagogy', the 'ifthen' formulation. Research from at least 42 states, 7 countries, 70,000
can break the cycle ofoppression. As she states, 'Education as the practice offreedom students, and over 48 mi!lion coded units of time lend strong support for the
[can only be açhieved] when everyone ciaims knowledge as a field in which we ali formuiation (Aspy, 1986; Cornelius-White, 2004a). While the research and practice
labor' (hooks, 1994: 14). In short, 'teachers' are no more authorities in the knowiedge demonstrate that PCAE is unlikely to result in cultural bias, the theory's individual
of freedom than 'students'. hooks (1994) recognizes that: and micro-systemic premises do represent cultural-encapsulation.
Progressive, holistic education, 'engaged pedagogy' is more
demanding than conventional critical or feminist pedagogy. For PLcTIcAJ.
unlike these two teaching practices, it emphasizes well-being. That
means that teachers must be actively committed to a process of PCAE acknowledges teacher content expertise as important, but the emphasis for
self-actualization that promoted their own well-being if they are to teacher practice is on the communication of fundamental interpersonal attitudes,
teach in a manner that empowers students. (p. :5) which ali people possess to a degree and can be trained to increase (Aspy, 1986).

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM JEFFREY CORNELIUS-WHITE AND PHOEBE GODFREY

Before adding more of an activist agenda to Rogers' theory (Carkhuff, 1971), behavior, initiation, attendance, IQ (grades 1-3), thinking behavior, and achievement
Carkhuff (1969) and Aspy emphasized communication skills to increase PCAE's among other factors (Aspy, 1986). In a sample of more than 10,000 participants,
trainability. Aspy and Roebuck's (1977) training system was found to be effective neither geographic location, student inteiligence, gender, nor ethnicity (white, black,
for both large and small groups. Mexican-American) were found to be moderators of the effectiveness of the person-
Aspy and Roebuck's training focuses on didactic, experiential, and applied centered attitudes for teachers trained in PCAE. While PCAE is effective at ali age
components (i.e. teu, show, and do experiences). Typically, trainers reli trainees levels, the effects on elementary students and the openness of elementary educators
about a theoretical concept, such as empathy. Trairiers show tapes of actual classroom to training are greater. Both the consistency of skill levei and the average interpersonal
behavior and provide simple scales to rate empathy. Next, trainees practice empathy skill were found to be predictors of the student outcomes (Aspy and Roebuck,
in their own classrooms and then play the tapes in small, supervised peer groups. 1977). Many of these findings have been replicated in 42 states and 7 countries
Trainers model the skills throughout the training responding empathically to (Aspy, 1986). Unfortunately, PCAE research tapered off dramaticaiiy near Rogers'
students. This tell-show-do model also describes how PCAE teachers often behave. nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize and death in the mid-80s and is now largely
More precise examples ofhow a person-centered classroom is differentiated from a unknown.
traditional classroom in. Appendix 1.
CULTURALLY ENCAPSULATED
VALID

The Person-Centered Approach has been consistently criticized for a culturaily

When postulated, PCAE had little research support, being an extrapolation from encapsulated emphass on individuaiism, whereby the Western idea that the
person-centered counseling research. During the 60s, 70s, and 80s, supportive individual is the basic unit of being human is treated as a universal truth (Cornelius-
research for the educational theory burgeoned. Aspy (1986) showed that democratic White, 2003a; MacDougail, 2002; Sue and Sue, 2003; Usher, 1989). The Person-
(PCAE) classrooms were exceedingly rare. From a sample of 200,000 hours of Centered Approach has also been criticized for its lack of attention to power
traditional classroom iristruction, 80% ofclass time was spent on memory behavior (Hannon, 2001; Proctor, 2002), particuiariy regarding gender (Waterhouse, 1993).
while 10% was spent on thinking behavior. Ten percent was affective, silence, or The critiques regarding individuaiism and gender are usually explained with
chaotic behavior. Student-ínitiated taik comprised less than 1% of the time while substantial misunderstandings of the Person-Centered Approach from persons who
teachers accepted students' feelings less than 0.1% of the time. Similarly, teachers appear to have little actual practice and scholarship related to the Person-Centered
talked 80% of the time while students talked 10% of the time. Traditional teaching Approach (Corneiius-White, 2003a). For instance, in Waterhouse's articie, 4% of
clearlyencourages a reproduct.ion.of teacher facts rather than a production of student references were by person-centered authors while at least 80% were from feminist
thinking, initiation, and feelings. authors. While we applaud ber attempt to compare person-centered counseiing
While in person-centered classrooms some teachers initially encounter resistance with feminism, she explains the Person-Centered Approach inadequateiy, leaving
(Asch, 1951), students engage in more criticai thinking and are more motivated
the reader more confused.
(Corneljus-Whjte, 2004a). Aspy and Roebuck's (1977) findings showed that in In a similar fashion, critical pedagogists make offhand criticisms ofhumanistic
classrooms where teachers had undergone training in person-centered skills, methods, if not PCAE directly, without adequate support. The empiricism and
elementary teachers accepted student feelings 400% more and accepted student practicality of humanist education are replaced with complex, poetic formulations.
ideas 300% more. There was also a 200% increase in student initiation. In cognitive For example, McLaren (1988) writes that criticai pedagogy is 'more than the exerise
behaviors, teaçhers thought and asked students to think 300% more. There was a of imaginative sympathy or creative compassion. Ir is more than the luxuriant
300% increase in non-cognitive (primarily affective) behavior and students' thinking empathy of the liberal humanist' (p. 76). He does not articuiate what empathy is,
behavior increased by 30%. Secondary teachers and students had similar but more explain these impressionistic dismissais, or support bis assertions with empirical
müted results. Hence, in PCAE compared to FCP, resistance is largely transcended findings. He continues, 'Criticai pedagogy does not refuse to take sides, baiancing
(Cornelius-'X'hite, 2002). Teachers follow students' experiences so the only resistance truth somewhere in an imaginary middlle between silence and chaos outside the
...

is the novelty ofthis experience. In PCAE, there i& evidence for movement towards inviolabie boundaries oforder in the rift between a subversive praxis and a concrete
a critical social analysis and pro-social behavior. utopia (p. 76). McLaren's references to 'imaginative sympathy or creative compassion'
The democratic interpersonal skills of empathy, genuineness and acceptance are lackadaisicaliy made, serving to highiight the assumed difference between PCAE
work regardless of cultural context by increasing students' mental health, pro-social and critical pedagogy.

170 171
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM

However, despite these pooriy supported critiques, we believe that the Person-
T JEFFREY CoIEuus-WHrrE AND PHOEBE GODFREY

more important than the pronouncement of liberatory practice. Hence, the empirical
Centered Approach does legitimately have an individual bias. The central health support of PCAE may justify it as in fact being more feminist than the
concept of congruence postuiates that persons have a salient interna! reality (Rogers, pronouncernents of feminism in FCP.
1959). The assumption of the salience of the organism is in conflict with the Cornelius-White (2002) suggested that a nondirective multicultural revision
beliefs of some cuitures and individuais who understand identity as a part of one of person-centered theory couid include an explicir openness to different ideas of
or more systems, such as families, tribes, cultures, and environments (Sue and scif, constructed subjectivity, and a more broad conception of the processes and
Sue, 2003). Similar postrnodern concerns have lead to many extensions to the outcomes of heiping reiationships. In essence, to become more feminist and
person-centered concept of self (see Corneiius-Whjte and Corne1ius-White, 2003). multiculturaliy appropriate, the Person-Centered Approach needs no alteration to
Ferninist writing has challenged the individual bias and suggested starting from its core or 'if proposal, only in its 'then' form. Students can use progressive activism
relationships rather than individuais (Jordan, Kapian, Miller, Stiver and Surrey, to learn by changing their worlds rather than oniy changing their own experiences.
1991). Additionaliy, the individual bias can unintentionaliy biame students and In fact, Freire (1978), like Carkhuff (1971), ernphasizes that true learning includes
teachers for their problems (e.g. failure, anti-social behavior, etc.) when systemic critica1 thinking and action. One or the other is insufficient. Sirnilarly, Rogers (1957)
factors, such as social inequality, racism, corporate control, etc. may provide says he is concerned primarily with learning that impacts behavior in the real world.
substantial contributors to the variance between persons' leveis of learning. In Likewise, the inverse of the proposed person-centered learning process, whereby
this sense, we agree with critiques by person-centered authors that the Person- students move away from openness rather than towards openness may allow for
Centered Approach inadequately addresses power imba!ances -(Hannon, 2001; increased learning had students been over-stimulated and unfocused. Though
Proctor, 2002). Likewise, the very experience of students' and teachers' empathic, unconditional teachers accommodate to these differences, the theory
subjectivities may be constructed by these sarne power discourses (Gore, 1992). itself could be extended to be more inclusive of aiternative outcomes, such as those
Regardless of whether subjectivities are seen as students' authentic individual advocated by FCP.
experience, as part of a system, or as inherited constructions, PCAE's advocacy to
ernpathize with and accept students' experiences as they are, explains the iow TRANSCENDJNG RESISTANCE FOR AGENCY
likelihood of the individual bias being realized in oppressive practice.
The consistent goals of FCP are 'to help liberate and empower students' and 'to mãe
teaching vital and an act of social change'. But who i$ going to be changed, who is
PEDAGOGICAL CROSSROADS: INTEGRATJNG THE BEST OF going to do the changing and how? If the teacher remains the one to change the
BOTH OF FCP AND PCAE student then it would seem that the sarne hierarchical relationship that is characteristic
of patriarchal 'banking education' remains. What has been missing with even FCP
MULTICULTURALLY APPROPRLTE, PRACTICAI. AND VALJD has been a trust and belief in the actualizing tendency to learn and self-emancipate if
provided with the climate to do so (Rogers, 1959, 1969). This climate opposes
Despite critiques about the multicultural appiicabiiity of the Person-Centered traditional and male-authored critica! pedagogy. As Hollingsworth (1997) adrnits,
Approach, we argue that PCAE is multicukurally appropriate (Cornelius-White, 'For me [one of] the problem[s] of critica! pedagogy hinges on ...my personal
2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2004a). The faciiita,tive attitudes are universal (Patterson, investment in having the students see things as 1 want them to' (p. 166). Because of
1996) as each person aiso has a unique cultúre within (Glauser and Bozarth, 2001) the concern with deconstructing oppression, FCP want students to recognize sexism,
and each teacher adjusts for each learner. Accurate empathy with students who racism, classism, homophobia etc. However, this poses a problem for FCP in that
...

don't identify with individuaiism requires adjustment in the educator's practice. it sets up an ascribed agenda that might not be what the students themselves want nor
High leveis of unconditionai positive regard result in acceptance of alternative what they are ready or aMe to do. Therefore, how can such pedagogy be empowering
identities to traditionai selfhood. Though flawed in its theoretical emphasis on let alone liberating? From a FCP perspective, it may seem liberating because there is
individuaiisrn, its practice and cross-cultural empirical support suggest that it provides the understanding that sexism, racism, c!assism, homophobia etc. are part of the
...

a liberating and rnukiculturaJiy effective methodolõgy, as neither gender nor many repressive economic system and have their roots in capitalism's divide-and-conquer
ethnicities and nationalities were identified as statistical modifiers (Aspy and means of exploitation, but for a white, male, upper-class straight student such
Roebuck, 1977). As a postrnodernist writing about FCP, Gore (1992) stresses that 'liberating' knowledge might be difficult to identifr orbe empathic with. As an example,
regardless of the FCP's rhetoric, empirical or historicaliy observed ernpowerment is a white male student's journal—'I feel like they are telling me I'm wrong to feel the

172 173
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM JEFFREY COBNELIUS-WHITE AND PHOEBE GODFREY

way 1 feel' (Lather, 1991: 141) shows students do feel judged, creating resistance.
Cornelius-White, JHD (2003b) 'Teaching' Person-Centered Multicultural Counseling:
This points to the inconsistency ofmeans and ends in FCP: teachers may tell students Experiential transcendence of resistance to increase awareness. Manuscript submitted
what to feel as opposed to understanding why they feel what they feel. for publication.
Thus, FCP have had to confront student resistance. This resistance plays a Cornelius-White, JHD (2004a) Person-centered education: Preliminary results of a meta-
different role to the kind previously conceived where students were seen to be resisting analysis. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association for the
the oppressive aspects ofschool (as in Black students dropping out to resist racism). Development of the Person-Centered Approach, Anchorage AK, Ju!y 2004.
Rather, students resist being turned into liberais, feminists, or any other progressive Cornelius-White JHD (2004b) Maintain and Enhance: An integrative view of person-
social category. Students who resist being 'Iiberated' become the 'problematic other centered and process differentiated diagnostics. Manuscript submitted for publication.
that vexes the practice of critical pedagogy' (Trainor, 2002: 641). Ifthe subjectivities Cornelius-White, JHD and Cornelius-'White, CF (2004) Diagnosing Person-Centered and
of such students are not addressed, Trainor assem that 'we risk promoting a Experiential Psychotherapy: An analysis of the PCE 2003 programming. Person-Centered
devastating unintended consequence: the development of a conscious, essentia!ized, and Experiential Psychotherapies, 3(3) 166-75.
and angry white identity predicated on reactionary political values' (p. 646). As a Cornelius-White JHD and Cornelius-White CF (unpublished manuscript) Trust bui!ds
result, she advocates that critica! pedagogists should nor demonize those students learning: Context and effectiveness of nondirectivity in education. Submitted for B
who have yet to deconstruct their identity. Rather, she suggests an application of Levitt (ed) Nondirective Person-Centered Approaches (working title).
Freire's pedagogy: 'we can only liberate those whom we see not as abstract categories Ellsworth, E (1992) Why doesn't this feel empowering?: Working through the repressive
but as persons; only those on whom we are willing 'to risk an act of love' (Trainor, myths of critica! pedagogy, in C Luke and J Gore (eds) (1992) Feminism and Criti cal
2002: 646). Or as Rogers would state, through empathy and compassion students Pedagogy. London: Routledge.
can more likely liberate and accept themselves and others. Freire, P (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Banram Books.
The struggle therefore scems to be how to better apply FCP. Gore recognizes the Giroux, H (1983) Theory and Resistance in Education: A pedagogyfor the opposition. Hadley,
need for more practical and concrete solutions. She states that FCP 'need to provide MA: Bergin and Garvey.
better guidance for the actions of the teachers they hope to empower or they hope will Glauser, AS and Bozarth, J (200 1) Person-centered counseling: The culture within. Journal
empower students' (Gore, 1992: 68). We propose that PCAE provides this guidance. ofCounseling and Deveiopment, 79(2): 142-7.
Gore, 1(1992) What we can do for you! What can 'We' do for 'You'? Struggling over the
empowerment in critical and feminist pedagogy, in C Luke and J Gore (eds) Feminism
REFERENCES and Critica! Pedagogy. London: Routiedge.
Gore, 1(1993) The Struggle for Pedagogies: Critical andfeminist discourses as regimes oftruth.
Asch, MJ (195 1) Nondirective teaching in psycho!ogy: An experimenta! study. Psychological New York: Roudedge.
Monographs, 65(4): 1-24. Hannon, JW (200 1) Emancipatory person-centered counseling: Postmodern theory for the
Aspy, DN (1986) This is School: Sit down and listen. Amherst, MA: Human Resource 21st century. Person-CenteredPractice, 9(1): 4-17.
Development Press. Hollingsworth, S (1997) Feminist praxis as the basis for teacher education: A critical chailenge,
Aspy, DN and Roebuck, FN (1977) Kia& Don't Learn From People They Don'tLike. Amherst, in C Marshall (cd) Feminist Critica! Policy Analysis 1: A perspective from primary and
MA: Human Resoure Development Press1 secondary schooling. London: Falmer Press.
Bowies, S and Gintis, H (1977) Schoolingin CapitalistAmerica: EducationalReform and the hooks, b (1989) Taiking back: thinkingfeminist, thinking black. Boston MA: South End
Contradiction.ç ofEconomic Lifie. New York: Basic Books. Press.
Carkhuff, RR (197 1) The Development ofHuman Resources: Education, psychology, and social hooks, b (1994) Teaching to Transgress: Education as the practice offreedom. New York:
change. New York: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston. Routiedge.
Cornelius-White, JHD (2002) On constructing a nondirective multicultural revision of the Jordan, JV, Kaplan, AG, Miller, JB, Stiver, IP and Surrey, JL (1991) Women's Growth in
client-centered theory oftherapy (1959). Manuscript presented at Annual Conference Connection. New York: Gui!ford Press.
of the Association for the Development of the Person-Centered Approach, Cleveland Lather, P (1991) GettingSmart: Feminist research and pedagogy with/in thepostmodern. New
OH. York: Roudedge.
Cornelius-White, JHD (2003a) Person-centered multicultural counseling: Critiques, Lather, P (1994) Absent Presence: Parriarchy, capitalism, and the nature of teacher, in L
rebuttals, and revisited goals. Person-Centered Practice, 11(1): 3-11. Stone (cd) The Education Feminism Reader. New York: Rout!edge.

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Luke, C (1996) Feminisms and Pedagogies ofEveryday Lf'. Albany, NY SUNY Press. APPENDIX 1: HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLE OF STUDENT-TEACHER INTERACTIONS IN
MacDougall, C (2002) Rogers' person-centered approach: Consideration for use in Tp1wLTIoNAL, FCP AND PCAE CLASSROOMS.
multicultural counseling. Journal ofHumanistic Psychology 42(2): 48-65.
McLaren, P (1988) Schooling the postmodern body: Critical pedagogy and the politics of Please note that there is significant diversity in how traditional, FCP and PCAE teachers
enfleshment. Journal ofEducation, 70(3): 53-83. behave in a classroom. The following are offered as examples of how teachers and
Napier, MB (2004) Trusting Our Clients: The Stone Center model of therapy encounters a students might respond to similar statements of a male and female student. Pat, the
non-directive attitude. Chapter 10 this volume. teacher is assumed to be a white female in each case. Michael is a white student, and
Patterson, CH (1996) Multicultural Counseling: From diversity to universality. Journal of Mary is an African-American student. This is a 9th grade social studies classroom.
Counseling and Development, January/February 74: 227-31.
Proctor, G (2 002) The Dynamics ofPower in Counselling and Psychorherapy: Ethics, politics, Traditional
andpractice. Ross-on-Wye, UK: PCCS Books. Pat: Who can remember some of the reasons why affirmative action developed?
Rogers, CR (195 1) Client-Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Michael: 1 hate this crap about affirmative action and women's rights. It's bogus.
Rogers, CR (1957, Sumnier) Personal thoughts on teaching and !earning. Meill-Palmer Pat: Michael, you used inappropriate language. Please be respectful if you are going
Quarterly, 3: 241-3. to be in this classroom.
Rogers, CR (1959) A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationship as Mary: 1 think African-Americans don't have enough opportunities.
developed in the client-centered framework, in S Koch (ed) Psychology: A Study of Pat: Good Mary this was a possible reason we discussed why affirmative action
Science. Formidatjons ofthe Person and the Social Context. New York: McGraw-Hill, carne into existence. Affirmative action was designed to
pp. 184-256.
Rogers, CR (1969) Freedom to Learn. Columbus, OH: Merrili Publishing. FCP
Rogers, CR (1977) CarlRogers On PersonaiPower: Innerstrength and its revolutionary impact. Pat: Lets think critically about affirmative action. What do you think are the pros
New York: Delacorte Press. and cons?
Rogers, CR (1980) A Way ofBeing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Michael: 1 hate this crap about affirmative action and women's rights. It's bogus.
Sue, DW and Sue, D (2003) Counseling the Culturally Diverse. New York: John Wiley and Pat: Tell us why affirmative action is bad, Michael. (No respõnse—pause) OK, well
--
Sons. who gains from affirmative action and who loses? (Pause)
Trainor, JS (2002) Critica! pedagogy's 'Other': Constructions ofwhiteness in education for Mary: 1 think African-American women don't have enough opportunities so they
social change, Coilege Composition and Communication, 53(4): 631-50. might gain something.
tJsher, CH (1989) Recognizing cultural bias in counseling theory and practice: The Case of Pat: Good, what group might affirmative action hurt?
Rogers. Journal ofMulticultural Counseling and Development, 17 62-71.
Waterhouse, RL (1993) Wild wonien don't have the blues: A feminist critique of person- PCAE
centered counseling and therapy. Feminism and Psychology, 3(1): 55-71. Pat: Who has reactions to what we have been taiking about?
Weiler, K (1988) Women Teachingfor Change: Gender, classandpower. Michael: 1 hate this crap about affirmative action and women's rights. It's bogus.
New York: Bergin and
Garvey Publishers. / Pat: You're angry because some of the programs we have been taiking about don't seem
fair to you.
Michael: Yeah, iike why should my Dad not have a job when he is more qualified
than ali those African-American women working at the mali?
Pat: You're upset that your Dad is unemployed and you feel that affirmative action is
to blarne.
Michael: 1 guess. (Sulks) (Pause)
Mary: Well 1 can see Michael's point but 1 still think that African-American women
don't have enough opportunities.
Pat: So in seeing how some of us differ in our reactions to affirmative action, we can
nevertheless appreciate how these issues are irnportant to us

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 ENCOUNTEfflNG FEMINIsM

Student-teacher interaction is less frequent and shorter in the traditional classroom.

Resistance is something to battle in the FCP classroom, here through Socratic
NEW MEN? A NEW IMAGE OF MAN?
-

questioning. Democratic processes are attempted in the FCP classroom but are not PERSON-CENTRED CHALLENGES TO
as prevalent as in the PCAE classroom. The teacher maintains more power over the
students in the FCP classroom while students initiate more material in the PCAE
GENDER DIALOGUE'
classroom. In the FCP classroom, the discussion focuses more on power and
appreciation for group difference, which may give more voice to marginalized
perspectives and students. The PCAE classroom yields more personal growth and
more interaction, including that between students. However, in PCAE societal power
differentials and resulting marginalized perspectives may remain silenced without a
high levei of teacher empathy and an appreciation of FCP's perspective. There is
more thinking and less memory in both the FCP and PCAE classrooms compared
PETER F SCHMID
to traditional classrooms.

