UNIT-II

MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION, VIBRATION & DENSITY

Accelerometers: LVDT, Piezoelectric, Strain gauge, Variable reluctance type Accelerometers.

Mechanical Type Vibration Instruments-Seismic instrument as accelerometer & vibrometer.
Calibration of vibration pick-ups. Units of density: -API scale, Baume scale. Densitometers-
Pressure head type, Float type, Ultrasonic and Gas type.

Acceleration:
The ratio of change in velocity to the time interval over which the change occurs (or) the
rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
In the measurements like displacement, velocity and acceleration, obtain an electrical
signal proportional to either of these quantities & perform successive differentiation or
integration to obtain the other two. They are directly proportional to each other.
Either by successive integration or differentiation of a quantity, the other quantities can
be obtained.
Successive differentiation:
Differentiation is not an easy process and it can be performed only on smooth signals. So
integration is preferred over it.

Successive integration:
Acceleration is more responsible for producing destructive forces in machines and
variable acceleration produces shock, vibration etc., it is necessary to read acceleration.

Accelerometer:
Instrument used for measurement of shock and vibration.

General purpose accelerometer:

Consists of mass, damper and spring element.
When the frame moves at a constant acceleration, ‘M’ also moves at this acceleration. This is
due to the presence of some force in M. This force in M comes from the spring. The spring
displacement is acceleration.
The problem of acceleration measurement is a problem of measurement of force required
to accelerate a known mass which is known as proof mass.

The equation for general purpose accelerometer is

Ksy + Bdy = M(d2x – d2y)
dt dt2 dt2
Application:
 For monitoring and diagnosing the machinery vibration, to avoid abnormal
vibration.
 For structural testing, the structural defects such as crack, corrosion etc, which
changes the measured o/p and performance of machine in the case of motor,
turbine, reactor vessel or tank.
 Used in orientation and direction finding, drilling operation, sonar system etc.
 Mechanical accelerometers, can detect mass imposed when acceleration occurs
and prevent oscillations.

Types of accelerometers:
 LVDT
 Piezoelectric
 Strain gauge
 Variable reluctance
 Seismic instrument

LVDT Accelerometer:

Construction:

It has one primary and two secondary windings. The core of the LVDT acts as seismic
mass and it is attached by two flexible reeds which provide the spring action. The core is
suspended between primary and secondary windings. The reeds are attached to the housing and
the housing is subjected to vibration.
Working:
The accelerometer is fixed to the structure whose acceleration is to be measured. Due to
acceleration, displacement of mass takes place which is proportional to acceleration.
AC i/p supply is given to primary winding.
At no vibration, core is at centre position, so both the secondary windings are induced equally.
They are connected in series opposition (ie.eo=Es1 –Es2).
So net o/p voltage is zero.
When the core is displaced from the centre, flux linking the secondary winding differs. So there
is voltage in the o/p.
The o/p voltage is proportional to the acceleration.
Advantages:
 To measure steady state vibration
 To measure low frequency vibration
 Offers lower resistance to motion hence has high resolution
 Contactless device hence no wear and tear.

Piezo-electric Accelerometer:
Principle:
Based on piezoelectric effect. When a piezoelectric crystal is subjected to a mechanical
force or stress along specific planes, a voltage is generated across the crystal.

when the device is subjected to acceleration (or vibration , the mass stresses the crystal by a force
F=ma. By applying varying acceleration to the mass, the crystal experiences varying force . The
force generates varying charge,
charge Q= dF
d-charge sensitivity of the crystal
Q= dma
If ‘c’ is the capacitance of the crystal,
eo=Q/c
eo=(dF)/c =(dma)/c

o αa
output voltage α acceleration
Advantages:
 small size ,less weight, rugged, less cost
 Has high output impedance , hence loading effects are less
 Natural frequency( ωn) is very high , so it can be used for any vibration & shock
measurement
 Sensitivity is high

Straingauge accelerometer
Principle :
When vibration is given to strain gauge, there will be change in resistance. Change in
resistance is proportional to acceleration.

