Groups & Coding Theory

GR O U P S A N D
CODING THEORY
for
[MTC - 231]
Second Year B.Sc. (Computer Science)
Mathematics - Paper I, Semester - III
New Syllabus as per CBCS Pattern Credit - 2
June 2020
M. D. Bhagat R. S. Bhamare
Ex-Head Dept. of Mathematics Ex-Head of P.G. Dept. of Mathematics
Tuljaram Chaturchand College New Arts, Science & Commerce College
Baramati (Dist. Pune) Ahmednagar
N. M. Phatangare Dr. S. G. Purane

Assistant Prof. Dept. of Mathematics Associate Prof. & HOD of Mathematics
Fergusson College, (Autonomous), PES's Jamkhed Mahavidyalaya
Pune 411 004 Jamkhed, Ahmednagar 413 201
Dr. A. S. Khairnar
Assistant Professor & HOD of Mathematics
MES's Abasaheb Garware College,
Pune 411 004
Price ` 100.00
N5403
Groups & Coding Theory Maths P-I Sem. III ISBN 978-93-90225-59-0
First Edition : August 2020
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Preface …
We have great pleasure in presenting this text book on
GROUPS AND CODING THEORY to the students of S.Y.B.Sc.
Computer Science Semester - III, Mathematics Paper - I. This book is
written strictly according to the new revised syllabus of Savitribai
Phule Pune University to be implemented from June 2020.
We have taken utmost care to present the matter systematically
and with proper flow of mathematical concepts. We begin the
Chapter by Introduction and at the end the Summary of the Chapter
is provided. We have added one significant feature: "Think Over It"
in this new edition. Here, we have posed questions of simple, difficult
and intuitive type in nature. It is expected that the students should
think over it and try to find the answers. This will assess the
understanding of the knowledge of the Chapter.
The book contains good number of solved problems and the
number of graded problems in the exercises.
We are thankful to Shri Dineshbhai Furia, Shri Jignesh Furia,
Mrs. Anagha Medhekar (Proof Reading and Co-ordination),
Mr. Ilyas Shaikh, Mrs. Anjali Mule (Figure Drawing) and the staff of
Nirali Prakashan for the great efforts that they have taken to publish
the book in time.
We welcome the valuable suggestions from our colleagues’ and
readers for the improvement of the book.
PUNE AUTHORS
AUGUST 2020
✍✍✍
Syllabus …
1. Integers (5 Lectures)
1.1 Division Algorithm (without proof)
1.2 G.C.D. using division algorithm and expressing it as linear
combination
1.3 Euclid’s lemma
1.4 Equivalence relation (revision), Congruence relation on set
of integers, Equivalence class partition
2. Groups (3 Lectures)
2.1 Binary Operation
2.2 Group : Definition and Examples
2.3 Elementary Properties of Groups
3. Finite Groups and Subgroups (10 Lectures)
3.1 Order of a group, order of an element
3.2 Examples (Zn, +) and (U(n), *)
3.3 Subgroup definition, Finite subgroup test, Subgroups of Zn
3.4 Generator, Cyclic group, Finding generators of Zn
(Corollary 3, 4 without proof)
3.5 Permutation group, Definition, Composition of two
permutations, Representation as product of disjoint cycles,
Inverse and order of a permutation, Even/Odd permutation
3.6 Cosets : Definition, Examples and Properties, Lagrange
Theorem (without proof)
4. Groups and Coding Theory (18 Lectures)
4.1 Coding of Binary Information and Error Detection
4.2 Decoding and Error Correction
4.3 Public Key Cryptography
✍✍✍
Contents …
1. Integers 1.1 – 1.54
2. Groups 2.1 – 2.20
3. Finite Groups and Subgroups 3.1 – 3.64
4. Coding Theory 4.1 − 4.54
Model Question Paper M.1 – M.2
✍✍✍
Chapter 1…
Integers
Pierre de Fermat Pierre de Fermat ( August 1601 or 1607/8 – 12
January 1665) was a French lawyer at the
Parlement of Toulouse, France, and an amateur
mathematician who is given credit for early
developments that led to infinitesimal calculus,
including his technique of adequality He is best
known for Fermat's Last Theorem. In number
theory, Fermat studied Pell's equation, perfect
numbers, amicable numbers and what would
later become Fermat numbers.
It was while researching perfect numbers that he discovered the little
theorem. He invented a factorization method—Fermat's factorization
method—as well as the proof technique of infinite descent, which he
used to prove Fermat's Last Theorem for the case n = 4. Fermat
developed the two-square theorem, and the polygonal number
theorem, which states that each number is a sum of three triangular
numbers, four square numbers, five pentagonal numbers, and so on.
1.1 Introduction
We know that the numbers … – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … are called
integers and the set of all these numbers is denoted by the symbol Z. The
numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, … are called non-negative integers (or whole numbers).
The numbers 1, 2, 3, … are called positive integers or natural numbers and
the set of all these numbers is denoted by the symbol ù. The natural
numbers form the primary subject matter of arithmetic, but it is often
essential to regard them as a subclass of integers.
The 'Theory of Numbers', one of the major branches of Mathematics
deals with only the set of natural numbers apart from the fact that its
study involves not only real numbers but also the complex numbers. The
set ù of all natural numbers is a very basic tool for starting the study of
mathematics. The set of integers is obtained by extending the set of
natural numbers, since the simple equation like x + 6 = 1 cannot be
solved in ù. In fact, the set of natural numbers is the foundation stone of
1.1
Groups & Coding Theory 1.2 Integers
the real number system. But, one may ask, from where the set of natural
numbers came into existence. This question raises deep logical and
philosophical problems, so we skip it to answer. However, we accept the
existence of natural numbers and let us be contended with the words of
the reknowned Mathematician Kronecker: 'God created the set of natural
numbers and all the rest is the work of human being'.
We also assume that the operations of addition and multiplication in
ù satisfy the properties like commutativity, associativity etc. familiar to
the students.
We also assume that the operations of addition and multiplication in
ù satisfy the properties like commutativity, associativity etc. familiar to
the students.
Further, we state only the following result, which will be frequently
used in this chapter.
ù, either m = n or m < n or
Law of trichotomy: For any m, n ∈ù
n < m.
Well-ordering property of ù: Every non-empty subset of ù has a
least member.
The above property can be stated as: If S is non-empty subset of ù,
then there exists an integer m ∈S such that m ≤ k, for all k ∈ S.
The Italian mathematician G. Peano showed that the algebraic system
< ù, +, × >, the set ù with usual addition and multiplication can be
defined even more simply as an algebra. He used the successor function
σ, we define it as:
Definition: A function σ : ù → ù which is defined by σ(n) = n + 1, for
n ∈ ù is called Peano's successor function.
Note that the domain of σ is ù and the range of σ is;
R(σ) = {2, 3, 4, …, n, n + 1, …}.
The set of natural numbers ù with the unary operation σ (as defined
above) is characterised by a set of three simple conditions on σ. These
conditions are the following 'Peano axioms' for the successor function:
1. If σ(m) = σ(n), then m = n (that is σ is injective on ù).
2. For no n ∉ ù, σ(n) = 1 (that is 1 is not image of any integer in ù).
3. Let S ⊂ ù satisfy (a) 1 ∈S, (b) n ∈S implies that σ(n) ∈S. Then
S = ù.
The third axiom (above) is called the induction axiom.