The legal equalisation ofwomen has to be prevented under ali circumstances—the

APPENDIX 2: RESOURCES FOR FEMJNIST CmTIcA1. PERSON-CENTERED TFÀCHLNG
Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234-149) is reported to have implored the Senate:
'Because once they are equalised they will be superior.' Some two thousand years
Applied Research Center/ERASE Project, www.arc.org later the traditional system still lasts, but now it is likely that male dominance will
come to an end within a few generations.
There are many rearguard actions, however. Some prefer to pretend to be
Center X, Institute for Democracy, Education, and Access, wwwucla-idea.org
unaware. Others claim that they are beyond feminism already—whatever this may
6th
Educators for Social Responsibility, www.esrmetro.org mean. (This was the explanation of one of the organisers of the Person-Centered
and Experiential World Conference in The Netberlands, to explain why they had
Interaction Book Company, Edina, Minnesota USA (612) 831-9500 invited only male keynote speakers. He claimed it is persons that count, not women
or men.) Another method of avoidance among person-centred people is to use
'understanding' as a fatal ideology, i.e., to pretend to understand the other in order
International Alliance For Invitational Learning,
http://wwwinvitationaleducation.net to be left in peace and keep away from confrontation.
Men not only do violence to others. They do it to themselves. The facts speak
a clear language: men live shorter (5.7 years in Austria) and more dangerously (they
Mothers on the Move, www.mothersonthemove.org
are more often involved in serious road accidents, provide two thirds of emergency
National Coalition of Éducation Activists, wwwnceaonline.org patients and three quarters of murder victims), they damage themselves more
systematically (twice as many men are bospitalised due to chronic diseases) nd
commit suicide three times as often. The medical image of the 'typical heart attack
Person-Centere4 Approach for Higher Education, http://elearn.pri.univie.ac.at/pcal
patient' is identical to the ideal image of the 'typical mau' in our achievement-
oriented society. In a word: men are not only very good at the exploitation ofothers
Radical Teacher, wwwadicalteacher.org
but also at self-exploitation. (Schmid, 1993a, b, 2002c)
This chapter examines a few considerations regarding the gender issue from a
Rethinking Schools, www.rethinkingschools.org
person-centred point of view developed through experience in person-centred
practice, theory development and training, particularly from the perspective of men.
Teaching for Change, www.teachingforchange.org

1 am very grateful to Pete Sanders for making the text understandable to the English reader.

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM PETER F SCHMID

THERE IS NO PERSON EXCEPT AS A MAN ORA WOMA: to experience as possible. The most fundamental theory in this regard is the concept
TOWARDS A GENDER SPECIFIC of the human being as a person which underlies the Person-Centred Approach as a
PERSON-CENTRED ANTHROPOLOGy whole. Rogers used the term 'person' deliberately to characterise a particular
understanding of the human being as the foundation for his view of psychotherapy
Cari Rogers discovered the centrality of the person, bút he did not pay attention to and personality development. This notion embraces, equally and dialectically, both
sex and gender difference. the substantial and the relational dimension; autonomy and interconnectedness;
Although it is clear that he increasingly carne to learn to perceive women- sovereignty and commitment (Schmid, 1991, 1998a, 2001a, b, c, 2002a, b). Such
specific perspectives in the course of his life—not least through the influence ofhis understanding of the human as a 'person' can be the foundation for a non-patriarchal
daughter Natalie (N Rogers, 1980)—he was everything but a feminist. His merit image of the human being, an image characterised by partnership.
was to emphasize the personal, the common ground on the one hand and the In order to do this it is also important to conceptualise theoretically that the
individuality of each person on the other hand—a decisive corrective moment in human being is a person as man and woman—not sexually neutral. The human
the context of his time. In addition, he deflnitely took leave of a uniform model of only exists as a female or a male human. What sounds so self-evident still often
partnership (see Rogers, 1972). But some sixty years later, in the light of a new self- means, in the unexpressed consciousness of many (including theoreticians), that
confidence in women, and the amount of feminist work done in the meantime, the human being is male, and then there is a female variant. In the meantime, many
gender difference issues have become clearly apparent. They require concrete concepts female theoreticians forcefully offered resistance and contributed to building a
and approaches to action, including in those interpersonal relations wecall person counter culture. Furthermore, for the moment, Rogers' focus on the respective
centred psychotherapy and counselling. individual, instead of the classifled category, has prevailed in therapy theory and
There is no doubt that many traditionaliy male concepts had already been practice. Also, flnally, we can no longer simpiy speak about 'the person', 'the man'
damaged by the Person-Centred Approach. For example, the priority given to or 'the woman', as if there was no difference, no subjective view and no history
empathy and unconditional positive regard in epistemology and the practice of between men and women.
therapeutic understanding are things that are traditionally regarded as 'female'. This It is importam that the dialectical understanding of the person as an autonomous
thorough paradigm change—and the development that followed in nearly aH being, interconnected in relationships, is not itself one-sidedly interpreted in a
therapeutic orientations—contrasts sharply with the expert- (and thus male-) traditionally male sense. This always happens when the notion is grasped in an
dominated classical concepts of psychoanalysis and behaviourism. imbalanced way in respect of the substantial-individual aspect. Besides the male
On the other hand the person-centred concept is by no means free of one- dominated approaches to understanding and interpretation (also still visible in
sided male thinking: the description of the actualising tendency, for example, as Rogers' work), and the low regard for the body, the reason why gender specific
given by Rogers (e.g., 1959: 196, 1979: 99-100) as a directional, forward striving, aspects of being a person (particularly also in therapy theory and practice) have
expanding, transcending, increasing force, a force towards autonomy, is clearly been almost ignored for such a long time, lies in a lack of understanding of the
determined by male experiencing and consciousness and formulated in male quality of the personal. Thus we can now see why the dimension of autonomy
language. An understanding which is more articulated out of female experience (traditionally attributed to men), stood for so long in the foreground of theory of
and familiar to readers of feminist writing would possibly set out from the idea that therapies in general, person-centred therapy included, while the 'typical female'
the human being is embedded in relationships from the very beginning. Therefore dimension of relationship orientation was considered to be of minor importance.
human development and thus the actualising tendency would be regarded more as There is now a growing recognition in PCT of the importance of encounter-1---
an unfolding and differentiating process of shaping relationships. The actualising meaning to stand 'counter' andto be essentially affected by dite person opposite (see
tendency could be more accurately viewed as the force of the individual embedded Schmid 1994, 1998b, 2002b). The consequence for the therapeutic endeavour is
in interconnectedness. As a consequence, this would stress the social nature of dite that person-centred thinking and acting can no longer be confused with a male-
person much more than it was originally conceptualised in Rogers' anthropology, centred viewpoint.
although there is evidence that he gradually moved towards this understanding (see The task now is to spell out, and put into concrete terms, what this means for
Schmid 1996a: 497, 2001a). 1
11 the different areas of life. The Person-Centred Approach needs to deal urgendy and
The actualising tendency example also shows that person-centred conceptions intensively with dite so far largely neglected areas of theoretical conceptualisation,
are open to further elaboration due to a developing understanding of the human the practice of therapy, training and supervision.
being. This is because they are created out of experience and try to remain as dose As an example 1 will look at two topics almost completely neglected up to now.

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INTIMACY TENDERNESS AND LUST and as a key to the alternative 'identity versus alienation') is also central for
FROM SEXUALITY TO SEXUALITIES psychotherapy.
The hasty use of clichés to label the two dimensions as 'male' and 'female' or
The notably small number of relevant publications is evidence that person-centred even assign each of them to one of the sexes is a frequent trap for the downplaying
people, in most cases, do not examine sexuality closely and thus do not make it a of sexuality. It is an important task in the process of emancipation to free oneself
theoretical topic. One can no longer excuse this with regard to the necessity of from gender assignments and mixings handed down by society and to find one's
putting the person as a whole in the centre of attention. There is no person without personal feeling and meaning, particularly regarding sexuality Then we can
his or her sex. 'Wloever leaves sexuality out of consideration misses the whole ali experience respective congruent symbolisation and expression of sensual, erotic,
the more.
sexual feelings and experiences and develop a personal way of sexuality as opposed
It goes without saying that sexuality can be misused as a way of having power to just taking on what traditional role assignment and societal fashion suggest. In
over someone—by both men and women. Often it has been used as the way for an analogy to Rogers' (1957) core conditions; intimacy (gentie empathy and
men to exercise power over women, e.g., in rape or, in heterosexual sex frequently temporary becoming a unity without giving up oneself), tenderness (non-possessive
being defined for the fulfilment of the man's desire. Each psychotherapist is loving acceptance) and lua (congruence of the terision of needs and authentic activity
confronted with the destructive consequences of the numerous ways of sexual to enhance or resolve them) can be seen as conditions for congruent, fulfilled
violence and misuse. But the subject deserves deeper investigation. sexuality. (This is described in more detail and with references in Schmid, 1996c.)
According to person-centred anthropoiogy and Rogers' core conditions, human In respect of male and female contexts of living, it goes without saying that the
sexuality can be understood in its substantial dimension as an expression of, and a experiences connected with sexuality differ and it is an important chalienge for
striving for, self-realjzatjon, for pleasure, lust and satisfaction, or fulfilment. In its
each individual, woman and man (as well as their therapists), to be aware of this
relational dimension, sexuality is self-transcendence, i.e., dedicating oneself to and to adequately syrnbolise it—a chalienge and request to set out from the (seeming)
transcendence of one's individua!ity.
security of traditional positions.
On the one hand it is organismic experience and seif-experience (the person If sexuality is regarded as a complex interplay of biological, psychological and
senses and experiences him- or herseif) and thus it is the expression of one's own social factors, which actualise themselves differently in different situations and life
potency, the overail tendency of life to unfold its possibilities. It is therefore stories, it is necessary to speak specifically and precisely. This means plurality.
conceptually opposed to (a) the very obvious tendencies of distrust and suspicion Therefore we need to investigate sexualities, particularly in person-centred contexts
which can be found not only throughout history in so many cuitures and religions, and when taiking of the individual, or within certain sexual orientations (like
but also in different stages of one's own life and (b) unlike other therapeutic attraction to sarne or/and opposite sex). lii each of us there are different sexual
conceptions, sexuality must be seen as a fundamentally constructive and trustworthy inclinations, interests and potentialities. A psychotherapy oriented by person and
force. This is separating organismic experience from societal meanings and encounter faces two important tasks: first, to deal sensitively, empathically with,
constructions of sexuality which in the main are often about domination. and be ready to respond as a person to, these dimensions in general and with the
On the other hand, sexuality dissolves separation and isolation, opens the human sexual dimensions of the therapeutic relationship in particular. Second, to strictly
being up for the Other and, as 'body language of the person' constitutes a central observe sexual abstinence (because there is no sexuality without interest and therefore
form ofcommunicatiox, 'embodied encountei-'. In sexuality, the human being 'takes expressions of their sexuality including phantasies, by the therapist always constitutes
a step beyond him- or herself' and may evèn transcend their own boundaries and an abuse of the relationship in order to satisfy the needs of his or her own interests)
limits towarcis the Other, which in heterosexual sex includes the possibility of the (Pfeiffer, 1992; Schmid 1996a, b, 1996c).
propagation of new life. In pointing at the essential interconnectedness of ali life
sexuality also is a decisive approach to the world.
-In both dimensions it aims at self-transcendence: it is more than individual STEPS TOWARDS EACH OTHER
fulfilment, orcompletion of the one by the other, or, in a heterosexual context, for NO UNDERSTANDING WITHOUT AGGRESSION
example, mutual completion of both sexes. It means self-acceptance and acceptance
of the Other through dedication to the Other. As an essential aspect of being a Covering up anger with alleged empathy is the beginning ofwhat might end up in
person, sexuality is inseparably connected with personalisation_the development open violence. Wherever aggression is treated as a taboo or is ignored due to
of the person—and thus (as an 'interface' of physical and psychological processes ideological reasons—e.g., because one thinks he or she should turn to 'the positive'-

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM PETER F SCHMID

the danger increases of encouraging destructive tendencies ali the more. He or she are then put on the 'passive' side and 'have to' suffer from aggression. Often there is
who understands everything, understands nothing. The acceptance of a person who only a small step from here to the cliché-like aliocation of roles such as 'perpetrators'
can accept everything is of no worth. The person who cannot stand 'counter' his or and 'victims'. Without ignoring the reality of men being so much more likely to be
her clients, cannot 'en-counter' them. The person who ignores aggression, refuses perpetrators of violence and women being victims, such unreflected and ill-considered
him- or herself as a person.
aliocations very often serve to disguise actual perpetrator-victim structures and
Although aggression is often associated with, and experienced as, violence and prevent a differentiated understanding ofways ofrelationships.
although fears that violence is around the comer: are realistic when encountering Since aggression so often is associated with evil or undesirable behaviour, person-
aggression; from a person-centred perspective, aggression is a fundamentally centred contexts are fmequently classified and practised as soft or even weak, miid
constructive force of the human being and an expression of the actualising tendency. and mellow. This negiects the power of the person and the 'counter-piay' ofgenuine
From a substantial notion ofwhat it means to be a person it is an expression of the encounter. To be facilitative requires aggression in terms of encountering and
experiencing of the person and from a relational notion it is a turn towards the confronting the client with him- or herself, and to think him or her sufficientiy
Other. On the one hand, in aggression the indepenclence of the individual becomes robust. It seems that due to an inappropriate public image, often people are interested
apparent, if he or she aims at establishing and fostering identity by differentiation in a person-centred training who are uncomfortabie with the potency of their
(saying no, e.g., in puberty), and in this process of separation the foundation for aggression.
the recognition of myself and the Other is found. On the other hand, through
aggression the inter-corinectedness becomes clear. This is because to be aggressive
means to approach the Other ('ag-gredi' = 'malte steps towards', to approach, to
ON MALE POWER, ON FEMALE POWER
confront), since the Other is acknowledged as a partner in the relationship by the THE PERSON-CËNTRED EMPOWERMENT CONCEPT AS
confrontation. In this counter-position of the con-front-ation ('frons' = 'forehead') THE BASIS FOR FEMALE AND MALE EMANCIPATION
the Other is faced, which shows that aggression is an unavoidable condition for
every 'en-counter'. So, aggression is necessary for both the observance of distance The Person-Centred Approach contrasts sharply with the traditionai authoritarian
and the establishment of nearness thus protecting from the loss of identity; either understanding ofpsychothemapy, particularly dueto às emancipatory understanding
by merging or by alienation.
ofpower as empowerment (Rogers, 1977; Schmid, 1996a: 451-68). It is no surprise,
For person-centred therapy which is based on empathy, an open way ofdealing then, that its anthropology serves as a foundation for feminist approaches in
with aggression and a respective therapeutic attitude of openness for conflicts is psychotherapy (e.g., Winider, 1992, 2002). It builds a solid and genuine basis for
particularly important—the constructive and vital aspects of aggression may new approaches of self-understanding and understanding of women in general,
otherwise be overlooked or covered up. When denied or incomplete, incorrect or and in the realm ofpsychotherapy and counselling in particular. Women have come
distorted aggressions can become destructive. As an example we only need to look a long way in developing a considerabie amount of sovereignty and solidarity. And
at the aggressive and auto-aggressive parts of pity, depression or suicide. Other along the way they shook the traditional male image of the human being—and
examples are psychosomatic suffering; where the body itseif symbolizes the not- with this, they shook men themselves.
understood; or addiction, which can be seen as (auto-)aggression. Rogers, although In contrast, the emancipation of men still is pending. A free, sovereign self-
never developing his 1 own theory of aggression, points out that 'accepted or
understanding of men 'afrer' the feminist movement is still anything but obvious.
transparent anger is not destructive' (Rogers, 1961: 177). From a therapeutic It goes without saying that the ability to change nappies and sort cioths for washing
perspective it is important to symbolise and integrate aggressive feelings and impulses machines is not enough. What does male liberation (ironicaily it may be cailed
as completely as possible. The ability to tolerate conflict is also cruciai in terms of 'emancipation') really mean? It cannot mean simply to copy women. Neither Rambo
prevention of violence—it simply is a characteristic of maturity. Furthermore lJte nor Woody Alien, neither androgynous superstars nor simple house fathers, are
Binder (Binder, 1996; Hoffman, 1990) stressed the importance of 'empathic anger' suitable as figures for identification in the long run. Machos and softies are out. To
in dealing with depressive patients. (For aggression in a person-centred retreat into the forest and to live only on cereal and fruit, muesli and berries is not
anthropoiogical perspective, see Schmid, 1995, 2001 c.) an attractive alternative ar ali, and so the 'wild man' of the late eighties and early
The fundamental importance of aggression for gender specific identity is often nineties did not really prevail. However, a new image of men is not yet in the offing.
underestimated. Aggression is seen as 'active' and assigned to male experiencing Men find themselves under pressure, but this still does not mean that they
and behaviour (although only permitted in certain situations). Accordingly, women have changed. It is a long way from knowing the necessity for change to actual

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change. The traditional image of the male is almost as strong as before; change is speechless. Experiences like these reveal that men have become conscious of their
only superficial. For example, although a majority of men are accepting responsibility incongruence, but the path to new congruence seems to be a long one.
for chuldren and the family, in a survey 60% of the men who claimed they were The task is not to simply react but to create. 'When stimulated or 'disconcerted'
'non-tradjtjonal' said women should be the first ones to be fired in a crisis situation by women, men are challenged to find out what being a man is ali about and to
(see Schmid, 1996b). develop a new self-understanding. This must happen in dialogue with women. The
Men have also come under pressure (and this has forced them to either make a objective is neither new male chauvinism nor a feminisation of meu or society. The
move or to get involved in rearguard actions), due to the waning influence of the aim is not that men roam about in peuitential robes or set out to play the roles of
traditional male bastions of the military, church and political parties. They no longer victims themselves. A retreat from dealing with the conflict cannot be the solution
provide secure support as they used to do in times of unquestioned patriarchy. either. However, a temporary retreat may be an important and uecessary step. Men
Again, men have had no choice but to behave more like partners. In critical situations, 1 must take responsibility for their own solutions, not expect women to teach them.
however, they fali back on the traditional image of men which consists of defining So whilst self-experience in ali-male groups is important, it is insufficient for
oneself by a role. 'What are meu, if they are not lovers, fathers, bosses etc., but emancipation, iftaken as the sole action; it rather indicates being stuck in a .puberty-
simpiy male human beings? Male role stereotypes no longer take effect, both in like position of denial. And as it is clear that male emancipation cannot mean that
society and in the relationships between men and women. The man's world can meu become what emancipated women thiuk they should become, it is also clear
neither go ou as it is, or go back to how it used to be. And there is no immediate that dealing with womeu is crucial as a startiug point for dialogue. It goes without
substitute. It's beginning to dawn on men that a new understanding ofthemseives saying that it needs political work—together with the women.
and their roles must not rest on old or new stereotypes, but the creative development A new male image cannot be foisted but must rest ou a new feeling of self-
of new alternatives still seems a genuine mystery to men. Men might understand worth, the source ofwhich is neither guilt feeliugs nor defensiveness. On the basis
the necessity of their own emancipation but to really carry it out and to put theoretical of au understanding of power as empowermeut and potency as potentiality, men
insights into practice obviously proves to be very hard. Meu have no choice but to cai' find the possibility for a new self-understandling in dealing with each other and
turn to working for au appropriate new self-concept: the task for men is no more or with women. After taking leave of the traditional patriarchal aliocation of role and
iess than to understand what it means to become a person. 1 power, both meu and wornen, can, in the end, only together develop new approaches
Moreover, where relationships are concerned, men have a much harder time to sarne and different sex partnerships and the intrinsically connected therapeutic
associating with men than women have associating with women (without ignoring r
and political implications.
that there are also difficulties for women associating with women due to, for example, Much uuused potential of men goes to waste. From a persou-centred point of
heterosexual competition for meu). The experienced threat has lcd to new fornis of view the question of what a male human being might look like 'before' ali role
male bonding. There is a great temptation to turn back the hands of time or to take expectations and assiguments, can ouly be answered with respect to the primacy of
countermeasures by grouping in traditionally male associations or unions. This the experience and the importance of self-understanding. The untapped potential of
encourages crypto-fascist and homophobic patterns of thinking and acting and is seusitivity, partuership and capacity to love, waits for its actualisation. This will not
clear in recent developments in Europe and North America with the present political happeu by demonising rationality in favour of emotionality or by creating new taboos
shift to the right. One particular issue is the still widespread, and not reflected, in arcas where formerly men were justly biamed for over-emphasising their importance;
latent and deep seated anxiety about homosexuality fed by many sources. It ali too potency riva1ry the power of seif-assertion, achievement, toughuess, etc. They need
clearly shows the difflcuities meu encounter when dealing with both their equals to be baianced in their importance and value, not to be devalued completely. Oniy on
and themselves. The development of new models for social relations of men with such a basis new self-esteem can grow that does not rest ou being directed against
their feliow men, for male friendship and for commuuities of meu is largely in sornebody—against women, against fathers, etc. Rather it discovers and develops
abeyance. authentic male tenderness, male desire and desirability, male body language, male
This insecurity in men is evident particularly in psychotherapy and counselling dedication, a new culture of conflict resolution amoug men and with women and
training programs. To a great extertt psychotherapy and counselling is regarded as a self-confidence without striving for dominance etc. This of course rneans to be
'typical female' profession. Often in a minority,male trainees find themselves in a challenged: to give up securities and embark on the path of risks.
defensive position. This becomes particularly evident when women chailenge the The task of person-centred therapists must be to fadiitate such processes of
men, for example, in encounter and self-development groups to express their view development by congruentiy bringing oneself as a mau or a woman into play. This
of the relationships between men and women. When so challenged, meu are often means that men and women develop their respective self-understanding in