Construction:
Mass is mounded on a cantilever beam & also 2 strain gauges are mounded on each side of
the beam to sense the strain. The resulting strain is directly proportional to displacement of mass
is directly proportional to acceleration.
working :
Under no vibration the resistance of the strain gauges will be equal i.e. the wheatstone
bridge will be under balanced condition & the output will be zero.
When the frame is subjected to vibration the mass will get displaced such that the strain
gauges attached on the beam with the mass attains strain gauges attached on the bean with the
mass attains strain gauges attached on the beam with the mass attains strain which results in
change in resistance.
So the wheatstone bridge will be unbalanced which produces the output voltage, this the
voltage is directly proportional to displacement which is directly proportional to acceleration .
Advantages:
 More sensitive
 Can detect small variations
 Calibration is easy.
Variable reluctance accelerometer:
Construction:
Iron mass is supported by a cantilever spring in between the E frames iron bar. The
primary and secondary
Windings are wounded on the frames AC input supply is given to primary & the output is taken
from secondary.

Working:
The primary coil setup a flux dependant on the reluctance of the magnetic path. Mainly
reluctance depends on the air gap.
When the core is in neutral position, the flux is same for both halves of secondary coils &
they are connected in series opposition.
The net output voltage is zero.
The motion of core is increases reluctance on one side and decreases it on the other side
causing more voltage to be induced into one half of the secondary coil then the other & thus a
net output voltage is obtained.
Motion in the other direction causes the reverse action with a 180° phase shift occurring at
null.
The output voltage is rectified ( half wave) demodulated & filtered to produce an output
of the same from as the input.
Merits: High resistance.

Vibration measurement:

Methods:
 Mechanical
 Electrical
 Optical
 Methods based on sensor

Vibration:
A force which oscillates about some specified reference point , generally continuous & time
varying with some degree of repetitive nature is called vibration.
It is expressed in terms of cycles/sec, Hertz(Hz) cycles per minute, strokes per minute ,
vibration is also expressed in terms of acceleration m/s².
Mechanical methods
 Relative motion ( motion of object w.r.t. fixd point)
 Absolute motion ( motion of object w.r.t. earth)
Measurement of relative motion

This system consists of drum, recording sheet, ink pen , spring & the vibrating body.
The pen is coupled to the vibrating body by a system of lever and a spring. The spring is
also need to press the follower pin to press against the vibrating body.
When the vibrating object moves with certain acceleration , the spring force has to
overcome the inertia force of the follower pin and system of lever, due to which the pen moves
on the recording drum (or) strip chart.( i.e the thrust exerted by this spring together with the mass
of the moving part determines the maximum acceleration).
To ensure the effect of the spring on the vibrating object should be minimum , in the
variation in length of the spring should be as small as possible( stiffness of the spring be high).

MEASUREMENT OF ABSOLUTE MOTION

SEISMIC INSTRUMENT
The system has a spring supported mass mounted in a suitable housing. The housing
contains a recording mechanism. It has recording drum, stripchart and an inked pen.housing is
provided with a sensing element to detect the motion between the mass &the housing.Damping
is provided by a dashpot.

If the housing is moved back and forth(vibrated),the mass.

 Will remain stationary in space,but the frame virtually moves wrt mass.the o/p in determined by
the relative motion b/w the mass &the housing.the relative motion is converted into voltage by a
potentiometer or a variable reluctance transducer.
By proper selection of natural frequency and damping,it is possible to design the instrument for
vibration (or) acceleration measurement.
The diagram (a) can be represented as (c),eq of the motion of the seismic mass,
M - x-y) =0
Let us take x-y=z
M(z ÿ)+Bz+Kz=0
Mz z -Mÿ
Take laplace transform,
Z(s)[Ms2 +Bs+k]=-Ms2 Y(s)

Z(s)/y(s)=-(Ms2)/(Ms2+Bs+K)

=-s2+(B/M)s+K/M .............................(1)

General second order equation is s2/(s2 2δωns ωn2).................. (2)

Comparing eq (1)&eq (2),

ω2n=K/M 2δωn=B/M

ωn √ /M 2δ / Mωn / √ /M /√M

δ /2√M

from eq (1)&(2),

-s2/(s2+(B/M)s+K/M)=-s2/(s2 2δωns ωn2)

Let s jω,

Z(s)/Y(s) jω 2/ jω 2
2δωnjω ωn2)

ω2/(-ω2 ωn2 2δjωωn)

ω2/(1- ω2/ωn 2jδ ω/ωn)) )

│Z s │ ω2/ωn2 / √ 1- ω2/ω2n)2 2ωδ/ωn2)) ..................... (3)

Case(i):

If the spring is very weak―>k decreases &δ decreases

. . ω n (√K/M) decreases
 . . ω/ω n increases

So eq (3) becomes,

Z ω2/ωn2)y0 / ω2/ω2n) (neglecting 1& 2ωδ/ωn)

Z=y0 (vibration)

. . the instrument act as a vibrometer.