We now state two important principles which are the consequences
of Peano's axioms and well-ordering principle.
First Principle of Induction :
If S is a subset of ù satisfying
(i) 1 ∈ S and
(ii) If n ∈ S then n + 1 ∈ S.
Then S = ù, that S is the whole set of natural numbers ù.
Second Principle of Induction :
Let S be a subset of ù such that :
(i) 1 ∈ S and
(ii) If m ∈ S for all positive integers m < n implies m ∈ S, then S = ù.
Note : The second principle of induction is also known as strong form of
(i).
The above two principles are used to prove the statements which
depend on n, the natural number. For example :
n
(i) If X is a set with n elements, the number of all subsets of X is 2 .
This statement is proved by using the first principle of induction.
(ii) The fundamental theorem of arithmetic is powered by using
second principle of induction.
In mathematics at many places we need to use these two principles.
1.2 Divisibility
Hereafter we will mostly be working with the set Z, of all integers, or
we will sometimes restrict ourselves to the set ù of all natural numbers.
The difference of working in Z or in N can be seen from the following
examples: We have 12 = 4.3, that is, 12 is product of 4 and 3, where 4 and
3 belong to ù. However, we can also write 12 = (– 4) (– 3), and we see
that – 4 and – 3 are in Z but not in ù. Similarly m. n = 1 iff m = 1 and
n = 1 if we are working in ù, whereas mn = 1 iff m = 1 and n = 1 or
m = – 1 and n = – 1, if we are working in Z. Thus, m.n = 12 and m.n = 1
have two solutions of each in Z, whereas each of these equations have
only one solution in ù.
Now, we shall give abstract definitions and shall deal with abstract
results, which are somewhat difficult to understand for the students. We
will try to illustrate each definition or result by a particular numerical