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sovereignty and solidarity—as male and female persons—instead of failing into Rogers, CR (1961) On Beco minga Person:A therapist's view ofpsychotherapy Boston: Houghton
new stereotypes, new false adaptation and appeasement, or being fixated on fights Mifflin.
against the other sex, and therefore not being aware of the possibiity of mutual Rogers, CR (1972) BecomingPartners: Marriage and às alternative. New York: Delacorte.
enrichment. As always, in a genuineiy person-centred approach, therapeutic support Rogers, CR (1977) On PersonalPower: Inner strength and it5 revolutionary impact. New York:
does not happen by keeping oneseif out but rather by engaging in the therapeutic Delacorte.
relationship which includes transparency as a man or a woman. Therefore ir must Rogers, CR (1979) The foundations of the person-centered approach. Education, 100(2):
be the task of person-centred training to actively further such an attitude by first of
98-107.
ali bringing the subject up and paying attention to ir during the training programme.
Rogers, N (1980) Emerging woman: A decade of midlifè transitions. Point Reyes Station:
Then the experience might be possible where a meeting and encounter of gender Personal Press.
specific images of the human being will not only be fight and drama; it might weli Schmid, PF (1991) Souvernitt und Engagement: Zu einem personzentrierten Verstãndnis
be fun and provide pleasure and delight.
von 'Person', in CR Rogers and PF Schmid Person-zentriert: Grundiagen von Theorie
Men have the difficuk task of facing up to what should also be the enjoyable undPraxis. Mainz: Grünewald, pp. 15-164.
chalienge of developing a new, previously unfamiliar, non-dominant male system Schmid, PF (1993a) Neue Manns-Bllder? Aufdem Weg zu einer Emanzipation der.
Mânner.
ofvalues instead of cultivating defence strategies. This means nothing more or less Diakonia 3: 145-50.
than to face the chailenge of developing a new image of oneself. These systems and
Schmid, PF (1993b) A New Image of Man: Toward male emancipation. Theology Digest, 40,
images will not be the only ones that enjoy the power of definition and carry social 3.217-20.
relevance. There will be a paradigm change of tremendous impact which has already Schmid, PF (1994) Personsentrierte Gruppenpsychotherapie: Sn Handbuch. Vol L Soli4aritãt
begun and will continue to be work for some more generations. This requires dialogue
between and within male and female human beings on different leveis (from talking
about sex to research, from expioring one's own world of experiencing to empathising
1 undAutonomie. Cologne: EHP.
Schmid PF (1995) Auseinandersetzen und Herangehen: Thesen zur Aggression aus
personzentrierter Sicht. Personzentriert 2: 62-94.
with the world of the other)—.in a discourse no longer dominated by men. The task
Schmid, PF (1996a) Personzentrierte Gruppenpsychotherapie in der Praxis: Ein Handbuch.
is to co-create a new self-understanding. Such dialogue promises to enhance the Vol. II. Die Kunst der Begegnung. Paderborn: Junfermann.
quality of life (as can be seen from the statistics mentioned at the beginning) in Schmid, PF (1996b) Sexualitãt: Selbstverwirklichung und Selbsttranszendenz. Der
terms of health and life expectancy but also in terms of excitement and lust.
anthropologische Befund. Diakoni. 4, 222-32.
Schmid, PF (1996c) 'Intimacy, tenderness and lust': A person-centered approach to sexuality,
in R Hutterer, G Pawlowsky, PF Schmid and R Stipsits (eds) Client-Centered and
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Schmid, PF (1997) Personale Macht: Thesen aus personzentrierter Sicht. Brennpunkt 67:
Binder, U (1996) Empathie und kognitive soziale Perspektivenübernahme, inC Frielingsdorf- 5-20; 70:29-32.
Appelt, H Pabst, and G-W Speierer (eds) Gespriichspsychotherapie: Theorie, Schmid, PF (1998a) 'On becoming a person-centered approach': A person-centred
Krankenbehandlung Forschung. Cologne: GwG, pp. 131-43.
understanding ofthe person, in B Thorne and E Lambers (cds) Person-Centred Therapy:
Hoffman, ML (1990) The contribution of enpathy to justice and moral judgment, in N A European perspective. London: Sage, pp. 38-52.
Eisenberg and J Strayer (eds) Empathy and As Development. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
1 Schmid, PF (1998b) 'Face to face': The art of encounter, in B Thorne and E Lambers (eds)
Person-Centred Therapy: A European perspective. London: Sage, pp. 74-90.
Pfeiffer, WM (1992) Gesundheitsfisrderung, Vorsorge und Begleitung im Rahmen der Schmid, PF (2001a) Authenticity: the person as bis or her own author. Dialogical and ethical
Sozialarbeit, ia U Straumann (cd) Beratung und Kriseninterventjon, Cologne: GwG,
perspectives on therapy as an encounter relationship. And beyond, in G Wyatt (cd)
pp. 84-99.
Congruence. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 217-32.
Rogers, CR (1957) The necessary and sufilcient conditions oftherapeutic personality change.
Schmid, PF (2001b) Comprehension: the art of not-knowing. Dialogical and ethical
Journal of Consultíng Psychologj, 21(2): 95-103. perspectives on empathy as dialogue in personal and person-centred relationships, in S
Rogers, CR (1959) A theory oftherapy, personalityç and interpersonal relationships, as developed
Haugh and T Merry (eds) Empathy. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 53-71.
in the dient-centered framework, in S Koch (cd) Psychology: A Study ofScience, Vol III: Schmid, PF (2001c) Acknowledgement: the art of responding. Dialogical and erhical
Formulijtions oftheperson and the social context. New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 184-256. perspectives on the challenge of unconditional personal relationships ia therapy and

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beyond, in J Bozarth and P Wilkins (eds) UnconditionalPositive Regard. Ross-on-Wye:

PCCS Books, pp. 49-64. MAKING SENSE OF MONSTERS:
Schmid, PF (2002a) Presence: Im-media-te co-experiencing and co-responding. WORKING THERAPEUTICALLY WITH
Phenomenological, dialogical and ethical perspectives on contact and perception in
person-centred therapy and beyond, in G Wyatt and P Sanders (eds) Contact and WOMEN AND CHILDREN WHO HiWE
Perception. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 182-203.
Schmid, PF (2002b) Knowledge or acknowledgement? Psychotherapy as 'the art of not- EXPERIENCED SEXUAL VIOLENCE
knowing'—Prospects on further developments of a radical paradigm. Person-Centered
and Exp eriential Psychotherapies, 1,1&2: 56-70.
Schmid, PF (2002c) Neue Manns-Bilder? Personzentrierte Heraus-Forderungen zu einem
Dialog der Geschlechter, in C Iseli, W Keil, L, Korbei, N Nemeskeri, S Rasch-Owald,
PF Schmid and P Wacker (eds) Identitat—Begegnung—Kooperatjon: Person-/ MARGARET BIRD AND EDNA DAVIS
KlientenzentriertePsychotherapie undBeratungan derJahrhundertwende. Cologne: GwG,
pp. 65-91.
Winkler, M (1992) Du Tarzan—ich Jane. Geschlechterdifferenz in der therapeutischen
Interaktion, in P Frenzd, PF Schmid, M Winkler (eds) Handbuch der Personzentrierten Grappling with the monsters ofthe world, trying to understand and make sense ofthem
Psychotherapie. Cologne: EHP, pp. 193-205. is ofien what wefind ourselves doing asfeminists and as therapists. In thinking about
Winkler, M (2002) Das Private ist politisch: Aspekte Personzentrierter Feministischer our work as practitioners with women and children who have experienced sexual
Therapie, inC IseIj, W Keil, L, Korbei, N Nemeskeri, S Rasch-Owald, PF Schmid and violence' —and in thinking about writing this chapter, we bothfelt that the concept of
P Wacker (eds) Identitdt—Begegnung—Kooperation: Person-/Klientenzentrierte monsters was a meaningfid way of exploring the issues involved in working from a
Psychotherapie und Beratung an der Jahrhundertwende. Cologne: GwG, pp. 66-78. person-centred approach and withfeminist consciousness.

INTRODUCTION

Both ofus work therapeutically with women who have experienced sexual violence
in adulthood and/or in childhood, and who, having managed to survive, are
attempting to recover. From our individual and group work with women we hear
from them how frequently-their experiences contain elements of meeting monsters
and experiencing monstrosities—without and within. Edna's therapeutic work in
the playroom iliustrates how frequently children who have been similarly victimised
f
will use the ideas of monsters very naturaily—to make meaning of their experiencçs
of being abused sexually, physically and emotionaily. They may use this concept to
deal with their terror, to show how they have been hurt, to find ways to survive
psychologically and recover. We often see some kind of a process happening which
can include meeting the monsters, facing them, making sense of them and then
separating from them.
The theme of monsters is present throughout the writing—how these concepts
affect us as people, as clients and as therapists and how they may be acknowledged

It should be said that the vast majority of our experience is of working therapeutically with
White women and children.

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and used in the therapeutic space. Briefly we also consider the wider picture—the depicted. Moving along this continuum of oppression, women and children are sexually
monsters of oppression operating on a global scale and the disempowerment of harassed, attacked, physically and sexually abused, raped, brutalised, killed—more
groups and communities—the monsters magnified. often than not by those they know and in private spaces. This is monstrous behaviour
What foliows is an exploration of our attempts to apply the core conditions of committed by human beings. Most often this behaviour is perpetrated by men. Gender
a person-centred approach in our therapeutic work with women and children who and power are entwined. Feminism helps us by focusing on the distribution of power
have experienced sexual violence. Alongside this, we strive to bring our knowledge between men and women and analysing the workings of inequality. Our aim here is
and awareness of the structural realities of power inequalities and to stay open to not to wonder at how and why things got like this, but to look at how they are—to
learning more of how thy impinge on the lives and experiences of those we work face the monster—and hear what women's and children's experiences tell us about
with—and on our own too. We aim not to replay the power dynaniics that exist survival, recovery and the effects of sexual violence.
outside the therapy room—but acknowledge that inequalities of power still exist The oppressions of sexism and sexual violence, racism, homophobia, poverty
within it. We try to create a space where the client has total control of their world— and iow status in so many forms become internalised in ourselves. This process
where they can make sense of it for themslves. embeds within us the destructiveness that has come from elsewhere.
A feminist understanding informs our approach as we work with victimised In complying with brutalization, we brutalize ourselves. We
women and children in dealing with the damage that has come ftom the abuse of experience ourselves, or parts of ourselves as the Enemy The ...

power by mainly male perpetrators.2 We also stay alert to the damages that arise from enerny self becomes in us something we try to destroy or contam,
the often additional layers of oppressions by more powerful groups. We think here and at the sarne time, something we fear for and protect. We hate
about how these values underpin the work we do and how we transiate and apply the monster and yet carefully protect it from exposure behind the
these to therapeutic settings. Case material and personal reflection illustrate our points. barriers we erect, like the walis of ancient citadels, to guard us from
the world. Whatever is in us that we have been taught is bad, wrong,
unacceptable—our anger, our intense feelings, our sexuality, our
MEETING THE MONSTERS bodies—becomes monstrous. (Starhawk, 1987: 141)

WHAT ARE TI-IE MONSTERS? MONSTERS OF GLOBAL PROPORTIONS

Monsters can be things which we may fear to talk about although we know about The expanded picture includes communities as well as individuals who have been
or sense their existence. We may think about them and have memories of coming victimised and terrorised. In particular women, children and others positioned with
face-to-face with them and harbour a terror of meeting them again. Monsters may the !east amount of power in society. The magnified external monsters operate
change and shift shape. They may trick us into thinking they aren't really monsters. globally, socially and collectively. It is difficult to escape the fact that these monsters
They may appear in one guise, but underneath be something else. They may inhabit continue to flourish and grow in a world where global power and influence is still
our thoughts, feelings, dreams and physical sensations. They may speak to us in flrmly held by men and by White dominated societies. We see them in the ongoing
voices. We may hear their voices inside ourselves. thrust ofworld markets where vast proflts are sought and made to benefit a minority,
The monster here represents a complete abuse of power. The still popular in the allocation of immense amounts of resources to the promotion and use of
media slogans of 'sex beast', 'dangerous stranger', 'sick pervert' and so on, allow and force, violence and war, in the waste ofhuman lives and potentials, in the destruction
encourage us todistance the monstrous behaviour ofperpetrators of sexual violence. of the environment and of the live!ihoods of marginalised communities to further
We know though that a 'monster' can be and often is taking part in everyday life, the needs and the agendas of the rich world.
living within a family, a member of a household, part of any group, profession or Arund}iati Roy writes of the embracing of the nuclear bomb by India as afina!
community. Sexual violence in private still benefits from validation by a wider public act of betrayal by the ruling c!ass of the country's people, hundreds of millions of
environment in which women and children are frequently objectifled, reactions to whom lack formal education. The horror of this she describes as: 'The orbits of the
women and girls are casua!ly sexualised and where' being female is often negatively powerful and the powerless spinning further and further apart from each other,
never intersecting, sharing nothing' (Roy, 2002: 34 6).
2.
A small minority of those we work therapeutically with have experienced sexual violence by This primacy given to domination, violence, and the means to wage war also
women; a useful exploration of these issues can be found in Liz Kelly (1996). inc!udes the power of using sexual violence, where individual acts are part of the

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM MARGARET Biiw AND EDNA DAVIS

bigger picture of institutionalised sexual violence. We know that rape is a weapon has been particularly explored by Liz Kelly who has defined sexual violence as 'any
of war and that sexual violence has long been used to keep women and other physical, visual, verbal or sexual act that is experienced by the woman or girl, at the
oppressed groups in a powerless position, economically, culturally and socially. Angela time or later, as a threat, invasion or assauk, that has the effect of hurting her or
Davis ta!ks about the siave owners who encouraged the terroristic use of rape in degrading her and/or takes away her ability to control intimate contact' (Kelly,
order to put Black women in their place. If Black women had achieved a sense of 1988: 41).
their own strength and a strong urge to resist, then violent sexual assaults—so the The model of sexual violence as a continuum has at its heart the experience and
siave owners might have reasoned—would remind women of their essential and perception of the individual woman or girl; it principally acknowledges her point of
inalterable femaleness and therefore their inevitable powerlessness (Davis, 1982). view. It does not define from an outer so-called 'objective' standpoint, from a legal
standpoint or from a male standpoint. It clarifies the reality of the power relationship
We may face this br-utalisation, deal with it as best we can and make some recovery in sexual violence. It is based on integrity of experience and not on myth.
1±• within ourselves. Ifwe are able to face the damage we may become more resilient and Myths persist powerfully around women and sexual violence and have been
accept ourselves. Ifwe're not able to, or ífwe have iv continue iv accommodate and well documented in feminist literature including that from the rape crisis
survive in hostile or d4ngerous conditions we will carry the damage done to us. movement (London Rape Crisis Centre, 1988). We need to understand the power
and impact of these on our inner and outer worlds to comprehend the workings
The patterns in our minds reflect the patterns of power in our of sexual violence. These myths are rooted in a system where 'power-over' others
culture, as surely as our architecture, clothing and work reflectthose underpins the mainstream culture and where power is held and exercised as if by
patterns. Outwardly and visibly. Power-over reproduces itselfinside right. Therefore, those who speak out about or question this misuse of power are
the human psyche. The structure of our inner being is like a subject to biame and punishment. Newspaper and other media reporting still
landscape peopled with events, beings, plots, and stories that we divide women into deserving and undeserving of sympathy and justice. Sue Lees
take in from the culture around us. The patterns of patriarchy wrote of her findings researchingwomen's experiences of the legal process in taking
become literaily embedded within us. We are possessed, (Starhawk, cases of rape to court in the UK. She showed how male norms are institutionalised
1987: 96) ar every stage of the criminal justice system and how the law is defined and operates
in male interests. She noted that it is not unusual for women going to court to
What is it that permits these things to happen and to keep happening? What is it face threats of retaliation and death, and to be stereotyped as 'sluts' (Lees, 1996:
that muifies or silences the voices of disserit? How does feminism and a person- 4-5).
centred approach relate to these issues? Children and young people who have been sexually abused have been labelled
As therapists if we begin with unconditional regard and accept something as it as 'responsible', 'coilusive' or 'provocative'. These are glimpses of the coilective
really is, it means that we may face the monsters; if we have empathy and attune grooming process which perpetuates these be!iefs in wider society. Germaine Greer
wholly to another in their process of making meaning, it means that we can be writes of the powerful propaganda machine aimed at young giris in Britain
alongside someone in her struggle to make sense of the monster. lfwe are congruent indoctrinating them and inciting them to be sexual with males:
and acknowledge our own thoughts and feelings, it he!ps us to hold our authenticity To deny a woman's sexuality is certainly to oppress her but to portray
and humanness in the process of grappling with monsters within ourselves and her as nothing but a sexual being is equally to oppress her. No-one
others and outside in the world. Caro! Wolter-Gustafson notes that 'these three doubts that teenage boys have peremptory sexual urges, but they are
core conditions make Rogers' theory a brilliant match for the process of hearing never depicted as prepared to accept any humiliation, endure any
women's experiences directly (Wolter-Gustafson in Fairhurst, 1999: 205). indignity, just to get dose to some, any, giri. Nor are they pushed to
spend money on their appearance or to dress revealingly or to drink
too much in order to attract the attention of the opposite sex the...

FOCUS ON SEXUAL VIOLENCE British giri's press trumpets the triumph of misogyny and the
hopelessness of the cause of female pride. (Greer, 2000: 41011)
Sexual violence towards women can be seen as existing on a continuum reflecting
the extent and range of behaviours that women experience as abusive, some of In such a culture, the beliefs and actions of the perpetrators of sexual abuse acting
which cou!d not wholly be identified within current legal definitions. This concept either alone or with others (such as in paedophile networks, internet child

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 ENCOUNTERING FaINIsM MARGARET Buw AND EDNA DAVIS

pornography, women portrayed on 'page 3') are continually reinforced and validated 1 su•rvived by internalising the hostile perpetrator in order to cope with the trauma,
by other men. For many, it is still more comfortable to deny the possibility of so she has the capacity to internalise the therapist's view of her. The implication
routine horrific and cruel acts and see them as the product of someone's imagination, therefore is that the therapeutic relationship is the most important aspect of the
rather than face the pain, fear and disruption that comes from acknowledging what healing. Therapy presents the child or adult with a place where intimacy does not
happens behind dosed doors. This 'blaming the victim' (or the therapist) again lead to abandonment, punishment or betrayal (Salter, 1995).
serves to divert attention from the real focus of concern.
Within patriarchal society, women who are victimised by male
violence have had to pay a price for breaking the silence and naming WORKING WITH CHILDREN
the problem. They have had to be seen as failen women, who have
failed in their 'feminine' role to sensitise and civilise the beast in When children are referred to me for therapeutic work, they often arrive together with a
man. (hooks, 1989: 89) whole group of what 1 hope are well-meaningpeopk ali ofwhom usually have their
own adult agenda. If1 am not careJiil, the chiid's agenda can easily become loa in the
And when there is a safe space, J+eefrom the monster, there are narratives and stories needs of the adult world. Therefore my approach to working with children isprimarily
that as women we share amongst ourselves, about terror, pain, despair and courage. child-centred and my therapeutic work with the child is non-directive. 1 encourage the
There are psychological battles to stay one step ahead, to identijji and track the new child to lead the way towards healing—by accepting the child, by reflecting rather than
mutations of the monster. There are ways that women have to manage, to survive. teaching, by being non-directive and interpreting only rarely. 1 encourage the child to
Some ofthese are complicated. Some ofthem take a lot ofdisentangling. Some ofus find self-expression and self-value, anchoring therapy in reality by providing iimits.
are devastated or eventually killed by the monster. And how do we respond internally?
Sometimes we internali.çe the monster, te11 tales to ourselves that it is us who are Theorists such as Cattanach (1992) and Gil (1991) propose that for children lost
monstrous. We hurt ourselves and possibly others with this belief How do we work 1: in the maze of abuse, there are three stages in the therapeutic process. The first stage
this ali out? involves the beginning or the establishment of the therapeutic relationship—the
creation of a safe place—a time when children decide how they are going to play.
The second stage involves 'meeting with the monster'. This stage sees the child and
SURVIVING CHILDHOOD ABUSE the therapist engaging in a more focused way to help integrate and make sense of
the terror of the past—the stage of the monster. The third and final stage involves
One minute he's alright and then the next he's like a monster... A very nicefather. becoming visible and begins to witness the development of self.esteem and an identity
He really cares for his children But then sudienly há a c4ffèrent man.
...
that is not so bound up in abusive relationships of the past. As a child-centred
(Mama in Hanmer and Itzin, 2000: 48) therapist working with what emerges from the child's process, this theory appears
to often mãe sense.
Judith Herman believes that repeated trauma in adult life erodes the structure of Following children's agendas in working with sexual and physical abuse issues
the personality that: has already formed. Repeated trauma in childhood 'forms and over the years has shown how powerful these metaphors are as ways of making
deforms' (Herman, 2i001: 96) the personality as the child is trapped in an sense of children's experiences.
environment of abuse and has to find a way to adapt and survive. She notes that ar

this childhood environment of abuse forces the development of extraordinary CREATING SAFE SPACE
capacities, which can be both creative and destructive and fosters the development
of abnormal states of consciousness in which ordinary relations to the body and Much has to be done before meeting the monster. To communicate empathic
mmd, reality and imagination, knowledge and memory, no longer hold. Many understanding, authenticity and positive regard in ways that the client experiences
people sursrive the trauma of child sexual abuse by internalising the hostile perpetrator as non-threatening is a principal task. Working in a non-directive way with children
and may be fuil of self-loathing. The internalised;perpetrator will be judging and we first need to establish a safe space. So as a therapist working with a child, we
analysing the vuinerable child, who will be afraid and feeling powerless, and will be would together establish boundaries or rules around the play—this would include
filled with self-loathing driven by the constant critic (Miller, 1991; Bass and Davis, agreements about keeping safe, not hurting or harming each other, how often we
1991; Cappachione, 1991). Anna Salter suggests that just as the victimised person would meet, and how long we would meet.

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 ENCOIJNTERING FEMINISM MARGARET BWD AND EDNA DAVIS

MEETING THE MONSTER but then sudden!y started to steal things. A gun appeared and threatened
a specia! child. Superheroes rescued the special child who was wrapped
The exampies below are concerned with what could be seen as the middle phase of in cloths of si!ver and gold and taken to a safe place. During a !ater
1 the therapeutic process in working with a child, having established a safe therapeutic session, the 'devil' visited the playroom, but 'god' carne and banished
1 relationship. (Ali identifying details in the exampies that follow have been changed the 'devil' forever.
to protect anonymity)
:11 We have noticed in our work with children during therapeutic play, that they may
Lucy's agenda was '1 want to get out of my head what is in my head'. often take on stereotypical roles, which can be reinforced by carers and other
Lucy's play was totaily spontaneous as she prepared to meet with the professionais working with the child. A femaie child may often take on a sociaily
monster. Special dolis and toys had been selected to help her meet the 'acceptab!e' role of nurturer and carer. A giri or young woman who breaks the
monster. She had selected the happy/angry doll as an auxiliary or mould for whatever reason and expresses anger is still often !abelled 'mad', 'bad' or
therapeutic aide, and placed the doll withangry face to the fore in a the 'monster'. Male children often take on the role of superheroes who hold the
high place where she couid survey the playroom and witness ali. power to deal with the monster. Armed with guns and knives, they kill the monsters
The angry face seemingly represented the angry part of Lucy. She in an 'acceptabie' way that reinforces male power and control. Chiidren who fali
was creating a picture of her inner process or creating metaphorical outside society's dominant norms of 'mate' and 'female' behaviour are often viewed
representation of her inner feelings (Hoey, 1997). The dali was to as 'damaged' by what has happened; their sexuality is questioned and negated if
witness ali of Lucy's work in the piayroom and was to be a witness to they fail to fit into heterosexist stereotypes. In the p!ayroom we can see further
her abuse and her healing. Lucy worked with the 'monster' over many manifestations of the oppressions of patriarchy.
weeks. A crash do11 was selected to take on the role of the monster. She
couid take the do!l apart, dismantie arms and !egs, disorientate the dou MALQNG SENSE OF THE MONSTER
by moving body parts around or make the do11 !imbiess. Lucy was in
control as the doll was tossed around the room and ali the while the Creating a safe space means that the monster may be faced and dealt with in which
angry self sat on the shelf and witnessed everything. ever way makes sense for the child:
Lucy was working in 'surpius reality'—it is seen as 'a dream land
state in which painful tasks are finished by the gesture of a hand or by John was seven years old and had been physically, eniotionally and
a amue, scenes in life which endure for days are here reduced to a minute' sexually abused by his father. John had a!so witnessed his father's abuse
(Moreno, 5972 in Kel!erman, 5992: 252). In these moments Lucy took of his mother and sister. For John there had been no escape. In our
control. In reality her father had been her oppressor. He had physically, ear!y sessions he only created Chaos in the playroom, re-creating the
sexually and emotionaily abused her—but Lucy was no !onger feeiing world of the monster. Windows were blacked out, !ights went out,
poweriess; she was in control. As the work progressed Lucy selected people were terrorised and the p!ayroom was wrecked. Nothing in the
other do!is as additional auxiliaries, babies who were nurtured and taken playroom reniained untouched. John cou!d hold no boundaries as his
care of, while tlie monster resided' in bits in the firep!ace and the angry eyes rolled around in his head—he was the monster and was terrorising
se!f witnessed ai!. me. John's task appeared to be to separate off from this monster that
had terrorised everyone and everything in sight. John worked this way
Monsters can take on many forms. This was particular!y significant for Peter and for weeks until graduauly bis world becarne calmer and he became more
Stephen, who prepared to meet their monster by taking on the roles of numerous able to hold boundaries. John then began to use role-play, working with
'superheroes'. the different parts of se!f. He would move from 'caring parent' to
'monster' to 'child'; life was never predictable as 1 began to get a clearer
In the playroom they were afraid of nothing and battled with snakes picture, to understand and begin to make sense of the world that John
and other strange animais as they prepared to meet the monster. A had lived in. Children were locked in bedrooms and monster would
character cailed 'Changing Man' emerged in this play. This man was come in the night and scare the children, scream and shout and throw
not ali that he appeared to be. He looked OK and was kind to everyone things around the room. And the room would rattle and shake and