Case(ii):

If the spring is very stiff,

K increases, & δ decreases

. .ω n increases

. .ω/ω n is negligible

Z ω2/ωn2)y0/1 ω2/ωn2) y0 α ω2y0(acceleration)

Zα acceleration

. . the instrument act as an accelerometer.

CALIBRATION OF VIBRATION PICK UPS

CALIBRATION:

Tuning of the work instrument against the reference instrument of higher grade of accuracy or
against primary standards or against other standards of known accuracy.
CLASSIFICATION:
1) Constant acceleration
i) tilting support method
ii)centrifuge method
2) sinusoidal motion
3) transient motion
SINUSOIDAL MOTION METHOD:

The calibration of vibration pick up is carried out by subjecting them to steady state harmonic
motion of known Amplitude and frequency. The o/p of the pick up under such condition is a
sinusoidal voltage which can be measured by CRO. The primary problem lies in obtaining a
harmonic motion of known frequency and amplitude. One commonly used device for producing
steady state harmonic motion is the mechanical table driven by cams or scotch yoke. This
method has limitations as high frequencies cann`t be attained and lot of noise is produced in its
operation. Therefore,electro mechanical exciters are commonly used,and these are capable of
producing usable amplitudes at frequencies of several thousand cycles per second.

The actual instrument amplitude produced by vibration exciter is determined by either filar type
or the graduated graticule type of microscope having a magnification of about 40x to100x. The
microscope is mounted on a separate rigid support so that it remains totally stationary and
measures the vibration of only pick-up. A small patch of nearly 320 grit emery cloth acting as
target for microscope is directly cemented on the pick-up and a pin point light is directed on it
from some light source. The light reflected from the emery cloth appears through the microscope
as amyriad of small light sources reflected from the rough sides of the individual crystals as
shown below:

As the exciter table vibrates,the individual points of light each become bright line,having
lengths equals to the double amplitude of the vibration.The length of these lines can be easily
measured by microscope.

DENSITY MEASUREMENT
DENSITY:
Defined as the amount of substance (mass) per unit volume. Under defined condition.
Density=Mass/unit volume; P=(m/v) kg/m3
UNITS:

Kg/m3 (or) Gram/liter (or)Gram/milliliter(or) grams/cubic cm(g/cm3) (or) pounds/cubic

foot.
Since volume of most substances changes with temperature,the density depends on the
temperature& pure of a substances .
The dependence is much greater in gases.
Increase in temperature of a substance generally increase its volume and decrease its density.
Density of water(H2O) =1Kg/m3.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
Also called relative density .Ratio of density of one substance to the density of another reference
substance ,both attained at a same temp and pure .It’s an abstract number.
For solids and liquids, water is taken as reference.
For gases and liquids, air is taken as reference.
S.G=Mass of substance/mass of equal volume of std substance.
S.G(for liquids &solids)=density of liquid(or)solid/density of water.
S.G(for gases)=density of gas/density of air.

API SCALE.
API-- American petroleum Institute
API introduced API scale in1921.
It defined the density of petroleum products in U.S .It is based on artificially radioactive contrite
block at the university of Houston , Texas ,USA, that is defined to have radioactive of 200
American Petroleum Institute(API)units.
API Gravity degree: is the measure of relative density of petroleum liquid and density of water.
Measure of how heavy (or)light a petroleum liquid is when compared to water.
If API is greater than 10,liquid floats on water.
If API is less than 10,it sinks.
API scale is also used to compare relative densities of petroleum liquids depending upon whether
it floats(or) sinks.
API gravity of petroleum liquid,
API gravity =(141.5/S.G@60F ) --131.5
S.G at 60F =141.5/(API gravity +131.5)
For heavy oil S.G=1(same as H2O)
API =(141.5/1)--131.5
=10.0API
Most values fall between 10&70 API gravity degrees (API g0)
BAUME SCALE: was introduced by French pharmacist, AntoinBaume in1768.
It defines the density of acids &heavy syrups.
It is expressed in Baume degree,0Be.
It consists of two scales, one for heavy (above SG=1), the other for light (below SG=1) liquids at
60oF (17.5oC) & are given as
o
Be (light) = 140 - 130
𝑆𝐺 𝑎𝑡 60𝐹