example.
We have 12 = 4.3, that is, the product of 4 and 3 equals to 12. This
fact we describe in the following ways: '12 is multiple of 4' or '4 is factor
of 12' or '4 divides 12' or '12 is divisible by 4'. In similar manner, for a and
b given integers, if we can find an integer c such that b = a.c, we say that
'a divides b'. So we have:
Divisibility: Let a and b be any two integers with a ≠ 0. Then we say
that 'a divides b' if there is an integer c such that b = a.c and we write this
as a | b. Thus, a | b ⇒ b = ac, c∈Z. In case 'a does not divide b', we write
this as a ð b.
Note:
1. If a | b we say that a is a divisor of b.
2. For any integer a ≠ 0, we have 0 = a.0, which shows by definition
that a | 0. That is, 0 is divisible by any non-zero integer.
3. For any a ∈Z, a ≠ 0, we have
a = 1.a = a.1 = (– 1) . (– a) = (– a) . (– 1), so by definition, again 1,
– 1, a, – a are the divisors of a. That is, for given any non-zero
integer a, it is always divisible by ± 1 and ± a.
Remarks:
1. If a | b, then we say that a is a proper divisor of b; if a is not ± 1
or ± b.
2. Let a, b ∈ Z. If a | b, b ≠ 0 then a ≤ b . Since a | b, by

definition, we have b = a.c for some c ∈Z. As b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0,
therefore b = ac = a . c , which implies b ≥ a , since
c ≠ 0, c ≥ 1. Note that if a is proper divisor of b, then a ≠ ± b,
hence a ≠ b , so that a < b .
3. Let a, b ∈Z and a.b = 1. Then by definition, 1 = a.b implies a | 1,

hence by remark (2) above a ≤ 1 = 1, that is 0 < a ≤ 1,
since a ≠ 0, hence a = 1. This shows a = ± 1. Thus, a.b = 1 has

solutions a = 1 and b = 1 or a = – 1 and b = –1.
4. Let a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 be in Z. If a | b and b | a, then a = ± b. For, a | b

implies b = ax for some x ∈ Z and b | a implies a = by for some
y ∈ Z (by definition). Now a = by = (ax) y, since b = ax; so that
a = a (xy). This implies xy = 1.
∴ By remark (3) above, x = 1 and y = 1 or x = – 1 and y = –1.
Therefore a = ± b.
Note: Whenever we say a | b, we always have a ≠ 0.
Theorem 1 Let a, b, c, d be integers. Then
1. If a | b, then a | (bx), for any x ∈ Z.