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 ENCOUNTERLNG FEMINISM MARGARET BIRD AND EDNA DAVIES

furniture would get thrown around the room when the monster entered. with women, for example the Rape Crisis and Women's Aid movements. Our aim
No one was safe. John is still battling with the monster but it seems to is to be woman-centred; the group and therefore the space belong to the women.
be getting weaker (sometimes nice things happen in the playroom) as They work out what they want to use it for. Some women have not been in such a
John becomes stronger. group before. We try and mãe our agenda transparent as facilitators, so that the
experience of participants may be as empowering as possible and we attempt to
SEPARATING FROM TI-TE MONSTER demystify what we are doing.
At the beginning we offer different ways ofworking—a response to the reaiity
The separation process here iilustrates that the child can detach herself from the that everyone's most fluent language may not be verbal. We mention psychodrama
struggie which has taken piace within. For some children the monster can emerge and other creative methods (such as using drawing and painting, stones, cushions,
in the guise of a giant: toys, writing, clay, etc.) as possible ways of working with what comes up for group
members. We let the group know how we work and basically what that means. In
Katy used the concept of magic to prepare to meet the monster working with a person-centred approach we are placing paramount importance on
After weeks of working Katy sat me in a chair and told me 1 was not the woman's own interpretation of herself. So her own inner story her language, is
to move. 1 was to be a witness to something special. Katy began translated and communicated by herself. Psychodrama and other ways ofexpression
wrestling with herself and told me that this was a giant; she struggled offer a concretisation of this process. We aim to trust in the group and in ourselves.
then feli to the ground and then climbed over the sofa to the other Safety and trust only begin to develop when we are abie to be authentic ourselves in
side. 1 asked Katy what had happened and where she was. She told our responses and ways of being.
me that the giant was dead—and now she is in heaven. When 1 asked We aim to help create a space where terrifying and painful realities may be
Katy what heaven was like she told me 'oh it is fine here, god is there, faced and acknowiedged. In these situations, as facilitators in the group we will
and there are fiowers'. Katy had found a safe place to be. She had initiate a discussion of the issues of safety and work with group members to put
wrestled with the giant, separated from the monster and was now iri together an agreement that helps participants feel safe in the group. We see this as a
heaven. proactive and empathic response te the fear and anxiety that women frequently
show in the first session. li is also one way of explicitly addressing feelings and
experiences of powerlessness. In this process we acknowledge how difficult and
WORKING WITH WOMEN frightening it may be for them to come to the group, given their past and current
experiences and what they are having to manage as a result. We acknowledge and
The most common rapists are current and ex-husbandç orpartners. make visible the process that is going on—that it is 50 frightening to be there.
(Rape Crisis Federation)
MEETING THE MONSTER
Every week two women are killed in a domestic violence situation.
(Women's Aid Federation) Men with power, dominant father figures and abuse by men are issues that continue
1 to be powerfully present in the groups we work with and are common themes for
The concept of creating a safe space is equaliy important in our groupwork with alI the women we work with.
women. The groups we refer to are confidential, women-oniy groups, set up to Unprocessed experiences into adulthood may further develop into themes of
work therapeutically with the issues of dornestic/sexual violence. The formation of monstrousness, evil and dirtiness—experienced by women as residing inside
such groups has been in response to expressed needs usuaiiy via voluntary sector themseives. From our practice we know that this brutalisation may manifest itself
organisations. The attention to setting—such as creating a woman-only space which vividly through the experience of hearing voices.
can be voluntariiy entered into—is therefore significant. li comes from a feminist Often in group sessions and individual work, sofi toys are available and may
understanding ofpower relations between women and men, and acknowledges the be used by clients to concretise their experiences or their feelings about themselves.
dynamics of gendered violence against women. We know there is a need to have A soft red devil toy may for example become a representation of someone's interna1
woman-only spaces so that we can work with women on issues related to domestic/ struggle. The 'devi!' in a woman's head may be a way of explaining the internai
sexual violence. This principie has been appiied successfuiiy for many years in work voices she hears. For many women that we have worked with who hear voices,

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM MARGARET Biiw AND EDNA DAVIS

they have recognised the voices readily as their perpetrators. Many of these voices
proximity to her abusers. This woman had used psychodrama and art techniques to
can be abusive and urge self-destruction. li seems that the notion of these voices
externalise her abuse in the group. She used 'surpius reality'3 to talk to one of her
being the internalised messages from the women's abusers is not usually given
perpetrators about what he had done to her and how she felt about it. Both women
acknowledgment by psychiatric practitioners. Some women may be given medical
were able to successfully use action methods and creative techniques, painting vivid
diagnoses of psychosis and paranoid schizophrenia, and their experiences not pictures of what had been done to them as children. Rogers' core conditions were
listened to or validated. We have worked with many women and children who 1
consistently offered throughout the life of the group. This created a holding container
have experienced similar atrocities and who also dëeply believe that they are bad E and a climate of safety that was enabling for ail of the women.
and to biame, and who take on an immense burden of responsibiljty and self-
The strength of this is evident in the women's evaluation of the group experience.
hate. By sharing this in the group settings many women express feelings ofgreat
One woman said that the group had helped her to face up to things and that doing
relief that they are not alone in hearing voices.
psychodrama had helped her put her perpetrator out of her life completely—and
that she knew now that it wasn't her fault. The group had helped her feel safe and
A woman was curled up in a childlike position in the group and appeared
she had learned to laugh again. She said that one of the best things about the group
to be functioning around the age that she was when her abuse possibly
4 had been meeting people in similar situations, making friends, feeling safe and not
began. She took a pencil and drew childlike pictures of blood and
being criticised by others.
killings, pictures of children being locked in cupboards, being beaten
and abused by men and women. There was no safe place for her to be. A woman talked about her anger with her mother for not supporting
Monsters and the devil inhabited her world.
her and for keeping the secret from her father about her abuse by a
paternal uncle. She used the mediurn of psychodrama to explore why
She had used the space in the group to be as she needed to be. Paint and drawing
her mother had wanted to protect her father from knowing about the
materiais were available to be used. Through this media she was able to externalise
abuse. It was only then that she realised that her deeper anger was
her internal processes and used drawings to show not only what had been done to
towards her father.
her as a child but also her feelings. She externaliscd her experiences of abuse and her
feelings of deep rage both as a child and as an adult.
We saw this piece of work as a reflection of the power dynamics that continue to
exist. In order to 'protect' the father from the pain and anger he was expected to
A child is beaten and sexually abused; a mother is beaten and sexually
feel, this woman's mother stayed silent and powerless. As a man in the family his
abused—subjected to years of rape within a marriage and she is then
feelings were of paramount importance. In staying silent, the daughter's abuse was
seen as 'the problem'—as the one who didn't protect her child. This denied. We see again patterns repeating—women's roles seen still as carers, nurturers
was what she herself felt and believed. This was her internal struggle.
and existing to meet the needs of men; women being given a primary role of
She was forced to flee her honie and leave everything, because those
responsibility for men's emotions; once again women's voices not being heard.
who had particular positions of power and influence in the comn-iunity
A woman-centred approach and feminist approach in therapy prioritises
she lived in were supporting the man that abused her son and sub jected
women's own definitions of themselves and their experiences; it acknowledges the
her to years of physical and sexual violence. She was the 'bad one'
external and internalised oppressions that so often create a climate of silencing. So
this must be the truth she said, there must be son-iething wrong with
such an approach addresses not only individual women's perceptions but also their
her; she felt like 'the devil' because she wanted her perpetrators to burn
coilective experience.
in heli. She is filled with anger and rage that she can't express, for fear
The feminist tradition of consciousness-raising groups is a space where women
of being seen as the 'mad' woman. lii the group sessions she painted can begin to understand their experiences from a wider perspective through making
dramatic and powerful representations of heli.
links and finding commonalities. We would see women-only therapy groups as
part of this tradition.
In the context of the group, this woman was suppQrted and acknowledged in her
Aliowing a process to unfold at an individual woman's pace and being aware of
fight to gain protection for herself and her child from violent perpetrators, some of
whom held powerful positions in the community. Her sense of hopelessness and
1'The dimensions ofalternative past, present and future events that are a 'reality' in the imagina-
exhaustion in her continuing struggle was heard, as was the terror evoked from tion, if not in the outside world (Moreno, 1965).

202
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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM MARGARET BIRD AND EDNA DAVIS

how that process relates at individual and coliective leveis to the situation ofwomen 1996). A low and declining conviction rate reinforces the poweriessness they have
can be seen as an intersection of the Person-Centred Approach and feminism. already experienced.
A feminist perspective combined with a person-centred approach means creating
a safe therapeutic space in conjunction with the women and children we work with,
CONCLUSION to mãe a place for voices to be heard. It is a space for them to challenge society and
address the power dynamics and oppressions that continue to exist. We trust ia the
It is clear throughout our work with women and children that the monster that is group's capacities to hold and positively value the differences between each other. By
calied patriarchy is alive and well, and continues to exist in our world. A world offering congruence and unconditional positive regard we aim to help them move
where women and children continue to be socialised to meet the needs ofmen and towards a more congruent place within themseives and within the world. When we
the powerful western culture. Monsters become a metaphor for the oppression and try to hold our own power, to stand in our own skin and to be all that ir is to be
brutality which impacts on women and children at an individual, group and societal ourselves, that is when we are at our most positive as facilitators. As person-centred
levei. Monsters surround us and continue to exist alongside us just as they always therapists we aim to follow the woman's and/or child's agenda—to work with their
have. 'Good' and 'evil', 'god' and the 'devil', monsters that come in the night and reality and their perceptions; to enter their world and to walk alongside them as they
many others, help us to distance from the real monsters. The real monsters change mãe their journey. We aim to start at their beginning and end at their ending.
and shift ia shape just like the 'Changing Man' that appeared in Peter and Stephen's
work. They can groom us, silence us and convince us that they- are safe andwantrn---•--
help. They may become a 'pilhar of our community, then hold the power to control REFERENCES
ali of our lives. Alternativeiy they can control us through brute force or render us
emotionally helpless and totally dependent on them for our existence. Bass, L and Davis, E (199 1) The Courage to Heal. New York: Harper and Row.
The global monsters that wage war, invade and expioit other countries, Cappachione, L (199 1) Recovery of Your Inner Child. New York: Newcastle Publishing.
brutaiising already poweriess populations, can convince us that this is what is Cattanach, A (1992) Play Therapy with Abused Children. London: Jessica Kingsley
needed—that a complete invasion of someone's space, destruction and death will Publications.
be beneficial; that to deny and redefine a person's reality is 'for their own good' just Davis, A (1982) Women, Race and Class. London: The Women's Press.
like the exploitation of children (Milier, 1991). Gil, E (199 1) The Healing Power ofPlay. London: The Guilford Press.
Our work with women finds them struggling with external monsters as well as Greer, G (2000) The Whole Woman. London: Anchor.
the monsters that they-have internalised in order to survive ia the world. Some of Hernian, J (2001) Trauma and Recovery: From domestic abuse to political terror. London:
them are living in a kind of 'middie ground'—.a transitional place neither in one Pandora.
world nor the other. Individualiy they may hold incongruent feelings towards the Hoey, B (1997) Who Calis the Tune. London: Routiedge.
abuser and themseives ia the midst of the abuse. They are also expected to be a hooks, b (1989) TalkingBack. London: Sheba Feminist Publishers.
'nurturer', they biame themseives, they feel responsibie. They have to manage their Kelly, L (1988) Surviving Sexual Violence. Cambridge: Polity.
own incongruence and the incongruence that exists ia the world. One woman ia ! Kelly, L (1996) Feminist perspectives on violence by women, in M Hester, L Kelly and J
the group described hereif as a 'buifer' whq was carrying the weight of the trauma Radford (eds) Women, Violence and Male Power. Bristol: Open University Press.
in the world. Lees, S (1996) Carnal Knowledge: Rape on triaL London: Hamish Hamilton.
Our experience of the therapeutic struggle is that some of the women and London Rape Crisis Centre (1988) Sexual Violence. London: The Women's Press.
children feel they become the monsters that have abused them, grappling with Mama, A (2000) Violence against black women ia the home, in J Hanmer and C Itzin
monsters who have hurt them and battling with giants, monsters and deviis. Home Truths aboutDomestic olence—Feminist influences onpolicy andpractice. London:
Experiencing flashbacks and reliving their abuse, women may use at times self- Routiedge.
harming behaviours as a way to cope. Women often tell us that they think that they Milier, A (1991) BanishedKnowledge. London: Virago.
are going 'mad' and mental health services may sometimes reinforce this thinking Moreno, J (1972) cited ia P Kellerman, (1992) Focus on Psychodrama. London: Jessica
as psychiatric diagnoses are made, women are medicated and are seen as the probiem. Kingsley.
Equally women surviving rape and sexual assault in adulthood struggle with and Moreno, ZT (1965) Psychodramatic Rules, Techniques, and Adjunctive Methods. Group
suifer frequent injustice and powerlessness within the criminal justice system (Lees, Psychotherapy 18(1-2): 73-86.

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Rape Crisis Federation (1991) Wales and England, Statjstjcs, www.rapecrisis.org.uk

Roy, A (2002) TheAlgebra oflnfinitejustice. London: Flamingo. MAKING CONNECTIONS:
Salter, A (1995) Transforming Trauma. London: Sage.
Starhawk (1987) Truth orDare. San Francisco: Harper and Row.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, FEMINISM AND
Wolter-Gustafson, C (1999) The power of the premise: Reconstructing gender and human PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY
development with Rogers' rheory, in 1 Fairhurst (cd) Women Writing in the Person-
CentredApproach. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.
Wonien's Aid Federation of England, (2002) Domestic Violence Statistical Factsheet,
~.womensaid.org.uk

SOPHIE SMAILES

INTRODUCTION

Embarking on a chapter which reflects on therapeutic engagement with women

experiencing domestic violence (DV) feels complex. Part of my intention within
this chapter is to unravel some of the elements involved in this work, including
focusing on aspects ofwomen's lives, which are specifically located and informed by
historical, political and social contexts. So 1 want to professionally and personaily
place myself within this exploration, as well as interweaving women's narratives
within the discourses of person-centred therapy (PCT) and feminism.
1 will be exploring two 'scenarios' which are an amalgamation or synthesis of
work with clients. The process and context of this work will be discussed, highlighting
issues ofpower, diversity and social constructs as being intrinsic to this exploration
(Waiker, 1990; Marecek and Kravetz, 1998; Seu, 1998). Integral to this discussion
will be the incorporation- of my own ongoing process and reflections.
Both scenarios concern heterosexual relationships, reflecting the largely gendered
nature of DV and the fact that it is overwhelmingly male-on-female (Radford, 1987;
Hague and Malos, 1999; Maynard and Winn, 1997). Sarne sex and extended family
DV also occurs and 1 am neither assuming that issues around heterosexual
relationships exclude these relationships but neither am 1 presuming a complete
overlap. 1 have tried to explicitly and implicitly illustrate how feminism and PCT
work together, and in conflict, on issues of DV. While 1 have fore-grounded the
aspects of my work which relate to DV, this is not everything that we worked on
nor is it everything these women are. Highlighting a particular element can run the
risk of rendering whole lives as invisible, privileging the violence as the only way of
identification.
 ENCOUNTERJNG FEMINISM SOPHIE SMAILES

WHO ARE THE WOMEN? patriarchal and socially constructed norms. This affords women inferior status and
constructs their meaning as being in relationship to, and less than, meu. Interlinked
Firstiy, these 'scenarios' represent an amalgam and reflection ofwomen 1 have worked with these meanings is that of other diverse construas, e.g., race, class, sexuaiity,
with—so more that one woman's story is integrated within each scenario and ali reiigion, culture, etc., which have further implications for women's lived experiences
identifying personai detaiis have been removed. Secondiy, they are ali from at least and positioning.
two years ago, so 1 am relying on a mixture of detailed case notes and retrospective
reflections. Thirdiy, ali the women were contacted aid permission given to 'write'
their stories. Respecting and honouring my clients' lives and voices is informed by MY TAKE ON PCT
my therapeutic, personal and feminist aliegiances. It feels vital to engage with these
clariing processes as 1 am committed to giving women a voice and a voice with Rogerian counselling has ar its heart a commitment to the client's interna1 frame of
-
which they choose to engage. At the sarne time 1 want their stories to be as reference. Integral to this is a belief in the essential trustworthiness of the client,
unrecognisabie as possible. The risk here is that 1 could:present a generalised picture informed by the conviction that ali individuais move instinctively towards realising
rather than individual frameworks and lives. Throughout this chapter 1 will try to their full potential (Colledge, 2002; Dryden and Mytton, 1999; Mearns, 2003). A
balance the need for anonymity with the need for specificity. My abiding concern is respect and honouring of the client's understanding and experiencing of their world
for the weifare and —11 1, of these women and finding a way of working with further informs the process of the therapeutic engagement. Rogers emphasised the
these knotty issues of power, confidentialit-y and representation. importance of the therapist's ongoing self-awareness, seeing the therapist as 'the
companion to the clients ou their journey as they enter into and explore their inner
worlds' (Dryden and Mytton, 1999: 78). Thus, for me to be able to provide an
WHOAMI? environment in which the client cail experience themselves, their world and our
relationsbip, there has to be a commitment on my part to provide the 'attitudinal
Professionaiiy 1 am both a person-centred counseilor and an academic. My academic conditions' (Nelson-Jones, 1996) for this exploration.
work is largely located within a heakh care studies department of a large metropolitan
university. 1 have worked there, as a lecturer, for about seven years and while working
part-time, trained to be a counseilor. 1 have counselled in both statutory and MEANINGS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
voluntary organisations andam presently counseffing with one voiuntary organisation
in particular. 1 have been interested and involved in issues around domestic abuse There are a variety of perspectives which traditionally inform our understanding of
and violence for over 20 years. More recently 1 have reseaxched arcas around DV DV. Not least of these is the historically informed notion of women being men's
with minoritised populations as weil as worked therapeutically with women who chattels, their belongings, to do with what they willed. Discourses of social
have experienced (or are experiencing) DV. 1 am a White, middie-class woman construction and feminism consider that our understandings ofgender, and gender
which locates me variously in positions of both privilege and minoritisation. Who relationships, are 'built', i.e., socially defined, as opposed to essential, i.e., determined
1 am, my beiiefs and attitudes, is intimateiy tied up with how I•work therapeuticaily by biology. Essentialism, however, often seems to have dominance when considering
with my clients. Acknowl'edging diversity and difference forms part of how 1 move the 'hows' and 'whys' of DV. For instance DV (within reason) was historically
in my world, and both feminism and PCT form part of my identity considered as a manifestation of (essentialist) beliefs around masculinity in resporkse
to femininity—a natural expression of power, dominance and control over a
subordinate being. Thus, domestic abuse is hinged on 'patriarchal norms and
A BRIEF LOOKAT FEMINISM practices which lay the groundwork for violence to occur and permit one group
(men) to dominate and control another (women)' (Sharma, 2001: 1408).
Definitions of feminism are by no means unified, nor are they static—they are an While ostensibly there is now less overt acceptance of DV and an increasing
arca which is both contested and evoiving. However, rather than go down the route recognition of it as a serious social problem (Mooney, 2000) it shows little sign of
ofendeavouring to ciassifr feminisms, and mine in particular, 1 hope that elements abating. li is well known that DV is widely under-reported (Dobash and Dobash,
of my perspective wiil emerge through the scenarios. At its heart is the recognition 1992; Mooney, 2000) and that the true extent of DV is unknown. Added to this
that women's lives are poiitically, socially and culturaily situated, informed by has been the privileging of the physicai aspect of violence (with its often clear

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'evidential' characteristics) while other more incipient manifestations e.g., sexual, - 1994). At the sarne time PCT can honour women's individual understanding of
financial, emotional and psychological, have gone unacknowledged (Batsleer et ai., DV, while potentially decontextualising it from its genderised framework
2002). (Waterhouse, 1993; Lyddon, 1998).
The advantages ofviolence as a method of control for establishing/maintaining
power are commonly rccognised (Hanmer, 2000; Hearn, 1995) and linked with Farzana
how heterosexual relationships can be played out. Masculinity is often personified A Pakistani Muslim young wornan, 19 years old who has been married
by coritrol, power, rationalisatjon and strength, while femininity's personification for two years, with one baby giri. Farzana lives with her husband's
is one of submission, nurture, vulnerability, weakness and subservience. These family and the violence (physical, mental and sexual) comes from her
seemingly static and fixed essentialist notions may result in heterosexual relationships husband, whom she carne over to England to be with. While English is
where complimentary discourses of domination and subordination reveal themselves not her first language she can communicate; but initially 'chose' to have
in terms of DV. So in this instance DV may be explained as an 'understandable [if a transiator for more complex reasons than just 'transiation'. Her
not always justifiable] response to another person's actions' (Radford, 1987: 143) husband and his family wanted her to come to counselling as they see
leaving the way open to victim blaming and the 'why doesn't she leave him?' school her weeping and depression as her inability to acclimatise to a new
of thought. environment and be a 'good wife'.