o 145
Be (heavy) = 145-
𝑆𝐺 @ 60𝐹

Baume degrees(heavy) originally represents % of mass of sodium chloride in H2O at

600F(17.5 0C).
Commonly used specific gravity units in industries.
1) For petroleum products in the united states, the API scale was introduced in1921 and the unit
of API degrees is given by
API=(141.5/SG@600F)--131.5
2) The brewing and sugar industries use Balling degrees to express the percentage of worth(or)
weight percentage of dissolved solids at 60 F(17.50C) and is given by
0
Ba =% of weight of dissolved solids.
3) The training and tanning-extract industry expresses S.G in Barkometer degrees. Each degree
is 0.001 S.G above (or) below S.G=1.0. Therefore, the barkometer degrees can be negative or
positive (+oBK = 1.01SG) & is given as
o
BK = (SG - 1.0) (1000)
4) The density of acids and heavy syrups is expressed in Baume degree. This scale was
introduced by Antoin Baume in 1768. It consists of two scales, one for heavy (above SG=1), the
other for light (below SG=1) liquids at 60oF (17.5oC) & are given as
o
Be (light) = 140 - 130
𝑆𝐺 𝑎𝑡 60𝐹

o 145
Be (heavy) = 145-
𝑆𝐺 @ 60𝐹

5) The sugar industry uses the Brix degree which represents the weight percentage of pure
sucrose in 60oF (17.5oC) & is given as
o
Br = weight % of sucrose

6) The dairy industry uses the Quevenne degree in testing the fat content of milk. Each degree
corresponds to 0.001SG in excess of SG=1.0. So, 40oQ = 1.04 SG & is given by
o
Q = (SG - 1.0) (1000)

7) The alcohol industry mes sikes, Ritcher (or) Trallas scales on their alcohol meters. Each one
of them read the volumetric % of ethyl alcohol in water & is given as,
o
S, oR, oT = volume % of ethyl alcohol
 o o o
8) The alcohol industry also uses the unit of proof, which is S, R, or T
Multiplied by 2,
i.e. Proof = 2(volume % of ethyl alcohol)

9) The sugar, tanning & acid industries working with liquids that are heavier than water use
Twaddell degrees. Twaddell divided the SG (range between 1.0 to 2.0) into 200 equal parts, each
representing 0.005 SG & is given as,
o
Tw = 200(SG – 1.0)

MECHNICAL METHODS PRINCIPAL:

a) The pr at the bottom of the constant liquid column α density.
b) The weight of the given volume of the liquid or fluid α density.

Types:
1. Hydrometer
2. Density measurement using LVDT
3. Density measurement using Gamma rays
4. Force balance method
5. Magnetic type densitometer
Electrica
6. Vibration method l method

Vibrating tube vibrating cylinder

7. Refraction type densitometer

8. Radiation type densitometer
9. Differential pressure head method Mechanica
(Manometer (or) Pressure head type) l method
10. Float type
11. Ultrasonic type
Electrical
12. Bridge type gas densitometer
method

PURPOSE OF DENSITY MEASUREMENT

Density is the controlling parameter in many processes,
1. To determine the mass and volume of products.
2. To assess the quality of the product & to specify the value of the product.
3. To determine the concentration and composition of a process stream.
4. To determine the calorific value of fuels.
5. To convert volumetric flow measurements into mass flow measurements information.
 Normal temp & pr (NTP) for solids→ temp: 0oC pr:760mm of Hg
Std temp & pr (STP) for solids & fluids → temp: 15.6oCpr: 1 atm pr (101.325 Kpa)

DENSITOMETERS:
Density & specific gravity are means interference of
composition/concentration of a particular constituent chemical in a solution/even of a
solids suspended in liquids.
METHODS:
o Mechanical
o Electrical

Pressure head type density meter:

Principle
a. The pressure at the bottom of the tank of constant liquid column is proportional to
density
b. The weight of the given volume of the fluid is proportional to density.