2. If a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c), in fact a | (bx + cy) for any
x, y ∈ Z. (Oct. 2015)
3. If a | b and b | c, then a | c. (April 2014)
4. If m ≠ 0 is in Z and a | b, then am | bm.
5. If a | b and c | d then ac | bd.
6. If (ab | bc), then a | c.
Proof:
1. Since a | b, we have b = ac, for some c ∈ Z. Multiplying both
sides by any x ∈ Z, we get bx = (ac) x = a. (cx); so that bx = a.c',
where, c' = cx ∈ Z, therefore a | (bx).
2. Since a | b, we have b = ak1, k1∈ Z and a | c, we have c = ak2,
for k2 ∈ Z. Thus, b + c = ak1 + ak2 = a (k1 + k2) = ak, where
k = k1 + k2 ∈ Z, so that b + c = a.k, k ∈ Z. Therefore a | (b + c).
Note: If a | b and a | c, then we can show that a | (b – c) also.
Now, since a | b implies that a | bx for any x ∈ Z, and a | c implies
that a | cy for any y ∈ Z, (by using (1) above). Therefore
a | (bx + cy) (by earlier part of (2) itself); for any x, y ∈ Z.
Note: The result (2) can be stated in generalised form as: If a | b, a | c,
then a | (bx ± cy) for any x, y ∈ Z.
3. Since a | b, we have b = ax, for some x ∈ Z and b | c implies
c = by, for some y ∈ Z. Thus, we have c = by = (ax) y, (... b = ax)
∴ c = a (xy); that is c = ax', x' = xy ∈ Z. Therefore a | c.
Note: This result (3) shows that, the relation of divisibility in Z is
transitive.
4. Note m ≠ 0 implies that am ≠ 0, since a ≠ 0. Since a | b, we have

b = ax, for some x ∈Z. Then multiplying both sides by m, we get
bm = (ax) m = (am) x. Therefore am | bm.
5. Since a | b, we have b = ax, for some x ∈Z. … (1)
Also from c | d, we have d = cy, for some y ∈Z. … (2)
Multiplying the corresponding sides of (1) and (2), we get
bd = (ax) (cy) = (ac) (xy); which implies bd = (ac) k, where
k = xy ∈Z. Therefore (ac) | (bd).
6. If c = 0, a | c, by note (2) of the definition of divisibility. Since
(ab) | (bc), we have bc = (ab) x, for some x ∈Z. Also ab ≠ 0,
implies b ≠ 0. Therefore from bc = b (ax), we get by cancelling b,
c = ax, for x ∈Z, which shows a | c.
Division Algorithm (D.A.): Let us observe the following:
(March 2016)
51 = 8 × 6 + 3, 0 < 3<8 … (1)
51 = (– 8) (– 6) + 3, 0 < 3< –8 =8 … (2)
– 51 = 8 × (– 7) + 5, 0 < 5<8 … (3)
– 51 = (– 8) (7) + 5, 0 < 5< –8 =8 … (4)
From (1) we see that when we divide 51 by 8
6
i.e. 8 51
– 48
3
the quotient is 6 and the remainder is 3.
From (2) when 51 is divided by – 8.
–6
i.e. –8 51
– 48
3
the quotient is – 6 and the remainder is 3.
In similar manner, we can interpret (3) and (4).
From these four examples, for any two integers a, b with a ≠ 0, can
we have b = aq + r, where 0 ≤ r < a ? The answer is 'yes'. The following
is the theorem related to the above illustration.
Theorem 2 Division Algorithm (Without Proof) : If a and b are any

two integers with a ≠ 0 then there exist unique integers q and r such that;
b = aq + r, where 0 ≤ r < a (April 14, 16, 18)
Proof: Case (i): If a > 0:
Let S = {b – ax ∈Z | b – ax ≥ 0; x ∈Z }.
Since a > 0 implies a ≥ 1, we have,
b a ≥ b .1 (... b ≥ 0 )
∴ b+ b .a ≥ b +b≥0
⇒ ( ) .a
b– – b ≥ 0
⇒ b – (– b ) . a ∈ S.
Hence S is a non-empty subset of ù ∪ { 0 }.

∴ By 'Well Ordering property, S has a least element say r. Then r ∈ S
and r ≤ y, for all y ∈ S. But r ∈ S also implies that
r = b – aq, for some q ∈Z
⇒ b = aq + r, 0 ≤ r (since r ∈S)
Now, suppose r ≥ a, then r – a ≥ 0.
But r – a = (b – aq) – a = b – (q + 1) a. Thus, r – a ≥ 0 and is of the
form of the elements in S. Therefore, r – a ∈ S. By our assumption, r is the
least element of S, since a > 0, r – a < r which is contradiction to the
choice of r. Therefore, r < a.
Thus, we have, q, r ∈ Z such that
b = aq + r, 0≤r< a … (1)
(Since a > 0, a = a)
Case (ii): If a < 0:
Then a > 0, so replacing 'a' by a we can apply case (i) to b and
a , therefore we have from (1) above,
b = a q' + r, 0 ≤ r< a … (2)

for q', r ∈ Z. Now a = – a, ( ... a < 0)

So from (2), we get,
b = (– a) q' + r, 0 ≤ r< a
⇒ b = a . (– q') + r, 0 ≤ r< a
⇒ b = aq + r, 0 ≤ r < a , put (– q' ) = q.