Working with Farzana epitomised the value and difficulty of working with PCT
A WORD ABOUT AGENCY and feminist construas. PCT and ferninist theory emphasise the importance of
working within a woman's frame of reference, validating and acknowledging the
Finaily before engaging with the scenarios 1 want to briefly look at the idea of way in which she construas her world and (in the case of PCT) reflecting that
agency—that is being the main actor in your own life. 1 feel this concept has a great world back to her (Hawtin, 2000; Dryden and Mytton, 1999). Conflict can arise
deal ofinfluence on how we may respond to DV, from both Rogerian and feminist when in endeavouring to be a 'companion' to Farzana's journey 1 neglect to work
perspectives. Agency, a Westernised liberal concept, locates power and choice with with the impact and influence of my own gendered, racial and social situation on
the individual—believing in the autonomous and private self that can somehow the therapy itself.
stand apart from history and culture (Marecek and Kravetz, 1998). This In terms of working with Farzana there were two immediate difficulties: the
individualising of women's experiences outside the social context runs the risk of first was that she had brought a fa mily friend as a transiator, and secondly that she
expecting them to act divorced from the oppressive system in which they are had been 'told' to come by the very person who was abusing her! This latter
positioned. This leads to dichotomous beliefs around women either being considered particularly reverberated for me in many ways. It reflected the feminist stance about
agents of their own destiny (and, therefore leaving) or victims (and staying) DV which acknowledges how the multifaceted nature of abuse often manifests
(Mahoney, 1994; Waterhouse, 1993). PCT, it has been argued, is built on itself in 'blaming the woman' for whatever transpires (Kelly, 1987). This was the
assumptions of free choice and self-determinism, based on individual istic notions case with Farzana. It was not the problematising of the abuse itself which was her
of agency (Marecek and Kravetz; 1998) which assumes that personal control and desired focus but rather how she was 'mis-managing' the isolation and bewilderment
choice is a universal ida1 and possibility Feminism on the other hand has of her new life. The dient believed that the abuse was deserved or a result of her
emancipatory goals and a history of 'consciousness-raising' built on beliefs ofwhat inadequacies as a woman, wife and mother. This is clear example of how oúr
women should and could be like. The potential here could be to equate 'change' understanding of male violence is often filtered through notions of the man's violent
with feminist ideais as opposed to working with the diverse value systems which behaviour being either aberrant or 'understandable' (Stanko, 1985) and 'the fiction
clients can bring. Women's agency, therefore, may become constricted by the very that violence is exceptional is fundamental to stereotypes that portray battered women
frameworks which are intended to 'free' her. as helpless, dependent, and pathological' (Mahoney, 1994: 63).
Feminism works with the explicit premise that a woman's experience and Added to this is the potential to typify Farzana's experience as being a
response to DV are informed by these societal power imbalances (Sharma, 2001; characteristic of her cultural background. Both Batsleer et ai. (2002) and Sharma
Burstow, 1992; Waiker, 1990; Waterhouse, 1993). However, this focas can render (200 1) discuss the risk of locating abusive behaviour within cultural norms rather
invisible the other hierarchies of power (Marecek and Kravetz, 1998) and the diverse than individual culpability and response. Thus, stereotyped assumptions that race
ways in which women assert themselves in response to the violence (Mahoney, is the primary identity ofan individual can act as a filter for understanding Farzana's

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experience. The importance of transcultural work requires us to work with the Farzana this was not initially her expressed experience. The presence of the transiator
fluidity and variety of cultural, reiigious and gendered standpoints rather than had enabled and supported Farzana to come to counselling. It was here that conflicts
presenting rnonolithic voices ofrepresentation (Marshall et ai., 1998). At the sarne between person-centredness and feminism were further highlighted. At a very basic
time to negate the importance ofrace, culture and religion in terms of client's lived leve1 here we were a group of women, with the opportunity to share our gendered
experience would be equally problematic. and raciaiised experiences. We could have engaged in a more cooperative activity,
Both aberrant and 'understandabie' perspectives locate the violence in terms of where personal experiences could have been linked to a larger system of inequality;
a response to women's deviations from their appropriate roles (Stanko, 1987; hierarchy and control. Space could have been made to discuss how we might
Maynard and Winn, 1997). So for me the core condition of acceptance needs to unconsciously coilude and conform to these systems. While this may seem somewhat
acknowiedge these hugely influential constructs on how 1 may respond to my clients. facetious there is a strong feminist commitment to highlighting:
Rogerian theory has often been criticised as ignoring these political constructs in personal problems [as] both created and exacerbated by societal
favour ofan idealised and value-free unconditionai positive regard (Lyddon, 1998; power imbalances. Helping women make the connections and resist
Biever et al., 1998). Feminjst theory, on the other hand, is a key to what feminist [theory] is about. (Burstow, 1992: 40)
urges therapists to take into acconnt society's belief system
concerning accepted role patterns and behaviours that have been The conflict arises when it seems that the focus is taken away from the woman's felt
prescribed for males and females. (Biever et ai., 1998: 165) experience and the feminist commitment to 'eniightenment' is given precedence.
Thus, instead of 'identifsring and honouring a woman's belief structure and view of
Staying with Farzana's 'here and now' experiencing of the disiocation and discordance reality and then joining her there unjudgementaliy (McClosky and Fraser, 1997:
in her world formed an irnportant part of the work. My sense was she had had little 437) 1 would be asking her to join me within my feminist framework. This would
opportunity to do this before. It felt vital to honour and respect her world without have set me up as the 'expert', a role which conflicts with my Rogerian beiiefs
mythologising it and piacing it within some stereotypical world of 'this is what around trusting the client's own authenticity So my acceptance of the translator
happens in South Asian families and to South Asian women'—thereby making had to be on Farzana's terms and not my own.
invisible her own understanding and response to her world. My own fear was that 1 Initialiy we stayed with Farzana's distress around her continued sense of
might unwittingly colonise (take over in terms of 'reading' her experience through dislocation in terms of being away from her country of origin. The distress was
my Westernised world) her experience, rather than recognising her in ali her compiex located as her inadequacies as a mother and wife. Feminist frameworks which
individuality as opposed to being representative of a group to which she belongs or acknowledge the influence of these sociaily proscribed roles in terms of women's
to which she has been assigned (Gordon, 1996). sense ofvalue were useful in this instance as they placed her experience within the
1 worked hard to empathically accompany Farzana on her journey of teliing, construction of motherhood and heterosexuaiity. Working from both a Rogerian
graduaily finding rnyseif getting to 'know' her rather than feeding my sense of her and feminist perspective fadiitated the validation of her experiences within a non-
through particular constructs of meaning. Again this is where PCT with its non- judgemental and empathic framework. So the Rogerian process of the reflective,
analytical framework and its emphasis on the core conditions comes into its own. minute-to-minute empathic response and the feminist stance of working from the
1 found working with a transiator difficult. It felt iike Farzana's and my woma.n's own voice provided a space for Farzana to begin to have a sense of her own
processing was restricteddue both to the 'act goffikering' which transiation can take experiencing. The painfulness, for me, was her insistence in working with her 'wrongs'
as well as the prior relationship between the transiator and Parzana. PCT works as isolated and pathological problems as opposed to being located in contextuul
very much with the empathic response and sensing of the client's process. Reflection frameworks. By choosing not to highlight these structures to her, 1 felt sometimes
plays a big part in this, where clarification of content can be pivotal in gaining a coliusive in her abuse and her sense of being in the wrong. However, at the sarne
clear insight into the sensed world of the client. Having a third person translating time Rogerian theory rightly places emphasis on the unconditional positive regard
both the literal meaning as weli as her interpretation of what Farzana and 1 were of the client's framework. This includes walking alongside Farzana's distress and
saying often obscured what was being said. My sense was that Farzana's and the further enabling therapeutic conditions where she could feel accepted and respected.
transiator's relationship aiso served to further 'monitor' the work. 1 was able to The struggie for me, at times, was to accept her framework and not see it flltered
reflect this back (albeit rather awkwardly) to Farzana and, indeed, by association, through my feminist ideologies. 1 needed to trust that her actualising tendency
the transiator. However, whiie from my Rogerian perspective the creation of space would enable her to be more accepting of herself—in her own time and way and
in which a client feeis safe and respected enough to explore was being restricted, for not through imposing my own understanding (Dryden and Mytton, 1999).

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We continued to work with the translator for some time until one day Farzana arose when 1 either negated the influence of these constructs on how 1 responded to
carne without her. She was both excited and pleased about her decision while 1 felt Farzana or forefronted my feminist ideologies as a way of explaining Farzana's world.
hugely moved. She had been able to utilise the very way in which she had been While 1 did not always shy away from challenging her individual pathologisation of
located by her husband and his family to her advantage by saying that her shame her experiences, the balance between placing rnyself in the role of the expert and
was too great to bear a transiator. Her acknowledgernent of subverting oppressive trusting her authentic self was sometirnes hard to maintain.
frameworks of shame and biame emerged as we continued our work. The feminist
notion ofagencywas interwoven with the importance of her family and community Jessica
We worked with our differences, clarifring that while in Western cultures A white heterosexual woman, in her thirties who identifies as middle-
individuaJism and self identity are part of our philosophical construction of self, - class. She has lived with her partner for three years and works in public
her response to her cultural norms construct the self more in terms of community relations. They have no children. Jessica has recently been feeling
and family (Choudry, 1996; Sharma, 2001). At the sarne time feminist theory bewildered, confused and lost. Both incomes are controlled by her
ernphasises the importance ofbeing aware of diversity and commonalties, challenging partner and she is often forced to have sex with him to keep the peace.
the 'homogenized conceptualisation of "Asian" and [acknowledging] instability of She is constantly told that she is stupid and ugly. These moments are
ethnic boundaries and practices' (Marshall et ai., 1998: 125)-.—so not fixing meanings interspersed with moments of remorse, and subsequent deep happiness
into a static and prescriptive stereotype. Similarly Rogerian personality theory and fun, with a good social life. No one knows of the abuse and she
considers that personal realities and perceptions are informed by past experiences, describes herself as deeply ashamed and embarrassed. We worked
opinions and responses, in particular 'conditions of worth' (Rogers, 1959). While together for about seven months and she specifically wanted to explore
these perceptions are very real to us in the moment they are not static and can her relationship.
change over time and place (Dryden and Mytton, 1999).
The decision not to have a transiator was a turning point for Farzana. She The focus of our work together in the initial stages was her bewildered disbelief
began to experience a sense of self-worth and acceptance. In this the non- that this was happening. 'Violence, especially from those who are apparently to be
acknowledgement of the abuse could also be explored, with the implicit trusted, is a deep and terrible assault on the self (Walker, 1990: 145). Trying to
understanding that leaving was not an option. The difflculties of leaving, particularly equate her experience of the abuse with her understanding of love was a huge struggle
for some minoritised women involve the obstades of finances, housing, transport (Waterhouse, 1993; Jackson, 2001; Towns and Adams, 2000). By drawing on
and childcare but for Farzana there was also the issue oflanguage and immigration feminist theories of heterosexual and rornantic love 1 was able to contextualise her
laws. The 'one-year' (two years as of April 2003) rule stipulates that women who confusion rather than individualise it as being completely separate from popular
have entered the country as spouses of British citizens have neither recourse to cultural messages. The influence ofdiscourses of 'perfect love' as a way ofsilencing
public funding nor leave to stay, should the marriage break down within that time women's talk about the violence (Jackson, 2001; Towns and Adams, 2000) needed
(Batsleer et ai., 2002) unless they can 'prove' DV to the satisfaction of the Home to be considered. 1 was able to reflect the confusion being experienced regarding
Office. There is also the fear and possibility of having a child/children taken from meanings of love and how it felt proscribed with various characteristics. This, 1 feel
the mother and bringing shame and dishonour to her family back home (Choudry, was both a way of working with my congruent/empathic sense ofJessica as well as
1996; Sharma, 2001; Basleer et ai., 2002), again fears which have much veracity. highlighting some of the potentially restrictive ways we may understand romantic
Farzana's agency or pursuit of self-worth was to be developed from within her love.
relationship emphasising the many ways that women will work with the abuse in What became clear as we progressed was that she did not at first consider his
their life and chállenging the popular belief that it is only through leaving that behaviours to be DV but rather indications him being 'screwed up'. This feeds into
women assert themselves (Mahoney, 1994). a number of discourses which consider how women, in trying to resolve the lovel
The step-by-step work of clarification, reflection and acceptance enabled her abuse dilernma, will explain it as the boyfriend being messed up, having anger
to engage with a sense of self and reduce some of the ways in which she experienced problems or having had a hard life (jackson, 2001),
her distress as 'her problem'. PCT, which values the individual ôrganisrnic self, As with Farzana 1 often felt torn between ferninist 'consciousness-raising'
worked well with some of the feminist constructs of gender, sexuality, race and commitments and my Rogerian commitment to working with her
class. Farzana could not be taken out of these milieus but neither could 1 assume conceptualisations. 1 struggled to work with my conflicted self by engaging with
some hegemonic understanding of how these contexts influenced her. The conflicts her process, step by step. Irnrnersing myself within her frarnework enabled me to

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engage more empathicaily, accepting and working with her journey. This did not ofhow the moral responsibility for the success of a heterosexual relationship often
mean that 1 self-abdicated but rather 1 was able to give space to my struggle without resides with the woman, which in turn means when it fails the failure is often felt to
it taking over Jessica's own struggles. The two were not mutually exclusive but rather be hers (Mahoney, 1994). Staying with the hurt and anger, while uncomfortable,
interwoven in ways which emphasised the persistence of unchallenged media and was a rich space in which we shared the difficufty of being angry and a woman. 1
mainstream-fed conceptions of heterosexual relationships. This creation of an found myself often feeling furious and energised by her experiences and at some
accepting, non-judgemental space in which Jessica could explore the conflicts in levei wanting to grab her by the hand and fiee. My own framework sometimes
her life was fundamental. My belief in her trustworthiness could enable me 'to struggled to allow her the space to experience the denial. My desire for her to 'see'
vacate the position of expert and instead work to enable the client to realize [her] her experiencing as abusive was often very strong. It is at times like this when 1 try
own resources and self-understanding' (Hawtin, 2000: 172). to work very closelywith the core conditions ofcongruence, empathy and acceptance.
Having said that, when Jessica reached a point where she recognised her experience Their value lies in the belief that working with the client's framework cultivares
of the relationship as abusive, at some unwelcome levei 1 felt vindicated and am aware therapeutic growth and self-realisation. 1 have a great deal of cõmmitment and
that despite all my best intentions 1 was still harbouring elements of a belief of'knowing belief in the vitality of the empathic engagement with the client and this enables
better'! Writing this down is uncomfortable and highlights how sometimes feminism meto [mostly] stay with the client rather than prioritise my own feminist frameworks.
and PCT can clash, biocking my ability to work without judgement. However, this belief does often struggle with my own sense of the oppressive
Empathising with her sense ofbetrayal and hurt was painful and fundamental frameworks which seek to maintain control and encourage conformity. While 1 felt
to our therapeutic engagement. Being able to engage with the Rogerian belief in - able to refiect on the struggles in response to Jessica's process, 1 am also aware that
the authenticity and actualising tendency of the client seemed so heipful to her my own idealism was itching to get loose! 1 know 1 was not always successful in
process. It meant that the space was created for Jessica to explore without being told accepting Jessica's own understanding and this, for me, is the constant dilemrna in
what and how to feel. Emerging from this stage in the process was her shame. terms of working with both PCT and feminism.
Sharne is often a very powerful and stukifving response to DV and can keep women
immobilised (Walker, 1990; Sharma, 2001; Jackson, 2001). This is linked with
DV, as discussed before, being seen as a reaction to women doing something wrong. CONCLUSION
So the shame in not being a good enough woman/wife feeds into this belief as does
the shame of being a 'victim' which is often characterised as irresponsible and self- What 1 have hopefully illustrated in this chapter is the value, and difficuky, of
pitying (jackson, 2001). working with PCT and feminism. The scenarios 1 have explored clearly demonstrate
Caught up in this was her belief that this 'sort ofthing' didn't happen to people the chaotic and multifaceted nature of DV and that there are no easy answers. It is
from her background and class. Again it was important to work both with the about focusing on where the woman is in her life and working with her in her
societal stereotype which places DV as a working-class phenomenon without losing framework and her world. For me it is also about acknowledging that the process of
site of Jessica's own understanding of what was happening. For Jessica the 'becoming a person is made difficult by internal factors [which] may be impeded
maintenance of the introject that 'it shouldn't happen to women like her' resulted by external, social and political constraints' (Waterhouse, 1993: 64). The world of
in her working hard to find explanations for the violence that fit this belief. Rogerian DV can be hugely distressing and even debilitating when entering into it with the
theory discusses how we will endeavour to maintain an introject particularly when woman. The potential for Rogerian counselling with its open, accepting and
it is challenged, until we are ready to renegotiate our understanding (Colledge, empathic approach to provide space for the women to 'be' is clear. The trusting of
2002; Thorne, 1992). We stayed in this uncomfortable space for some time; feeling the client's world takes nothing away from her, nor does ittryto control her process
congruently stuck with what was happening, and what should be happening. It but rather walks alongside her experiencing.
formed a significant stage where Jessica was able to name her partner's behaviour as Feminism also honours the woman's individual reality and her understanding
abusive—thereby validating her experiencing. Once the abuse was 'named' the work of her world. li places this meaning within a political and social context which is
seemed to speed along. While the sense of shame remained she was able to confide defined and controlled by patriarchal norms and values. Thus, a framework for
and seek support from dose friends and fainily, euabling her to TecI less isolated 'understanding' women's experience of DV is given, linking it to notions of
within her abuse. masculinity, femininity and power relations inclusive of racial, cultural, sexuality
The staying with and clariíing her sense of unreality and conflict was a constarit and class positions. The strength of combining PCT and feminism lies in being
part of our process. In conjunction with this, Jessica carne to her own understanding able to contextualise both my own and my client's responses to DV. Instead of

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placing the individual outside the political arena, which PCT can do, it locates Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy. London: Sage, pp. 172-85.
them within it. Thus, women can begin to make corinections with their experience Hearn, J (1995) Policy Development and Implementation Seminars: Patterns ofAgency
with some of these discourses instead of individualising them as their isolated Contaces with Men Who Have Been Violent to Known Women, Research Paper No 13.
problems. The conflict arises when either feminism takes precedence over the Research Unit on Violence, Abuse and Gender Relations, University of Bradford.
individual experiencing of the client or PCT minimises informing contextual Jackson, 5 (200 1) Happily Ever After: Young wonien's stories of abuse in heterosexual love
frameworks other than the family. While at some levei this is about feminist theory relationships, Feminism and Psychotherapy, 11(3): 305-21.
itself, it is also about me and how 1 respond and feel in relation to narratives of Kelly, L (1987) The Continuum of Sexual Violence, in J Hamner and M Maynard (eds)
domestic abuse. Women, Violence and Social Control. Basingstoke: MacMilian, pp. 46-60.
The balance for me then is to be abie to acknowledge my feelings and to Lyddon, W (1998) Social construction in counsellingpsychology: a commentary and critique,
consider my feminist beiiefs as a way of underpinning and potentially informing Counselling Psychology Quarterly 11(2): pp. 215-22.
the therapeutic process. On reflection, what 1 think sometimes happened with these Mahoney, MR (1994) Victimisation or Oppressioni' Women's lives, violence and agency, in
two scenarios was that 1 iatched onto feminist theory as a way of managing my own M Alberrson Fineman and R Mykitiuk (eds) The Public Nature ofPrivate Violence: The
sense of helplessness in response to their distress. Sã perhaps, at the core of this disco very ofdomestic abuse. New York: Routiedge, pp. 59-92.
chapter is an emphasis on the need to be flexible and responsive with both approaches, Marecek, J and Kravetz, D (1998) Power and Agency in Feminist Therapy, in IB Seu and
using them together but always giving the centre stage to the client's therapeutic MC Heenan (eds) Feminism and Psychotherapy. London: Sage, pp. 13-29.
process. Marshall, H, Woollett, A and Dosanjh, N (1998) Researching Marginalised Standpoints:
Some tensions around plural standpoints and diverse 'experiences', in C GrifEm, K
Henwood and A Phoenix (eds) Standpoints and Differences. London- Sage, pp. 115-
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Maynard, M and Winn, J (1997) Women, Violence and Male Power, in V Robinson and D
Batsleer, J, Burman, E, Chantler, K, McIntosh, HS, Panding, K, Smailes, S and Warner, S Richardson (eds) Introducing Women's Studies (2nd cd). Basingstoke: Macmillan, pp.
(2002) Domestic Violence and Minoritisation—Supporting women to independence. 175-97.
Women Studies Research Centre: Manchester Metropolitan University McClosky, KA and Fraser, JS (1997) Using fetninist Mifi brief therapy during initial contact
Biever, J, De Ias Fuentes, C, Cashion, L and Franidin, C (1998) The social construction of with victims of domestic violence, Psychotherapy, 34: 433-66.
gender: a comparison offeminist and post-modern approaches, C'ounsdiingPsychology Mearns, D (2003) Developing Person-Centred Counselling (2nd cd). London: Sage.
Quarterlj 11( 2): 163-79. Mooney, J (2000) Revealing the hidden figure of domestic violence, in J Hanmer and C
Burstow, B (1992) Radical Feminist Theory: Working in the context ofabuse. London: Sage. Itzin (eds) Nome TruthsAbout Domestic Violence. London: Roudedge, pp. 24 43.
Choudry S (1996) Pakistani Women's Experience ofDomestic Violence in GreatBritain. Home Nelson-Jones, R (1996) The Theory and Practice of Counseiing (2nd cd). London: Casseil.
Office Research and Statistics Directorate No. 43, Radford, J and Stanko, E (1996) Violence against women and children: the contradictions
Colledge, R (2002) Mastering Counselling Theory. Basingstoke: Palgrave. of crime control under patriarchy, in M Hester, L Kelly and J Radford (eds) Women,
Dobash, RE and Dobash, RP (1992) Women, Violence and Social Change. London: Routiedge. Violence and Male Power. Buckingham: OUP, pp. 65-80.
Dryden, W and Mytton, 1 (1999) FourApproaches to Counseiing and Psychotherapy. London: Radford, L (1987) Legalising Woman Abuse, in J Hamner and M Maynard (eds) Women
Routiedge. Violence and Social Control. Basingstoke: MacMilian, pp. 135-51.
Gordon, P (1996) A fear of difference? Some reservations about intercultural therapy and Rogers, CR (1959) A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships, as
counselling, Psychodynamic Counseiing2(2): 196-208. developed in the client-centered framework, in 5 Koch (cd) Psychology: A Study of a
Hague, G and Malos, E (1999) Homeless children and domestic violence, in P Vostanis and Science. Volume 3: Formulations oftheperson and the social contexe. New York: McGraw-
A Cumeila (eds) Homeless Children: Problems and needs. London: Jessica KingsIey, pp. Hill, pp. 184-256.
68-82. Rogers, CR (1962) The interpersonal relationship: The core ofguidance. HarvardEducational
Hanmer, J (2000) Domestic violence and gender relations: contexts and connections, in J Review 4(32): 416-29.
Hanmer and C Itzin (eds) Nome Truths About Domestic Violence. London: Roudedge. Seu, IB (1998) Change and Theoreticai Frameworks in Feminist Therapy, in IB Seu and
pp. 9-23. MC Heenan (eds) Feminism and Psychotherapy. London: Sage, pp. 203-18.
Hawtin, 5 (2000) Person-Centred Counselling and Psychotherapy, in S Palmer (ed) Sharma, A (200 1) Healing the wounds of domestic; violence, ViolenceAgainst Women, 7(12)

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December 2001: 1405-28.

Stanko, E (1985) Intimate Intrusions. London: Routiedge and Kegan Paul. WOMAN-CENTRED PRACTICE
Stanko, E (1987) Typical Violence, Normal Precaution: Men, women and interpersonal
violence in England, Wales, Scotland and the USA, in J Hamner and M Maynard
(eds) Women, Violence and Social Control, Basingstoke: MacMillan, pp. 122-34.
Thorne, B (1992) CarlRogers. London: Sage,
Towns, A and Adams, P (2000) 'If 1 Really Loved Him Enough, He Would Be Okay,
ViolenceAgainst Women, 6(6): 558-85.
Walker, M (1990) Women in Therapy and Counseiing. Milton Keynes: OUP.
Waterhouse, RL (1993) 'Wild Women Don't Have the Biues': A Feminist Critique of'Person-
Centred' Counseliing and Psychotherapy, Feminism and Psychotherapy, 3(1): 55-71.
MONICA HILL

-à

1 have been involved in Bradford Rape Crisis Group (BRCG) for over 20 years. My
experience has been that from our earliest beginnings we have been putting into
practice both feminist and personcentred principies and values. These values appiy
not only to the services we provide to our callers and clients but also to the way we
manage the organisation, train ourselves and others and relate to each other within
the group.
What follows is dearly my individual experience of one organisation and cannot
be taken as representative of other Rape Crisis (RC) groups or as representing the
views of everyone in BRCG.' In writing this piece 1 have been aware of a constant
tension between '1' and 'we'. When am 1 speaking oniy for myself, when is it
legitimate to speak on behalf of my coileagues, my clients and of 'women'? This
reflects the struggle we have as an organisation to meet individual needs, to recognise
the uniqueness of every woman and her experience and yet to recognise the
commonality of our experience of sexual vioience and our coilective need for change
in a society where rape ofwomen is still condoned, denied or minimised.
Whilst wniting this piece, 1 asked other members of the organisation for their
thoughts and experiences—their replies are included here.