This method compares the hydrostatic pressure due to the heights of liquids in two tanks.
One is reference tank consists of liquid of constant height (h1) and density ρr). Other
tank maintains constantheight (h2), whose density is to be measured. ρ

The two tanks are connected by means of manometer containing liquid of known density
ρm). All the three tanks are connected by bubbler system. The principle of bubbler
reference column is used. Air is pumped into two bubbler tubes which are immersed to
equal depth in the test liquid and a reference liquid of known ρr.
The pressure of air to each bubbler tube is regulated allowing the bubbles to release
slowly. The pressure exerted by two liquid columns are given by

ρh2 = ρrh1 ρmhm

ρ = ρr/h2)h1+ ρm/h2)hm

ρ =K1+K2hm
 where, K1=(h1/h2)density of ref,
K2=(1/h2)density of unknown.

The air is regulated until, h1 = h2 = h

Then, density ρ = ρr+ ρmhm)/h

Float type densitometer:

Principle:
It is based on Archimedes law (ie. volume of object immersed=volume of liquid
displaced).
The weight of the constant volume of the liquid or fluid is directly proportional to density.
Buoyancy or Buoyancy force exerted by the liquid is directly proportional to density of the
liquid.
Construction:
It consists of float connected to the force sensing element which gives
electrical o/p proportional to density.

Working:
When the float is fully submerged inside the liquid, it displaces equal amount of
liquid and also the float is buoyed up by a force based upon the density. Therefore, the buoyed
force or weight of the displaced liquid is proportional to the density.
The buoyed force is measured with the help of force sensing element connected with
the float. The o/p of force sensing element is an electrical quantity. When ‘p’ is measured using
weight of displaced liquid, it comes under mechanical method.Otherwise,comes under electrical
methods.
A no. of floats that are weighed differently is positioned so that some of them will
close/open the electrical circuit will close, for w3 and w4 the circuit will open.
Based upon the density of liquids the float gets floated or submerged.
Ultrasonic densitometer:

Principle:
At constant temp and pressure, the velocity is directly proportional of the liquid/fluid.
Measures the sound velocity of the liquid.
Change in velocity is proportional to the density at constant temp and pressure.
Construction:
It consists of a transmitter and a receiver. Inside a tube the transmitter and microphone
acts as a receiver. The o/p of microphone is feedback to the sound generator.

Working:
At constant temp and pr, the liquid is made to flow through the ultrasonic densitometer.
The sound waves travel against the liquid flow and the wave propagation time to reach the
receiver is measured by sensing the phase difference b/w the transmitted and received signals.
The sound velocity can be determined by the phase difference. Thus the velocity is directly
proportional to the phase difference proportional to the density.

Bridge type gas densitometer:

Principle:
Also known as novel type,gas density detector,hot pipe (wire) gas bridge type, and
Wheatstone bridge densitometer.
A-inlet of reference gas of known density
B-outlet of mixture of sample and reference gas
C-inlet of sample gas of unknown density
d1,d2-thermal detectors(thermistors or RTD’s

Construction:
It consists of four arms of pipe connections like a Wheatstone bridge. The
reference gasis passed through A, whose density is unknown. B is the outlet, at
which gas mixture is obtained.
Two detectors d1,d2 are placed in order to note the temp at the
junctions.
d1,d2 arethermistors or RTD’s.
Working:
The reference gas is made to flow through the arms. When the flow is
normal, both thedetectors are equally cooled and temp at both the detectors will be
equal.
Therefore,when it is connected in a Wheatstone bridge format, it will be in a balanced condition.
Therefore o/p
voltage is zero.
This is called
initial condition.
Now the sample gas is allowed to enter at C.
The reference gas enters at the inlet A, divides and flushes, splits the flow of
the sampletowards the outlet at B.
If the density of the process gas or sample gas is larger than reference gas,
then moreamount of gas will flow towards the lower branch and consequently d2 will
be hotter.
The reverse happens for the lighter density gas. So d1 will be hotter. The detector
bridge willbe unbalanced which results in o/p voltage.
The o/p voltage is directly proportional to the density.