Thus, in both the cases, we have, there exists q, r ∈ Z such that
b = aq + r, 0 ≤ r< a … (3)
This proves the existence of q and r and the required identity with
given constraints.
Uniqueness of q and r:
Now, let us prove the uniqueness of q and r.
Suppose we have two pairs of integers q and r; q' and r' such that
b = aq + r, where 0 ≤ r< a
and b = aq' + r', where 0 ≤ r' < a
On subtraction, we get,
0 = a (q – q') + (r – r'), with 0 ≤ r, r' < a … (4)
⇒ r – r' = a (q' – q), with r – r' < a
⇒ a | (r – r') | with r – r' < a .
But this is possible only if r – r' = 0, that is, r = r'. Using this fact in (4),
we get a (q' – q) = 0. ⇒ q' – q = 0; (... a ≠ 0)
⇒ q = q'
Hence, the uniqueness. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Greatest Common Divisor (g.c.d.)
What are the divisors of 12 and 16 ? The positive divisors of 12 are:
1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12. The positive divisors of 16 are: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16. We see
that 2 and 4 are divisors of both 12 and 16, we call 2 and 4 as common
divisors (c.d.) of 12 and 16. The greatest of the common divisors 2 and 4
is 4, is called the greatest common divisor of 12 and 16. Thus, we have
the following:
Common divisor: Let a and b be any two integers not both zero. An
integer d is said to be common divisor of a and b if d | a and d | b.
Greatest common divisor: Let a and b be two non-zero integers. An
integer d is said to be greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) of a and b if (i) d is
common divisor of a and b, i.e. d | a and d | b and (ii) any common divisor
of a and b divides d, i.e. if c | a and c | b, then c | d.
For instance, it is clear that 4 is the g.c.d. of 12 and 16.
Note:
1. If d is a g.c.d. of a and b, then so is – d. By g.c.d., hereafter we will
always mean positive g.c.d. and it is denoted by (a, b). Thus, if d is
g.c.d. of a and b, then d = (a, b).
2. The term Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.) is also used for g.c.d.
Observe that 4 = (12, 16) from the discussion in the beginning.
Now, let us state and prove the theorem which establishes that g.c.d.
for any two integers exists and is unique.
Theorem 3 Any two non-zero integers a and b have a unique (positive)