WOMAN-CENTRED PRACTICE

1 use this term to describe what 1 see as a synthesis of feminist and person-centred

1
The organisation is now known as Bradford Rape Crisis and Sexual Abuse Survivors Service,
including Projectjyoti (workingwith Black and Asian women) and New Hall Counselling Service
(workingwith women in prison). 1 use BRCG to describe the group ofwomen, paid and unpaid,
who are involved in any part of the service.

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values and theory which informs our clinical practice. We do not require our violence from men that they knew 2 It was clear then that as weil as being a devastating
counseliors or therapists to be trained or identified as person-centred but we do ask attack on an individual woman, sexual violence is a means by which ali women are
that they consider how their practice may or may not be congruent with certain socially controlied. It was in this climate that Bradford Rape Crisis Group was
values which inciude, for exampie, that the client is the expert on her own life. cteated.
Women working as helpline and support workers are not usualiy trained counsellors In preparing ourselves to offer a service to other women—long before any of
but their in-house training includes an exploration of the person-centred core us undertook any formal counselling training—we met as a group and explored
conditions and their relevance to working in an empówering way. Our focus i$ on our own feelings and experiences. London Rape Crisis sent us their helpline training
the whole woman, rather than problem-focused. Our experience in working with manual and we sat in a circie taking turns to read to the group, argue and discuss. 1
survivors shows that sexual violence reaches into every aspect ofwomen's lives ieaving don't think any of us, at that stage, had heard of Rogers; we didn't see ourselves as
little or nothing untouched. li is impossible to say where the effects of rape and an encounter group, but looking back that is exactly what we were doing. We set
chiid sexual abuse begin and end. We do not offer a prescribed recovery programme out to put feminist theory into practice; without knowing it we were putting into
or a set view ofwhat the healing journey looks like. We work with each client at her practice person-céntred theory too. For many of us, from the beginning and still
own pace, and to the depth and breadth that she chooses. Much of our therapeutic today, being part of a Rape Crisis group has been a life-changing experience on
work with women is long-term, where clients are exploring the whole of their life many levels. (See also Cameron 1997 and Wood 1995.)
experience and relationships. My placement with BRCG has opened a door into a place where 1
The term 'woman-centred' does not mean 'person-centred' for women. Instead. am -enjoying the work and being with people who have changed
it implies an understanding of what it is to be a person that takes into account that and enriched my life. (G., volunteer counseilor and management
we are gendered human beings. Our self-concept and our conditions of worth are group member)
at ali times heavily influenced by our gender and other factors such as 'face', colour,
class and culture(s). Central to feminist practice is a commitment to woÉk with 1 think respect, empathy and genuineness were mentioned in those early training
both commonality and difference; without acknowiedgment of difference, whole notes and were casily taken on board by us because they fitted with the way we
groups of women are marginalised and any hope of real equality is loa. 'Woman- wanted to relate to each other and our feminist commitment to equality. We saw
centred' does not prescribe a certain kind ofwomanhood. Instead it recognises the no division between our future clients and ourselves; we were creating something
political implications of a therapy that aims to allów women to become themselves for ourselves. We were offering not 50 much therapy as soiidarity. 'We turned the
in ways that go beyond gender roles, expectations and stereotypes. As women become best part of ourselves toward the best part of our coileagues in order to accomplish
more fuliy human, men too can step outside the straitjacket of 'masculinity. something of lasting value that neither could have done alone' (Wood 1995: 23).
In recruiting staff volunteers and students on placement we piace a much
TRAIMNG higher value on particular attitudes and openness to experience than on formal
qualifications or levei of training. In common with ciient-centred therapy training
The organisation was set up by women for women, from the ground up. There we consider personal development to be perhaps the most crucial element in the
were no professionals involved at the beginning, though some of us have gained development of a counsellor/therapist. Developing self-awareness, personal growth
professional qualification1s along the way. Ouç starting point was our own responses and self-care remain central to our in-house training. Trainees are encouraged to,
and experiences of sexual violence. Not ali of us had been raped (this is an assumption develop a high levei of responsibility for themselves and the group.
made by some) but sexual violence had impacted on us ali in some way. Ali women Autonomy, so highly vaiued within a person-centred approach, raises particular
have experienced the fear of rape and we ali have to accommodate or deal with this issues for women. Our society praises and celebrares men's self-actualisation whilst
fear in our daily lives. Rape and the fear of rape affect the way every woman lives denigrating or punishing women's. Where men are 'driven', women are 'selfish'. We
her life and the choices she makes—this may not always be in awareness. In Bradford can compare and contrast media views of men with those ofwomen who have been
in the late seventies and early eighties it was brought sharpiy into awareness for successful in business or sport and those who take risks to achieve a personal goal.
most. Peter Sutdliffe, also known as the Yorkshire Ripper, was murdering women. For example, Alison Hargreaves, the first woman to climb Everest unsupported by
Part of the media response was to focus on women's responsibility to keep themselves
safe by never going out alone without a male escort for protection. Ironically, at the 2This continues to be the case. 1998 and 2000 British Crime Surveys show that strangers were
sarne time, feminists were discovering that women were most at risk of rape and responsible for only 8% of rapes.

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Sherpas or oxygen, who died on an expedition to K2, was vilified for her we.bave had to work through great pain and disappointment when (inevitably) we
irresponsibility in leaving behind her two children with their father while she fali to live up to the high standards we set for ourselves, and each other.
attempted dangerous climbs. (Observer Magazine 30/3/03)
We recognise the weight of social conditioning that often compeis women to STRUCTURE
care for others, neglect themselves and gain power or control over others by caring.
These kinds ofintrojected conditions ofworth that may or may not be in awareness For many years we operated as a coliective with weekly meetings. Reluctantly we
have to be confronted before we are able to offer our clients a fully respectful and moved to a different structure with a management group as, in common with many
more equal therapeutic relationship. As giris, later to be wornen (both clients and similar organisations, we found that most volunteers were not willing to take on
therapists) we learn to get our own needs met through attending to others. Our the responsibilities of being employers. In addition there has been the pressure
mothers may prepare us for disappointment at the sarne time as teaching us the from funding bodies to 'professionalise'. However we have maintained an open,
ruies of the femininity game—we learn to look 'dependent' on men, at the sarne democratic and largeiy non-hierarchical structure where akhough there are different
time knowing that our deepest needs will not be recognised or met. We may learn arcas of responsibility, everyone has a say and decisions are made by working for a
to deny that the need exists, to ourselves, and others. We learn to submerge our consensus, not by voting. 1 see much common ground within feminist and person-
own needs under the cloak of caring for others, giving away what we most want for centred approaches to organisation particularly in terms of commitment to working
ourselves, and silently feeling shame for wanting. This has a complex effect on our in a coilaborative style that equalises power and responsibility and a valuing of
relationship with ourselves, and each other, in a service by women for women every member of the group.
Our experience echoes that of the London Women's Therapy Centre as described The absence of hierarchy allows everyone to give of their best, and
by Eichenbaum and Orbach: integrity is paramount. There is room for volunteers to grow, and
far from the popular belief that women were dependent cii others, te initiate events. (G.)
in fact women strongly protected themselves agaunst showing their
dependency needs. Women expressed feelungs of shame and self- Despite criticism and sometimes hostiity we have contunued to be an organisation
dislike for having these needs in the first place. Time and again we run by women for women. Perhaps this hostility is rooted in the expectation that
heard our clients assumung that they should not and could not expect women will take care ofmen's needs. Women-only provision with an expiicit focus
care and attention from anyone else. (1984: 13) on women's needs chalienges this assumption. In mixed organisations women's needs
and perspective are easily lost. As well as providing a safe and appropriate space for
Formost of us as giri children, our main carer was a woman and this leads to some women to heai, this also keeps us focused on a woman-centred understanding of
highly contradictory messages, for example: 'be like me, but don't be like me.' sexual violence and working therapeutically. Ir also seems to have a profound effect
(Waiker, 1990: 45) The compiexities of a mother-daughter relationship can be on how women working in the organisation come to feel about themselves:
repiayed in other reiationships between women. Women often rely on each other The satisfaction 1 have fek about being a wonnan is something 1
for support yet at the sarne time we are taught that as part of growing up we must have never really experienced up until 1 started working here
separate from mother and learn to rely on, whilst taking care of, men. We are society, culture and the media had taught me that 1 wasn't enough
taught to compete with éach other for male attention and to put each other down 1 wasn't equal We as women need to learn to value ourselves
...

in the process. Women often come to therapy with an idealised self and an idealised te understand that we are of worth and uniportance and the best
view of the therapist, which sometimes masks an internalised hatred ofself as woman. way and the only way we can ever achieve this is if wornen
Deep longing, deprivation, envy, anger and competition are themes that emerge themselves take the responsibility to value themselves and each
and re-emerge during therapy, training, supervision and working together. If we other. (H., Project Jyoti worker)
neglect tonurture and develop our own positive self-regard as women therapists,
the prizing of our women clients is compromised and contradictory. Unlike men 1 value being part of a rare female-owned, run and catering for
we are not expected to take or demand power but to gain it, if at ali, through women organisation. 1 think we are a model of good practice for
manipulation, or by the back door. This sexist conditioning has an impact not only the wider voluntary sector and Pm sure some statutory services.
on the therapeutic relationship between rwo wornen but also on the dynamics of a The service we offer te women is a vital lifeline, somewhere safe
women-only group. We tend to have high expectations of each other as women and to go, to help them make sense of the pain and abuse they've

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM MoNIcA HILL

endured; we expose the abuse, we don't normalise it. 1 don't do Shaw, Chapter 12, this volume.) For some of us this is one of the difficulties with
direct sexual abuse work with women any more, but the traíning 'non-directiveness':
and ethos of working within BRCG has given me greater awareness One issue for me is the tension between the person-centred focus
generally and affects how 1 treat others. (E., ex-volunteer, ex- ou the individual, and the reality of the client's relational and social
worker, currently management group member) disempowerment. This tension was made particularly evident for
me by a client who spoke of her sadness that she couldn't have
The organisation 1 feel values what and whó 1 am, my sexuality, children because she carried the belief that ali people who are abused
my experiences, my spirituality. 1 feel that the members of the will themselves become abusers, given the opportunity.
organisation understand oppression Being a lesbian myself 1 want
...
Whilst 1 felt it was valuable to chalienge this client in a person-
my sexuality to have a visibility where 1 work. This is true of our centred way, inviting her to look at her sense of her own capacity
organisation. (e., volunteer counseilor). to give love and keep a child safe, 1 also gave her the information
that made it clear that her belief didn't fit with the bigger picture of
Many feminists like myself, working in women-only organisations, are delighted abuse and abusers as shown by the statistical evidence. My approach
to see men setting up their own survivors' groups and services—taking care of with this client was also informed by my awareness of her perceptual
their own and other men's emotional needs. We are also interested to note that bias towards self-blame, and how this was continually reinforced
they do not face criticism for being men-only groups. 1 believe there is still a need throngh her experience of relating to others within a framework of
for women to organise separately in order to confront sexism and truly empower shared patriarchal assumptions. To the extent that 1 was bringing
each other. in information that was externa1 to the client, and consciously
li is important to stress that persons exist as women and men, to seeking to foster the awareness that would help empower her, 1 feel
delve into sex- and gender-specific issues and to celebrate diversity 1 was stepping out of the person-centred ground of non-
in this regard. (Schmid 2002: 67) directiveness. (S., volunteer/student counselior)

We look for what is useful in a theory and rethink or adapt it: to our own reality and
WOMAN-CENTRED THERAPY experience. Many of us feel that there is much common ground to build on person-
centred and ferninist theory but feminists have also made a huge contribution
Just as the client-centred approach challenged some of the traditional orthodoxy (perhaps under-recognised) to advances in analytic and psychodynamic theory and
around therapy, the political view of many wornen involved in RC groups has been other therapeutic approaches such as Gestak. At BRCG we have deliberately chosen
highly critical. We have seen the ways that therapy has been used to keep women in not to restrict our counsellors and therapists to one theoretical model, unlike rnany
their place or 'adjust' to second-class status. women's therapy services that are aligned toone (usually psychodynamic) approach.
Too often therapy and therapeutic technique have been shrouded in mystery In common with the Person-Centred Approach, we never seek to pathologise
held onto by experts. A key airn of ours has been accessibility, not just of therapy our clients. Rape is one of the ultimate tools of a patriarchal society that seeks to
itself but also informatioi and understanding about therapy and how it can help. deny women freedom and power. Just as Rogers saw every person as always seeking
We recognise the very real limits on women's power and choices, whilst at the sarne actualisation—though that may be expressed in bizarre or apparently distorted
time working to enable women to find the power they do have and discover their behaviour—we have understood that a wornan struggling to reclaim her power
capacity for self-healing. This includes sharing information, resources and sometimes may behave in self-destructive ways. We view this self-destructiveness not as
'techniques' or 'tools' for self-care, self-awareness or self-development. These are pathology but as internalised oppression. Similariy the rapist is not suffering from
offered, never imposed; the woman's right to choose is paramount. As a general rule some kind of pathology and rape cannot be understood in this way—as the act of a
we do not take referrais and we always check out whether a client has chosen to sick individual. Rape is both the cause and effect of male power and pornographic
come to us or if she's under pressure from someone alse. lies about women. It is the logical outcome in a society that says women are 'lower',
As feminists we are critical of any theory that has been developed largely by that our sexuality is 'dirty and that our role is to service men. We see women's and
men, in a patriarchal society; including person-centred theory. 'Gender-neutral' or men's psycbology as socially constructed. We also see a society that has deeply
non-political approaches are likely to simply reinforce the status quo. (See also contradictory values around sex and around violence.

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We aim not to be restricted by the limits of the therapy room. We did not set • Awareness of both subjective and objective realities. As a feminist therapist, both
out to be a counselling service only and we think carefully about the barriers that aspects are important; clients are struggling often with both internalised oppression
different women face in getting support around issues ofviolence. This has included and external barriers to their fully becoming persons. Clients are attempting to
working in schools, youth groups and community centres, using the places where manage not just their own, but society's incongruence. (See also Shaw, Chapter
women already meet and doing outreach work. We have set up a specific project for 12, this volume.)
Black and Asian women—Project Jyoti—and a service within a women's prison. • Recognising the particular issues that may arise for women around dependence/
As a feminist therapist and Rape Crisis trainer, 1 work within the foliowing independence. We may have difficulty recognising our needs, expressing them
system of core beliefs and values. 1 see some of these beliefs and values as grounded and having them met.
in both feminist and person-centred theory, some are based more on feminist theory • The right to autonomy and self-determination. Woman-centred practice includes
and practice and may present a chailenge to person-centred practice, ifnot to theory. - an awareness of the particular tensions that arise for women and for people in
• The client is the expert on her own life. The therapist's expertise lies in creating the communities where the 'self is always 'self-in-relation-to-others'.
conditions where the client can find her own path, her own healing. • Individual acts or behaviour either perpetuate or chalienge existing power relations.
• Equality: this must be worked for rather than assumed. Being willing to recognise Rape is an abuse of male power that acts as a form of social control of women
and address both commonalities and differences between myself, my clients, and (and children). li is one of the most basic attacks on a woman's right to be, her
my coileagues. Recognising my role responsibility and my personal power and autonomy, self-determination, freedom and personhood.
working in ways that enable rather than disable others.
• The personal is political. In some ways this is similar to Rogers suggestion that A feminist perspective on women's psychology and sexual violence need not detract
what is most individual is most universal. The significant difference is perhaps from a commitment to stay dose to the client's moment-to-moment experiencing.
the word 'political', which implies issues of power. It is women's very personal 1 believe it does sensitise me to possible elements in the clients experience and
experience that provides the information about power relations in society The enables my awareness of what is unspoken or assumed. My frame of reference will
point has been made that one way to judge a society is to look at how those with inform and influence my empathic response, just as it will in a therapist with a
less power are treated. Look again at the reaction when those with less power different perspective. (See Viilas-Boas Bowen, 1996: 90.) Bringing a feminist
begin to take power or resist oppression. perspective into client-centred practice does not reduce my commitment to being
• Balance rather than competition between opposites—this does not mean 'having non-controlling nor my respect for the client's autonomy—I would argue instead
it ali' but 1 think it relates well to the idea of congruence—allowing ourselves to that it enhances it and that therapists who have not considered a feminist perspective
be more fully human, unrestricted by gender stereotyping. It also means valuing are likely to unintentionally reinforce sexist expectations of men and women in
both 'feminine' and 'masculine' attributes and ways ofthinking. It means a move their work with clients. This perspective and understanding also helps me to stay
away from the patriarchal model ofdominance and submission as a way to deal present with a client when I'm feeling frustrated or stuck. It informs my values, my
with conflict and difference. It implies less competitive, more coilaborative, non- respect and my acceptance both ofmyself, and the women 1 work with. It helps me
hierarchical thinking. (See also Chaplin, 1988: 7-10.) to reconnect with my capacity for empathy and trust when I'm feeling overwhelmed,
• Recognising oppression and its dfflrent effects. Understanding and awareness enhance drained or disheartened.
and deepen empathjr. Sexism could be seen as the model for othcr forms of Taking the step from individual therapy towards a social therapy.
oppression—the distortion of, the dehumanising of the 'other'—racism, (Schmid, 2002: 68)
homophobia,disablism, abuse ofchildren. It is no coincidence that rape is routinely
used as a weapon ofwar and has only recendy been recognised as a war crime. As women committed to the struggle against violence, we are ali
• Recognising thatwomen's (and men's) psychology is socially constructed. Conditions committed to one another; that is, to a worldwide community of
of worth are created not just by primary caregivers and the family but by the women. (G.)
child's wider community and culture. Gender splitting is deep-rooted and
insidious; it may not always be in awareness. (Seealso Natielio, 1999: 163-7 and From the beginning we set out to be a campaigning organisation as well as supplying
Proctor, Chapter 11, this volume.) Being congruent raises particular chalienges a much needed service. However the demands on the service have been so great and
for women when it comes up against a self-structure, and a self-concept that the resources so small that we have been forced to prioritise so that now our
have been formed in a sexist world. involvement in campaigning has almost disappeared and even our public education

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 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM MONICA HILL

role has been greatly reduced. We have quite rightly prioritised the expressed needs contacting the service are more likely to see individual therapy as the best path to
of women contacting the service for individual help but other important projects healing. We have become providers of a professional service but that does not have
such as raising awareness in schools and therapeutic group work have been greatly to mean we iose what we set out with—a sense of solidarity. As a feminist organisation
reduced or lost. 1 feel both politically frustrated as a feminist and personaily frustrated nd as feminist therapists 1 think we have been swept along by the wave but also
as the mother of mo young boys that we are not doing more to chailenge the waving (not drowning!): trying to hold onto some broader view, some coiiective
beliefs, attitudes, values and power structures that perpetuate sexual violence. power, some change beyond individual healing.
When 1 ask myself 'how did we get here?' 1 can answer that we have quite
rightly been 'client-led', putting individual women survivors first and responding
to what they most wanted from us. 1 could also say it's about funding; government RADICAL BECOMES MAINSTRFAM OR DOES IT?
and local government generaily want services not campaigns. 1 can also say we have
been part of a wave focused on individual solutions that both feminism and the Both feminist and person-centred theories are revolutionary in that they chailenge
Person-Centred Approach must chailenge. conventional wisdom and traditional power relationships. It could also besaid that
Taking the human seriously as a social being, as'a person in a group, both approaches have been, to some extent, taken on or absorbed into mainstream
resuits in a re-evaluation of the indication for single and group thinking—a victory ofsorts but with inherent dangers. Just as the PCA has changed
therapy. The question arises ofhow far the group is the therapeutic the language used in therapy, e.g. client instead ofpatient, so feminists have changed
place to be chosen first, as opposed to the 'pathology' of over- the language around sexual violence, for example 'survivor' instead of 'victim'.
emphasizing single therapy ... '(Schmid 2002: 67). In the 1970s and 80s, ferninist research and feminist organisations working
with survivors, such as ours and other Rape Crisis groups, succeeded in highlighting
1 see working in groups as highly valuable for both clients and counsellors/therapists. the prevalence and the nature of child sexual abuse. However our work has been
It helps us to place our personal experience in context as weli as breaking down largely appropriated and transformed by the therapy industry and statutory
isolation, enabling mutual support and experiential learning. One member of an organisations. The social meaning and context of sexual violence is lost and the
in-house supervision group said: arena has become one of:
We learnt about unconditional positive regard and being non- increasingly individualised frameworks and practices. Sexual
judgemental at coliege. It always felt like just theory there but here violence has become the vehicle for the production of a multitude
1 feel I've really experienced it. (T., student on placement) of syndromes and disorders, ali of which require 'treatment'.
(Hester, Kelly and Radford, 1996: xi)
Another says:
I'd like to acknowledge and celebrate the way I'm able to experience As a feminist therapist, 1 find myself in a double-bind. 1 recognise that labeis and
myself through being part of the group of workers at BRCG. 1 feel 'syndromes' are rarely empowering for the client and from a person-centred
there is a genuine commitment to holding the core conditions in perspective they do little to enhance my capacity for empathy with an individual
the way we relate to each other, and the resulting ethos is one of client. At the sarne time, other professionals seem to respond with greater cornpassion
empowerment. I'vé found myself able to be very open and honest, and understanding when medical terms are used to describe some of the comrnon
and to speak out effectively when I've been unhappy about responses to rape and child sexual abuse that wornen experience. It would also be
something—which is totaily new to me in a work environment. true to say that some women will feel reassured by the idea that they are suffering
I've also been able to experience making mistakes as part of an from 'post-traumatic stress disorder' and it beats being labelled as 'mad'. (See also
acknowiedged process of learning, which has directiy challenged Proctor, Chapter 11, this volume). However this focus on the 'victim' and what she
my usual process of self-biame and shame. Best of ali is the quaiity is suffering from cornpleteiy avoids the issue of why rape happens and the power
of the support 1 have received here, and my new found ability to context in which it thrives and goes unchallenged.
ask for it when 1 need it. (S., volunteer/studdnt counsellor) Feminists, like myself, have difficulty with a view of power that is focused
purely at a subjective, individual levei:
Individual perceptions of need are partly socially constructed. Whereas in the late A central tenet of post structuralism is that material power does
1980s 1 was running two survivors groups a week, in more recent years survivors not reside primarily in structures ofcontemporary western society,

230 231
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM MONICA HILL

such as the patriarchal relations of oppression and subordination, societies that stil accord different status, power and understandings to individuais
class relations ofcapitalisni or the racism ofpost colonial societies. based on existing power relations. 'Who is seen as 'normal' and who is seen as 'other',
Instead power is represented as diffuse, infusing ali social and different or deviant is stil largely framed and determined by those existing power
personal relationships. Being everywhere, but nowhere in particular, relations. We are stili Iimited by gender splitting, racism and other deeply ingrained
it dissolves lii complex and confusing ways within the subjectivity power relations.
of unique individuais. (Hester, Keiiy and Radford, 1996: 9) The tension 1 described in my introduction between the '1' and the 'we' is alive
and well in the therapy room, the person-centred group and feminist organisations
There is a danger with ali therapy, including Client-Centred Therapy, that a focus iike BRCG. For feminists there is no individual liberation without political and
on individual, subjective experience neglects, denies or minimises the significance social change. A person-centred approach informed by feminist understanding holds
of structural power. So individuais are helped to recover, but power and abuse of out a possibility for managing this tension in creative, challenging and empowering
power continues unchanged and unchallenged. A purely political response is also ways that go beyond the therapy room.
limited in that it neglects individuais' need for support and a safe place to become
ali that they can be.
1 have often experienced clients moving from '1' to 'we', from a position of REFERENCES
'how can 1 get through this' to a position of 'how can 1 help others to get through
this?' or 'how can 1 give something back?' Whilst this can be understaod asevidence Bowen, M Vilias-Boas (1996) The myth ofnon-directiveness: The case ofJili, in B Farber,
ofthe 'fuily-fitnctioning person' who becomes more fully herself and more sociaiised, D Brink and P Raskin (eds) The Psychotherapy of Gari Rogers. New York: Guildford
1 have a note ofcaution. This may also be an expression of the introjected condition -Press.
ofworth 1must give more than 1 take'. Women often feel deeply unentitied to the Chaplin, J (1988) Feminist Gounseliing in Action. London: Sage.
service and wili minimise or trivialise their own experiences ofviolence, sometimes Cameron, R (1997) The personal is political: Re-reading Rogers. Person-Centred Practice
offering to end therapy early 'because there must be others who need your service 5(2):16-20.
more than me'. Again this echoes the experience of the London Women's Therapy Eichenbaum, L and Orbach, S (1984) What do Women Want? London: Fontana.
Centre, as described by Eichenbaum and Orbach: Hester, M, Kelly, L and Radford, J (eds) (1996) Women, Violence and Mak Power: Feminist
This need to give and the difficuity with receiving was such a feature research, activism and practice. Buckingham: Open University Press.
of each woman we encountered that we began to see it as central to Natielio, P (1999) The Person-CenteredApproach: Solution to gender splitting, in 1 Fairhurst
the deveiopment of women's psychology. (1984: 13) (cd) Women Writing in the Person-CentredApproach. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.
Schmid, PF (2002) Knowledge or Acknowledgement? Psychotherapy as 'the art of not-
As women we often have difficulty balancing our own needs with those of others. knowing'—Prospects on further developments of a radical paradigm. Person-Centered
As a feminist therapist 1 aim to hold a perspective that includes both the wood and and Experiential Psychotherapíes 1(1 & 2): 56-70.
the individual trees, the outer as well as the inner reaiity of our lives, the personai Waiker, M (1990) Women in Therapy and Counseiing. Milton Keynes: Open University
and the political power relationships which shape us. Press.
Wood, JK (1995) The Person-Centered Approach: Toward an understanding of its
implications. The Person-Genteredjournai 2(2).
CONCLUSION

1 hope that 1 have demonstrated that woman-centred practice embodies the values
of the Person-Centred Approach both in how we do therapy and how we organise
ourselves. It is possible to put both feminist and person-centred vaiues into practice
in therapy, in training, in working together and in órganising. 1 believe that the
Person-Centred Approach can be enriched by feminism that offers a wider
understanding ofwhat it means to be women and men, as well as an understanding
of how our life experience and our self-concepts are shaped in part by our place in

232 233
 THE CONTRIBUTORS

THE EDITORS
Person-Centered Approach, both central to her own best personal changes, makes that more
possible. In Hilo, Hawaii, where she now lives, she offers women's groups, counseis individuais
Giffian Proctor. For as long as 1 can remember, 1 have been incensed by and couples, and laves training and 'mentressing' young therapists through what she sees as
social injustices in this
the oppression and
world. Constantly questioning taken-for-granted authority 1 have 'an inspirited Rogerian gender egalitarian lens'. Currently she is writing about her experiences
always been intrigued by different responses to the mad world in which as a gatherer, social activist and idealist over the past 30 years.
survive this madness in creative ways. Following my we live, and how we
natural curiosity about people and
survivai in varying circumstances, 1 have always loved to travei Margaret Bird. 1 have worked with women for a number of years around issues of
and this book coilaboration is
one result of my traveis. 1 am a Doctor in Clinical Psychology sexual violence and violence in dornestic settings. My training and approach is
,currently working as part of
the mental health therapy team for North Bradford person-centred and 1 practise as a counselior, psychodramatist, groupworker, trauner
Primary Gare Trust and an honorary
lecturer with the Centre for Citizenship and Community Mental and supervisor. My work is informed by feminisrn and at the sarne time it continu-
Health at Bradford
University,WestYorkshire, UK. Beingpaid to indulge my curiosity
about people is aprivileged aily heips tu develop my feminist understanding. What 1 hear and witness always
position to be in, and 1 take the
responsibility that comes with my position very seriously. affects me. 1 make connections with my own thoughts, my own feelings, my own
My particular interests are in ethjcs and
power, and my exploration of power iii therapy identities, my own experiences of being a woman in the culture 1 live in, being a
resuited in The Dynamics ofPower in Counselling and
Therapy: Ethics, poli es and practice, woman in this world. 1 reflect on my relationship to power—when 1 misuse power
PCCS Books, 2002. VAiflst the
Person-Centred Approach helps me to concentrate on the
uniqueness and potential for growth and and when power is misused over me. As 1 rnake connections, 1 learn more about the
creativity ofeach individual, feniinism brings my
focus to the coinnonali within dominant workings of power and the effects ofpowerlessness. For me, feminism offers paral-
and marginalised groups and the effects of
socially constructed positions and limitations on people. lei struggles and rewards with a person-centred way of being—both continue to be
empowering and challenging for me, a way of reaching to my true power-within.
Mary Beth Napier, PsyD, MPS. Imagine my
delight when 1 was able to combine my two
passions in one book! 1 ara a clinical
psychologist, supervisor of therapy students, teacher Jeffiiey HD Connelius-White, PsyD is an assistant professor of psychology at Texas A&M
and conduct neuropsycho1ogi1 assessments. In each of these arcas, feminisrn and dient- Intennational University. He teaches primarilyin aMaster's ofCounseling Psychologyprogram
centered principies guide my actions and attitudes
towards others. 1 feel privileged to share and is an activist, cycist, and husband. Jeff is the managing editor of the Person-Centered
rny life with my partner of 14 years and to have the Journal and an associate editor ofthe Renaissance, the journal and newsietter of the Association
opportunity to add writer and editor to
the list of activities that give me life. In previotis years- 1 have been a carnpus, youth and for the Development of the Person-Centered Approach, respectively. His scholarly and
music minister and a spirited camp community work have been primarily concerned with person-centered multicultural
counselor. MI ofthese activities have taught me tu listen
carefilly, to love passionateiy and counseing, education, and social reform.
to work -diligently to create connections between people
and between ideas. 1 hope that this
book can bring together individuais tu continue this
dialogue of empowerrnent. Edna Davis. 1 have been working with children, young people and families surviving sexual
violence for 18 years and often wonder what my life was like before my therapeutic training
began and before 1 moved unto this arca of work. This period of my life has been a time of
THE CONTRIBUTO great richness, growth and learning. Learning not only about me and my life but also about
how it sometimes is for women and children whõ exist iii a world that does not always value
Gay (Swenson) Barfield, PhD, LiCMFT was a
mmber of the Center for Studies of the
their 'presence', allow them to exist in their own night ar recognize them as human beings. 1
Person (CSP) based in La Jolla, California, for have applied a person-centred approach to my practice and have tried to integrate creative
nearly 30 years, where siie heiped acate one
of the first Womers Centers in San Diego techniques such as art, drama and psychodrama.
and the 'Living Now Institute', among other
national and internaijonal events. Xii
1984, she and her long-time coileague, Dr Car1 R.
Rogers, became Co-Directors at CSP of the Gari Rogers hnstitute for Peace, a projecr Randali D Ehrbar, PsyD. Dr Randali Ehrbar is a post-doctoral fellow at the University of
apply peron-centered principies to real and potential crisis situations. She tu Minnesota Program in Human Sexua1ity. He is very interested in cient-centered therapy
has received
numerous honors from organizations recognizing outstandingwomen, and and diversity issues in general. Other interests include human sexuality broadly defined,
an award from the County of San Diego for 'improving in 1992 received induding: issues of sex, gender, sexuality, and couples relationships. He became interested
human relations', particularly for a
series ofcross-cultural 'Living Room Dialogues' on inflammatoiy and aware of issues of difference, justice, and oppression at an early age, as they have been
US/Mexican border issues.
She strongíy believes in working to increase mutual
respect within and across genders,
relevant in his own life in a variety of ways. When he was introduced to Client-Centered
so that we may become more effective and constructive members of Therapy, he was immediately drawn to it because of the deep respect for people inherent in
ali our diverse forms of
&mily, social, political and spiritual systems. For her, combining feminism with Rogers' this modality and because it fit well with his feminist ideais.

234
235
 ENCOUNTERTNG FEMINISM THE CONTRIBUTORS

Phoebe C Godftey, PhD is an assistant professor ar Texas A&M International University. psychotherapist; practical theoiogian and pastoral psychologist; founder ofperson-centered
She teaches graduate and undergraduate socioiogy in a manner that attempts to combine training and further training in Austria; director of the Academy for Counseling and
feminist critical pedagogy and person-centered education. She is very committed to Psychotherapy of the Austrian Institute for Person-Centered Studies (IPS ofÁPG) and Board
empowering students in her classrooms as well as working towards progressive social change Member of both the World Association (WAPCEPC) and the European Network
in her community and throughout the world. (NEAPCEPC). He has authored and co-authored eleven books and numerous articles about
the anthropoiogy and further deveiopments of the Person-Centered Approach in German
J Wade Hannon, EdD, is an Associate Professor in the Counseior Education Program at and Eng!ish. Heis co-editor of Person-Centered and &perientialPsychotherapies, the journal
North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA, and lives in Moorhead, of the World Association, and of the international German language jouma! PERSON He
Minnesota. He is contemplating what it means to be 50 years oid when no one over 30 can is also webmaster of The Person-Centered Website at <www.pca-online.net>. His main interest
be trusted. To him, feminism and the Person-Centered Approach both are ways in which to is in the genuine development of the Person-Centered Approach and irs anthropoiogical
enabie peopie to overcome the shack!es ofoppression and live as liberated human beings'. foundations. Due tu his pursuir of the philosophical notion of 'person' as the underiying
foundation in PCA he became convinced that gender issues including the feminist approach
Monica HW. 1picked upa copyofSpare Rib (women's liberation magazine) in a newsagent, need to be paid more artention to in PCA. Thus one of the main priorities of his training
when 1 was 16 and felt 1 finaily belonged somewhere. Two years later 1 moved to Bradford programme is gender issues. Homepage: <wwwpfs-online.au'.
and became a feniinist activist. 1 have been a member of Bradford Rape Crisis Group ever
since. When 1 began training as a therapist, it was the Person-Centred Approach that Clare Shaw, 1'm an anarchist first and foremost, which means that 1 have a deep beief in
seemed to me to fir best with feminist poiitics and practice. people's ability to live according to the principie ofco-operation rather than competition or
co-ercion. Consequently, 1 am actively committed to challenging hierarchies of power and
Roseinary Hopkim. As whjte, heterosexual, abie-bodied, educated, and statusin individual reiationships and wider society; hierarchies which indude those structured
financiaily secure, 1
va!ue and celebrate my privileges, my fteedoms, and my responsibilities. As around gender, 'race', dass and other differences. My own experiences of the psychiatric
a woman in a
mate domjnated and unbaianced world, 1 strive to live myself fully as wife, mother, system have given me a great passiori for challenging the profound power differences which
grandmother, sister, friend, therapist, community builder, and activist for peace and justice. characterise that institution; and for working towards meaningful alternatives based on
1 welcome dialogue and discussion—<emoyeni@hopkins.net>. Feminism is the 'how' of mutuality; co-operation and friendship. My interest in the Person-Centred Approach springs
my beingmyself, as well as part of a global community. Feminist principies nurture me and not oniy from my experiences of therapy and my academic interest in all things 'mental
provide the solidarity that is fundamental to my wellbeing. PCA embodies the chosen values heakh', but also from an early conversation with Gillian Proctor in which she described
of the 'how' of my aiving ali that 1 do. Rogers' principies and philosophy, and 1 concluded that the man must be an anarchist. 1
think 1 was wrong now.
Maureen O'Hara. Dr Maureen O'Hara is the President of Saybrook Graduate Schooi, San
Francisco. WorkingwithAmerican psychologist Dr Carl R Rogers, she and several coileagues Sophie Smailes. 1 am a practicing person-centred counseilor and a lecturer and researcher in
working in coilaboration deve!oped the Person-Centered Approach to psychotherapy the Health Care Studies Department ofManchester Metropolitan University. The arcas of
and
group process. More recendy her writings have examined the relationship between large interest 1 have include issues ofdiversity, construas ofthe self and the counselling relationship.
social change and internal psychoiogical adaptation. She has presented nationally and 1 have co-written one book Domestie Violence and Minoritisation and written a number of
worldwide at events such as the World Psychotherapy Conference in Vienna, World Future articles on issues of domestic vioience, minoritisation and power (within and without the
Society,OD Network and APA conferences. She is a Distinguished Clinical Member
of the counselling relationship).
California Association for Mrriage and Family Therapy, Fellow of the World Academy of Both the Person-Centred Approach (PCA) and feminism inform who 1 um and how;I
Art and Science, Fellow of the American Psychological Association, Fellow of the Meridian work. They are concerned, in varying degrees, with the recognition of the individual's frame
Institute on Governarice, Leadership Leaming and the Future, member of the International of reference and the understanding, and meaning, we have of our lives. 1 believe we are
Futures Forum at St Anclrews Universit» Scotiand. informed by political, social, familial, gender, cultura!, sexual, racial and ciass norms and
She writes: 'For me PCA is fundamentally an orientation that trusts that there is an construas. These have implications in terms of our conditions ofworth and iife experiences.
evolutionary principie in all ofnature, includinghwnan nature, and seeks to align individual PCAs regard for the in&vidual's experiences as being unique to them endeavours to make
actions in accord with thax principie. Feminism aligns itself with the sarne principie and no assumptions of meanings while feminism acknowledges that we are part of larger
focuses on identifjring barriers to the self-realization ofwonen that are created by attitudes picture which is imbued with inequalities—the potential for these two approaches to
and structures ofsexism.' compliment each other as well as conflict are what 1 explore within my chapter.

Peter F SchniidisMsocjate Professor at the University of Graz, Austria, and FacuityMeniber Deb Steele is a Senior Lecturer in Counseffing and Psychotherapy at Nottingham Trent
of Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center, San Francisco; person-centered University and is also a British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP)

236 237
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM

Accredited counseilor and a supervisor in private practice. The core values offeminism and
the PersonCentred Approach are a fundamental part ofher being, as is the experiencing of INDEX
life as essentially a spiritual journey.

4th World conference on women 7 Barfield, G 6, 9, 100

Caro! Woker-Gustafson, EdD. They say 'the truth will set you free', but whose truth are we Barrett-Lennard, GT 29,34,37, 109
11 September 2001 71
taiking about? Questions like that have been pi Izzling me for as long as 1 can remember. The Bartky, S 80, 86, 105, 108, 113
abuse 135, 150,211,232
emancipatory power of feminism and the Person-Centered Approach have nourished me ofchildren (see 'child abuse) Bass,L 196, 205
personaily, politically and intellectually. We offerapathwayout ofthe 'us-versus-them' territoiy sexual (see 'sexual abuse' and 'sexual Bat Shalom 77
and rhetoric that fieis violence locally and globally. Our shared radical assertion that each violence) Batsleer,J 210, 211, 214, 218
voicemust be heard is literally life-giving. activism 163 Belenky, MF 14,23
1 first met Cari Rogers ata nine-day residential workshop on Long Island in 1978, while anti-war, 41,81 Benjamin,J 66
1 was a graduate student in the Departinent of Humanistic and Behavioral Studies ar Boston ineducation 173 Bepko, C 160, 164
University Our depamnentchair Pau! Nash shared power, challengedhietarchy, and cuhivated feminist 141, 163 Biever,J 212, 218
political, 41, 70-9, Big Issue 74
a person-centered, mukinatjonal, interdisciplinary program. 1 was fortunate to have these
actualisingtendency 31, 111, 157, 162, Binder, U 184,188
profound and innovative experiences early iii my career. 1 later taught philosophy and human
169, 173, 180, 184 biological basis of mental illness 143
development to prospective teachers at Lesley Coilege, and 1 continue to maintain a private Bird,M 5,10
Adams,P 215, 220
psychotherapy practice in Boston. 1 am now concentrating on writing and exploring the role of birth 87, 91, 92, 95
Afro-Centrism 110
movement and non-verbal communication in the fiilly-functioning person. age 44,49,106,130, 159-60, 171 Blackwomen 194, 221, 228
agency 3, 14, 76, 173,210-14 Bohart,A 100, 112,113
student 167-8 Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) 17,
aggression 6, 10, 183-5 134-6,147-8
Ahsan,MH 7,11 Bowen, M Vilas-Boas 48, 53, 54, 55, 62,
Alcoff,L 106,113 229,233
Almeidia, RV 156, 158, 164 Bowies, $ 167,174
akered states 91 Bozarth, JD 26, 27, 29, 34, 37, 100, 131,
American Psycbiatric Association 17, 23, 139, 155, 161, 162, 172, 175
142, 143, 152 Brabeck, M 22, 23, 24
American Psychological Association 100 Bradford Rape Crisis Group (BRCG) 221,
Amnesty International 73 223,226-7,233
androcentric religion 88 Brazil 64, 65
Arafia 71,74 Breggin,P 146,152
Arneson,P 99, 101, 113 Briere,J 135, 138
Arnett,RC 101, 113 Bristol Crisis Service Su.rvey 146
Arnold,L 146,148,152 British Association for the Person-Centred
Aronson,E 123,127 Approach (BAPCA) 2
Arrien, A 70, 79 Brod, H 80, 86
art methods/techniques 203, 235 Brod!ey,BT 30,31, 36, 37, 109, 113, 116,
Asch,MJ 170,174 126, 127, 137, 138, 154, 158, 164
Aspy, DN 99, 169, 170, 171, 172, 174 Brown, LS 18, 20,22,24
Association for the Development of the Bruns, CM 13, 23,24
Person-Centered Approach (ADPCA) Buber,M 131
2, 154 Burr,V 142,152
authenticity 90, 120, 126, 187, 197 Burstow, B 149, 153, 158, 164, 210, 213,
autonomy 3, 5, 19, 32, 35, 63, 180-1, 210, 218
223,229 Busfield,J 143, 147, 153
Baker,NL 156,164 Butler,J 161, 164
Bailou, M 12, 20,23,24 Cameron, R 223, 233
Bancroft,A 95 Campaign Against Arms Trade 73

238 239
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM INDEX

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 73,74 connection 110, 117, 119, 121, 123
capitalism 232 emancipation 68, 167, 183, 185-7 Frankfurt School 167
conscientization 167-8 empathy 27, 29, 100, 107-10, 144-5, Fraser,JS 213, 219
Caplan,P 17,24 consciousness-raising 4, 90, 203, 210
Cappachionc, L 196, 205 158-60,169-74,180,197,212, Freire, P 65, 167, 168, 173, 174, 175
control 3, 4, 9, 36, 75, 77, 112, 131, 137, 216,223,229 French, M 14, 24, 130, 139
Carkhuff,RR 170, 173, 174 144, 198, 210, 213, 217,224
Cari Rogers Institute for Peace 42 enlpowerment 18,144,146-7,151,167, Freud,S 98, 99, 135
of clients 119, 120, 172 173,185 Friedan, B 46
Castillo,H 153 loss of 146 encounter groups 4, 34-5,41,52 Friends of the Earth 73
Cato the Elder 179 men's, of.women 7, 14, 85, 195, 199, epistemological authority 97, 101-2, 108-9 fully-functioning person 232
Cattanach,A 197, 205 204,209-10,229 Equal Rights Amendment 82 Gabalac, NW 12, 20,23
Center for Studies of the Person (CSP) 41- core conditions 27, 30, 100, 101, 154, 158, equality 4,8,12-13,45,49,55, 82-4, 103, Garcia,G 95
50,53,57,60 182~3, 192,194,203,212,217,
Women's Center (see 'Women's Centre) 112,126,158,222-3,228 gender 132, 167, 181, 222
222,230 Ermath,ED 105,114 differences 66
Chalifoux, B 161, 164 Cornelius-'Whjte, CF 169, 172, 175
Chaniberliri,J 150, 153 Evans,R 107, 114 role socialisation 132
Comelius-White, JI-ID 2,4, 10, 169, 170, expert 99, 121-2, 124-5, 228 roles ingroups 137
Chaplin,J 109, 114, 228, 233 171, 172, 173, 174, 175 diagnosis 99 sp!itting 228, 233
Chesler, P 16, 17, 18, 24, 46, 131, 133, Cornton Vale Wornen's Prison 74 elements 121-2 stereotyping 228
137, 139, 147, 148. 153 creative methods 201, 203, 235
child/hood 39, 90, 196
Fair Trade Movement 73 -neutral 226
cross-cultural 42,44, 112, 159, 172 Fairhurst, 1194 inequa!ities 142
abuse 85, 228 CrowleyJ 90 False Memory Syndrome 135 Gend!in, E 35, 37
sexual 135, 144, 191, 196, 222, 231 culture 44, 99, 106, 126, 132, 135, 154-65, Farzana (client) 211-15 genuineness (see 'congruence')
-centred therapist 197 159-63,194-5,204,209-10,212,
choice 210, 226 feniale genital mutilation 7, 148 Gergen,M 104, 105, 114
222, 225,228 fernininity 210, 217 Gi1,E 197, 205
Chopra, A 76,79 Davies,JA 144,153
Choudry,S 214, 218 feminism Gilbert,LA 16, 18,24
Davis, AY 5, 10, 83, 86, 194, 205 first-wave 12-13 Gilligan,C 19, 24, 104, 109, 114
Christ, CP 95 Davis,E 5,10,196,205 inBrazil 65 Gintis, H 167, 174
Civil Rights movement 81-2 de Beauvoir, S 104
clarification 212 ferninist Giroux, H 167, 169, 175
depoliticisation 141 critica! pedagogies (FCP) 166-78 g!ass ceiings 16
C!arke, 1 95 depression 17, 34, 41, 47, 51, 90, 144, 184,
dass 8, 11, 13, 15, 35, 66-8, 81, 84, 106, definitions/ana!ysis ofpower 14, 129 Glauser, AS 172, 175
211 empiricist position 104 Gloria (fihn) 64
130,137, 156,159-61,167,173, diagnosis 4, 17, 23, 88, 90, 99, 107, 133-6, Epistemologies 106 Goddess 87, 90
193,208,214, 216-7,222, 232, 143-4,145,155,202 hea!ers 18 GodfreyPC 4,10
237 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual W
dassical or non-directjye PCT 32 pedagogy 166-78 Go!dberger, NR 23
(DSM-IV) 17, 23, 148, 152 psychology 13, 16, 21, 66, 154-5 Go!dman,R 1,11
client incongruence 28, 158 Digby, T 80, 86
Clinchy, BM 23 spiritua!ity 46, 87-96 Go!dsrem, K 31, 37
disablism 228 standpoint position 104 Goodison, G 95
Clough, PT 83,86 disconnection 117-9, 121
coilaboration/ive, 5, 9, 19, 169, 234 theo!ogy 87 Gordon,P 212,218
Dobash, RE 209,218' theoiy 12, 97, 102-6, 109, 129, 132-3, Gore,J 166, 167, 168, 169, 172, 174, 175
power 112 Dolash, RP 209, 218 136, 138, 141, 147, 162, 168, Grant,B 164
relationship 17 domestic violence 5, 7, 15, 200, 207-9, 211-14,223,227-8 GreenbergLS 100, 112, 113
Colledge, R 209, 216,218 211,215-6 therapy 12, 15, 17-8, 22, 116 Greenham Common 90
Coilins, PH 83, 84, 86, 161, 164 dominance/dorninaijon 187, 209-10 Finley-Belgrad, EA 144,153 Greenpeace 73
Communjst Manifesto, the 81 Dxyden, W 209, 211,213,214,218
concjitions ofworth v, 3, 31-2, 89, 108-9, Flinders, CL 95 Greenspan, M 16,20,24, 107, 109, 114
Dworkin,A 141, 153 Fo!Iini, B 135,139 Greer,G 195,205
116,126,132-3,145,147,163, Dymond, R 33, 38
228,237 Ford, M 17, 24 Grey, MC 96
Ehama ceremonjes 70,74 Forman,F 114 growth fostering relationships 118, 122, 124
confidentiality 208 Ehrbar, RD 6, 10 formative tendency 94, 169 Hague,G 207, 218
conflict resolution 40,42, 187 Eichenbaum, L 224,232-3 Foucauk, M 101, 134, 139 Hannier,J 196,210,218
congruence 27, 100, 137, 145, 150, 154, Eisler, R 95
158-62, 169, 172,183, 205, 217, Four Shields of Balance 70 Hannon,JW 2,8,9, 171,172,175
e1ectroconvu1siv therapy (ECT) 146, 148 Fox, M 94, 95 Hare-Mustin, RT 19,24
223,228 Ellsworth, E 167, 168, 175 Fox-Genovese, E 114 Hargreaves, A 223

240 241
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM INDEX

Harvey, A 96 Kirschenbaum, H 26,28, 30, 33, 37, 38, McTiren, P 167, 169, 171, 176 oppressed groups 5, 143, 194
Harvey;M 144,146,150,153 99, 114, 162 Meador, Betty 48 oppression 3,53,13~15,20-1,35,76,84,
Hawthorne, S 73, 77, 79 Koss, M 144, 146, 150, 153 Mearns, D 29, 38, 109, 114, 209, 219 101,107-8,123,129-34,143,
Hawtin, S 1, 211, 216, 218 Kravetz, D 207, 210, 219 medical model 4, 9, 144 149, 151, 156, 163, 166, 168, 173,
Hearn,J 210, 219 Kristeva, J 66, 105 Melior, M 73, 79 192-3,203-5,226-9
Heise, L 7, 11 La Jolla Program 41 mental illness 35, 88, 134, 143 Orbach, S 224, 232,233
Henderson, VL 26, 28, 30, 33, 37, 38,45, Jgo,C 21,25 Miles, R 96 organismic
162 Lambert, MJ 34, 38 Miller,JB 18, 19, 25, 103, 104, 114, 116, experiences 137, 161, 182
Herman, J 135, 196, 205 Lather, P 166, 167, 168, 174, 175 117, 119, 120, 121, 123, 126, 127 self 28, 31, 71, 137, 143 214
heterosexist stereotypes 199 Lces,S 195, 204, 205 Miller, A 196,204, 205 valuingprocess 1, 101, 108
heterosexuallity 213 LeGuin,U 46 Moodley,R 21,25 paedophile 136
relationships 210,217 Lerman, H 17, 18, 20, 21, 24 Moon, K 29,38 networks 195
women 5 Lewin, K 64 Mooney,J 203, 205, 209,219 Painter, K 134, 139 -

Hill,M 5, 10, 142, 144 lesbianls 5, li" 22,49,60, 83, 106, 156, Moreno, ZT 203, 205 pathology/isation 4, 16-19, 107, 123, 126,
historical power 130, 132 160, 226 Mowiem, M 76 134, 141, 227,230
Hoey, B 205 Linehan, MM 163,164 murder 7, 65,72, 151, 179, 193, 222 patriarchy/al 5, 8, 13-14, 18 103, 105, 138,
Hoffman,MIL 184,188 'Living Now' 42, 56 mutual empathy 119-26 167, 186, 194, 199, 204
Hollingsworth, S 173,175 Lloyd,G 104, 114 and empowerment 125 hegemony 85
Home OfficelDept ofHeakh 139 London Rape Crisis Centre 195, 205 empowerment 104, 110, 118, in education 167
'honour' killings 7 London Women's Therapy Centre 224, 232 122-4,126 Patterson, CH 155, 158, 159, 160, 164,
homophobia 173, 186, 193,228 Long, AP 96 enrichment 188 172,176
hooks, b 83, 86, 157, 164, 167, 168, 169, love 215 mutuality 1,5,9,19,93,110,116,119, Peace Project 42, 53, 55, 56, 57, 100
175, 196, 205 Lovering, A 1 125-6, 130 Penfold, P 146,153
Hopkins, PD 6, 9, 80, 86 Lowe,R 131, 139 Mytton,J 209, 211,213,214,218 Person-Centered Approach to education
Horney,K 111 Luke,C 166,176 Rogers, N 50, 55, 62, 180 (PCAE) 166-78
Humm,M 12,24 lust 182, 183 Napier, MB 5, 6, 10, 127, 176 person-centered
hysteria 133-5, 147 Lyddon,W 211,212,219 Natiello, P 36, 38,75,77,79, 111, 112, learning process 173
Illinois School ofProfessional Psychology 2 MacDougall,C 171, 176 114,131, 139, 228, 233 therapy and power 35
incest 7, 15 Machsom (Checkpoint) Watch in the National Organization for Women 82 personal
incongruence 158 Occupied Territories 76 Native American 80, 81 growth 223
individualisation 60, 141, 147, 151, Mackinnon,C 141,153 Nazario Jr, A 160, 164 is political 13, 104, 143, 238
210, 214, Macy,J 96 Nazism 99 is the most universal 105
Ingerman, S 96 madness 133 necessary and sufilcient conditions (see cote power 3, 35, 131 -

interlocking systems ofdomination 168 Mahoney, MR 210, 214,217,219 conditions') personality disorder 17, 134-6 (see also
intimacy 182-3 Mahowald, MB 104,114 Nelson-Jones, R 209,219 'borderline personality disorder)
Jack,DC 90,96 Maitland,S 95 New Pfeiffer,'M 183,188
Jackson,S 215, 216,219 11 Malos,E 207,218 Internationa1ist 72, 79 phenomenology 14, 100-2, 126
jamal,M 96 Mama,A 196,205 Left 81-2 politics 73
Jessica (client) 215-16 Marecek, J 19, 24,207, 210, 219 men 179 and PCT 35-6,43, 150
Johnstone, L 146,153 Marshall,H 212,214, 219 Nicholson LJ 114 gender/sexual 14, 15, 44, 46, 102, 105,
Jordari,JV 18, 19, 24, 110,111, 118, 119, marxism 81, 102 Nin, A 70 236
120, 121, 125, 127, 172,175 critique ofcapitalism 167 Nobel Peace Prize 43, 95, 100, 171 pornography 7, 15, 196
Jyoti Project 221,228 masculine traditions 104 non positivism 102
Kaplan, AG 17,24, 172, 175 masculinity 73, 133, 209, 210, 217, 222 -directivity 10, 30-2, 36, 98-9, 109, PostTraumatic Stress Disorder 135,231
Kearney, A 35, 37, 132, 139 Maslow,A 110,114 116,124-6,197,227 post
Kelly, L 134, 135, 139, 146, 153, 195, 205, Masson,J 135, 139, 150, 153 -sexist language 83-4 -modern discourse 102, 105, 106
211,219,231,232 May,R 99,114 -violence 83-5 -partuin psychosis 88
King,M 34,37 Maynard, M 207, 212, 219 Observer Magazine 224 -structural feminism 136
King, Martin LutherJr 81 McCarthyism 81 O'Hara, M 6, 9, 20,21,25,45,49, 55, Potter,E 106, 113
Kingsolver, B 76, 79 McClosk» KA 213, 219 106, 114, 156, 161, 164 poverty 41, 83, 193

242 243
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM INDEX

power 9, 13-15, 35-6, 75, 91, 93, 97, 101, image 116-8,121-3,126 -determinism 210, 116, 229 spirituality 4, 44, 90, 102
106,111-12, 123,129,130,136, perspective 136-8 -direction5 Spretnaks, C 46
138, 142, 146, 149, 166, 172, 187, power 13, 110, 130 -disclosing 17, 22 Standal, S 29
192-3,195,201,203,207-10,217, -cultural therapy model 10, 18, 19, 116, -emancipation 167,173 Stanko, E 211, 212, 219, 220
222-29, 23-3 118,120-3,125-6 -exploitation 179 Starhawk 14,25,46, 94, 130, 131, 140,
from-within 35,130-1 religion 82, 87-8, 90, 99-100, 182, 209, -loathing 148, 196, 202 194,206
-over 3, 99, 120, 123, 130-1, 194-5 212 -realisation 182, 217, 236 Steele, D 4, 10
-to 130 Remer,P 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 25 -transcendence 182 Steinem, G 46
-with 4, 130, 137, research base ofPCT 33 -understanding 145, 185, 187,188,216 Steven, H 76
powerlessness 130, 133, 149, 150, 157, 194, resistance 2, 51, 99, 136, 155, 167, 168, separation 182, 184,200 Stiver,IP 18, 19, 25, 116, 117, 119, 120,
196,198,201,204-5 170, 173, 178, 181 Seu, IB 207, 219 121, 123, 126, 127
prejudice 21,40,101,123,129,137,161-3 Revolutionary Association ofthe Women of sex 65, 182, 188,215,227 StoneCenter 1, 10, 18, 19, 46, 63, 104,
'presence' 44, 75, 159, 163 Afghanistan 77 -role stereotype 8, 13, 104, 133, 138, 110, 111, 116,117,119,123, 124,
Pro-Choice 82 Rice, B 29, 38 195,199 126
Proctor, G 1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17, 20, 25, Rice,JK 25 sexism 2,5-6,8,13,16,20-1,61,67,129, model 10, 19, 119, 120-3, 176 (see
35, 38, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, Roebuck, FN 99, 170, 171, 172, 174 168, 173, 193, 226, 228 also 'rdational-cultural therapy')
135, 139, 147, 148, 149, 152, 153, Rogers, CR 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, sexual student-centred education 59, 166-78
171, 172, 176,228, 231 37, 38,41, 52, 56, 58, 89, 91, 93, abuse 5, 10-11, 16, 134-6, 141-54, Sturdivant, S .18, 25
psychiatric 94, 96, 98, 99,100, 101, 102, 106, 191,195-6,204,221-2,226,231 Sue, D 158, 159, 171, 172, 165, 176
diagnosis 10, 135, 141-54,204 107, 108, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, assauk 143, 204 Sue, DW 158, 171, 172, 165, 176
model 35,141-54, 237 126, 127, 128, 131, 137, 139, 154, objectificarion 15, 145 suicide 179, 184
practitioners 202 156, 158, 159, 162, 164, 165, 169, violence 8, 134—6,138,142,182,191-5, supervision .89, 181, 224, 230
response 141-54 173, 176, 180, 185, 188, 189, 214 200,202,221-3,225,229-31 SurreyJL 18, 110,111,115,119, 120, 128,
treatment 133 Rogers, Helen 55 sexuality 10, 59-60, 84, 106, 130, 156, 144, 153
psychoanalysis 18, 26, 66, 97, 102-4, 180 Rogers, N 50, 55, 58, 61, 62, 180 160,182-3,193,195,199,209, Szasz,T 133, 134, 140
psychodrama 10, 201, 203 Rogers' personality theory 28, 31-2, 89, 214, 217, 226-7 Taft,J 98,99
psychodynamic modells 15, 18, 22, 29, 133, 145, 214 shamanism 87, 88 Talahite,A 21,25
104, 120, 125, 158, 227 Rothblatt,M 107,115 shame 120, 214, 216,224, 230 tenderness 99, 182-3, 187
psychological contact 27, 156, 158 Roy,A 193,206 SharmaA, 209, 210, 211, 214, 216, 219 therapeutic play 199
psychosis 33, 34, 88, 114, 156, 202 safe space 196-200 Shaw, C 5, 6, 10, 17, 20, 25, 134, 135, 139, therapist
Q-sort methodology 33 safety 73, 112, 142, 201, 203 147, 148, 152, 153, 227, 229 authenticity/congruence 28, 120, 124
race 15, 25, 86, 106, 130, 159, 160, 209, Salter, A 196, 197,206 Shelter 73 empathic understanding 158
211,212,214, 222 Sanchez-Hercules, J 22,24 Shiva,V 76,79 Thorne, B 29, 38, 75, 79, 98, 115, 216,
racism 8,14,21,62,168,172-4,193,228, Sanford, R 42,43 Showalter, E 133, 140 220
232-3 Scher, M 24 Singh,J 157, 161,162, 163,165 Tong, RP 86,137,140
Radford, J 231,232,233 Schmid,PF 8, 10, 136,137, 139, 157,159, Smailes,S 5,10 Towns,A 215, 220
Radford,L 207, 210, 219 161, 163, 1651 179, 180, 181, 183, Smith, DE 83, 86 training 222-4
RankO 98,99 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 229, 233, Smail,D 150 Trainor, JS 174,176
rape 5,7, 11, 15,47,51, 83,134,141-4, 230 social transiator 211, 212, 214
146,150,182,193-4,202-4,221-3, Schneider, C 29,38 action 12, 44, 53, 142 Trimbie, C 13, 23,24
227-9,231 scientific method 98 constructionism 142,151-2 trust 40, 47, 55, 121, 201
Crisis 10, 116,144,146,A95,200,201, Scottish Centre for Non-Violence 76 context 10, 12, 67, 103, 132, 136, 150, elements (Stone Center model) 121-4
206, 221, 223, 228,231 second-wave feminism 13 207, 210, 217 in client's process 36, 173, 213
Federation 200,206 Seeman,J 99, 111, 112, 115 inequality 172 in group 201-5
Raskin, N 99 self 136, 172 therapy 137 in organism 33, 74, 116, 173
Regan,K 134,139 -actualiztion 168, 169,223 socialist 87, 102 in self 3, 59, 88, 99
relationaJ 63, 64, 68 -awareness 85, 209,223, 226 societal power 130, 132, 178, 210, 213 Tudor, K 157, 161, 162, 163, 165
depth 109 -concept 28, 31, 84, 108, 157, 186, Sontag, S 75, 79 unconditional positive regard 27, 29, 94,
empathy 104, 161 222, 228, 232 South Asian women 212 - 100,102,107-9,137,145,148,
empowerment 110 -destruction 202 Spiegelberg, H 101, 102,115 158-9,161-3,169,180,205,212

244 245
 ENCOUNTERING FEMINISM

UNFPA-SWP 7, 11 Wyche, KF 15,25 CARL ROGERS COUNSELS

Usher, CH 169, 171, 176 Yehudit Keshet 76
Ussher,J 146, 147, 153 Yorkshire Ripper 222 1.OGERS A BLACK CLIENT
COUN$ELS A
Vienna Human Rights conference 7 81-ACK CUENI' RACE AND CULTURE IN
violence 7, 15, 134, 144, 179, 207, 209,
NóIULUJ
210, 212, 215, 227, 232
•
PERSON-CENTRED COUNSELLING
Vontress, CE 159, 165
Waiker, A 75, 79
Waiker, G 146,153 EDITED BY ROY MOODLEY, COLIN LAGO
Waiker, M 207, 210, 215, 216, 220, 224, AND ANISSA TALAHITE
233 EDITESV
ROVM000LEG COLO LAGO G.4PJf$S* TAL4OITO

war 7,41,42,73, 193, 204, 228 Foreword by Clemmont E Vontress

anti- 41, 74-6, 81-2
Warner,M 1,11 '27iis is an ainbilious and courageous book Though the starting
Warrior Woman/women 70-6
poini of lhe book is Iwo brief interactions between two individuais,
Waterhouse,RL 171, 176, 210, 211, 215,
ISBN 1898059 44 6 às scope is as broad as humanity. The book itseif is a case study of
217,220
'XTatsonJ 1,11 inteilectual honesty and racial sensitivily. II is the mosi ilnportant
234x158mm pp. 296 discussion of race, culture and ethnicity in the context ofperson-
Weiler, K 168, 176
Weisstein, N 103,115 £17.00 centred therapy ever writlen.'
Wellesley Coilege 63, 110, 116 Tony Meny, University of East London
Westcrn Behavioral Sciences Institute
(WBSI) 41
Western culture 212, 214
Widiger,T 17,24 This book investigates and explores the issues of race and culture in a
Wilkins, P 37 single case study of one of Rogers' own demonstration films: Cari Rogers
Winkler,M 185,190 Counseis an Individual. Part 1: Right to be Desperate. Part 2: On Anger
Winn,J 207, 212, 219 and Hurt, in order to generate multiple meanings of how person-centred
Winter, B 73, 77, 79
therapy can be more inclusive of Black and ethnic minority clients. The
witchcraft 87, 134
Witty,M 154 films show a young Black man in a state of remission from Ieukaemia, in
Wolter-Gustafson, C 1, 2, 4, 10, 11, 102, therapy with Cari Rogers.
115, 194, 206
woman-centred
practice 221-2, 229 CONTRIBUTORS
therapy 226 Michele Baldwin, (USA); W. R. Selwyn Black, (N. Ireland); Debora C. Brink, (USA);
Women in Black 74, 75, 76 Barbara Temaner Brodley, (USA); Khatidja Chantier, (UK); Mary Charleton, (UK); Jean
Women Living Under Moslem Laws 77 Clark, (UK); Christine Clarke, (UK); Shukia Dhingra, (UK); Graham Faiken, (SouthAfrica);
women-only groups 200, 203, 224-6 Gary Foster, (Canada); Michael Goidman, (Canada); William A. Hall, (USA); Susan
Women's Aid Federation 200, 201, 206 James, (Canada); Colin Lago, (UK); Courtland Lee, (USA); Germain Lietaer, (Belgium);
Womens Center (at CSP) 42, 48-50 Melanie Lockett, (UK); John McLeod, (Scotland); Sharon Mier, (USA); Roy Moodley,
Women's Support Project 143,153 (Canada); Josna Pankhania, (Australia); Catrin S. Rhys, (N. Ireland); GelIa Richards,
Wood,JK 223, 233 (UK); Debra Rosenzweig, (USA); Shauna Savage, (N. Ireland); Richard Saxton, (UK);
Woods, R 158, 164 Geraldine Shipton, (UK); Will Stiliwell, (USA); Anissa Talahite, (Canada); Clemmont E.
Woollett,A 219 Vontress, (USA); William West, (UK); Stephen Whitehead, (UK); Marge Witty, (USA)
•Wordl, J 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19,25
working-class 81, 156, 216
women 11
World Trade Centre 71 w'wwpccs-books.co.uk
WorldWarll 102, 103, 110 te!. +44 1989 770 707
fax +44 1989 770 700
246
 Women Writing in the Person-Centred Approach

editedby Irene Fairhurst ISBN 1 898059 26 8 £16.00

Irene Fairhurst writes:
'... in the field of counselling and psychotherapy, on person-centred training courses,
women outnumber men by between seven and nine to one, yet in our literature the
opposite is the case. In the volume Client CenteredandExperientialPsychotherapy in
the Nineties—the book ofpapers presented at the first conference on Client-Centred and
Experiential Psychotherapy m 1988--of the 52 authors ofpapers, 7 are women.'

Women Writing in the Person-CentredÁpproach both redresses that balance and presents the
reader with a uniquely themed coilection ofwork in the person-centred tradition.

Irene Fairhurst is co-founder and past President of the British Association for the Person-
CentredApproach. Her further involvement m the person-centred approach includes founding
the Institute for Person-Centred Learning and working with Cari Rogers in Europe and theUK.

Section 1: Person-Centred Theory and Practice

1 A Trainee's Journey irito Unconditional Positive RegardJane Bingham
2 Psychotherapy: The Process, the Therapist, The Learning Maria Vi!las-Bowen
Empathy at the Core of the Therapeutic Relationship: Contaminators of
Emapthic Understanding Irene Fairhurst
4 Chailenge and the Person-Centred Approach Mary Kiborn
In You there is a Universe: Person-Centred Counselling
as a Manjfestation of the Breath of the Merciful Mhairi MacMiflan
6 Moments of Eternity: Cari Rogers and the Coritemporary
Demand for Brief Therapy Maureen O'Hara
The Meaning of Cari Rogers at the Opening of the zlst Century Ruth Sanford
8 A Client-Centered Demostration in Hungary Barbara Temaner Brodley
9 ThePerson-Centred Approach and its Relevance to Substance Abuse Sue Wilders
10 Subtie Energy Exchanges in the Counselling Realtionship Rose Cameron

Section II: Personal and Creative Writings

ii Poems Meg Hill
iz The Phenomenology of Motherhood: The Early YearsJo Cohen Hamilton
53 Beyond the Labeis: The Person-Centred Approach in Retirement Anne Neweil
14 Conversation wi4i Ruth Sanford at 5th PCI Forum 1992 Ruth Sanford
15 PC Therapy - A Short Story Sarah Ingle
16 Middle Age: What is it? When is it? Suzanne Spector

Section III: Gender and Relational Issues

17 The Person-Centered Approach: Solution to Gender Splitting Peggy Natiello
is A Woman's Place Lesley Rose
19 Exploring the 'We: Global, Relational and Personal Perspectives
on Relationship Suzanne Spector
20 The Language of Psychology as it affects Women and Other
Traditionally Disempowered Grõups Margaret S. Warner
zi The Power of the Premise: Reconstructing Gender and
Humari Development with Rogers' Theory Carol Wolter-Gustafson

www.pccs-books.co.uk
te!. +44 1989 770 707 fax +44 1989 770 700