g.c.d. d = (a, b) and can be expressed in the form:
d = (a, b) = ma + nb, for some m, n ∈Z. (Oct. 2012)
{
Proof: Let S = ax + by | x, y ∈Z and ax + by > 0 }
Since a and b are non-zero, a2 + b2 > 0 and a2 + b2 = a.a + b.b > 0.
That is, a2 + b2 can be written in the form ax + by, where x = a and y = b,
and is greater than zero. Therefore a2 + b2 ∈ S. Hence S is non-empty
subset of N.
So by 'Well Ordering Principle', S has a least element, say d. That is
d∈S and d ≤ z, for all z ∈S. Also, d ∈ S implies d = ma + nb, for some
m, n ∈Z.
Now, we prove that d is common divisor of a and b.
Applying division algorithm to a and d, there exists q and r in Z, such
that
a = dq + r, where, 0 ≤ r < d … (2)
If r ≠ 0, (2) gives
r = a – dq, with 0 < r < d
= a – (ma + nb) q, [using (1)]
= (1 – mq) a + (– nq) b, 0 < r < d.
Thus r > 0 and is of the form ax + by with x = (1 – mq) and y = – nq,
hence r ∈S. But this is contradiction to the choice of d, as r < d, hence
r = 0.
So from (ii) we get a = dq, which shows, d | a. Similarly, we can show
that d | b. Thus, d is common divisor of a and b.
Now, to show that d is g.c.d., we have to show that any c.d. of a and b
also divides d. Let c be any c.d. of a and b, and let a = ck1 and b = ck2 , for
k1, k2 ∈Z. Using this in (1), we get,
d = m (ck1) + n (ck2)
∴ d = c (mk1 + nk2)
which shows that c | d.
Thus, d is g.c.d. of a and b.
It is remained to show the uniqueness of d.
Suppose d' is another g.c.d. of a and b. Since d' is g.c.d., it is c.d. of a
and b. Therefore d' | a and d' | b, hence d' | d, since d is g.c.d. Similarly d
is g.c.d. of a and b, d | a, d | b, hence d | d', as d' is g.c.d. of a and b.
Thus, d | d' and d' | d, hence d' = ± d; but both d and d' are positive, so
that d' = d.
This completes the proof of the theorem.
Note: The integers m and n in the expression d = ma + nb are not
unique for instance, we know 4 = (12, 16) and we have
4 = 12 × (– 1) + 16 × 1 with m = – 1, and n = 1.
But we can also have 4 = 12 × (3) + 16 × (– 2), with m = 3 and n = – 2.
In fact, d = ma + nb, we have
d = a (m – kb) + b (n + ka) for any
k = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ……
which shows that there exist infinitely many pairs of m and n such that
d = ma + nb
Exercise 1.1
Find g.c.d. d and find also two pairs of m and n such that
d = ma + nb, for each of the following : (1) a = 10, b = 18, (2) a = 31,
b = 17, (3) a = 6, b = 24, (4) a = 50, b = 101.
Euclidean Algorithm (E.A.): The process of finding g.c.d. of given
two integers by applying D.A successively, is known as Euclidean
Algorithm (E.A.). We describe this process in the following.
Let a and b be two non-zero integers. Applying D.A. to a and b, there
exist unique integers q1 and r1 such that
b = aq1 + r1, where, 0 ≤ r1 < a … (1)
If r1 = 0, then a | b and (a, b) = a . If r1 ≠ 0, i.e. r1 > 0, then from (1)

we see that c.d. of r1 and a is also a divisor of b, and hence a c.d. of a and
b. On the other hand, from (1), r1 = b – aq1, which shows that c.d. of a
and b is also a divisor of r1, hence c.d. of r1 and a.
Thus, we have (a, r1) | (a, b) and (a, b) | (a, r1),
∴ (a, b) = (a, r1) … (2)
Applying D.A. to a and r1, there exist unique integers q2 and r2 such
that
a = r1 q 2 + r2 where, 0 ≤ r2 < r1 … (3)
If r2 = 0, then (a, r1) = r1, hence from (2) we get (a, b) = r1.
If r2 ≠ 0 i.e. r2 > 0, then the similar arguments as applied to a, b, r,
above we apply to a, r1, r2 we have
(r1, r2) = (a, r1) = (a, b) … (4)
Again, applying D.A. to r1 and r2 there exist unique integers q3 and r3
such that
r1 = r2 q3 + r3, where, 0 ≤ r3 < r2 … (5)
If r3 = 0, (r1, r2) = r2 = (a, b), … (By (4)
If r3 > 0, we continue as above. Obtain q4, r4; q5, r5; …… etc.
We continue this process till we get the remainder zero.
As we observe a > r1, > r2 > ……, we will get a remainder zero after
finite number of steps, say rn + 1 = 0.
So, we have; r2 = r3 q4 + r4, where, 0 ≤ r4 < r3 … (6)

: : :
: : : :
rn – 2 = rn – 1 qn + rn , where, 0 ≤ rn < rn – 1 … (7)
and rn – 1 = r n q n + 1 + 0
As argued before, we have
rn = (rn – 1, rn) = (rn – 2, rn – 1) = … = (r1, r2) = (b, r1) = (a, b)
Thus, rn = (a, b), the g.c.d. of a and b.
Note: The above process (E.A.) not only describes how to find g.c.d. of
given integers, but also provides the method of finding integers m and n
such that (a, b) = ma + nb. For, we start with equation (7) above and
express rn in terms of rn – 1 and rn – 2, then using previous equation,
express rn – 1 in terms of rn – 2 and rn – 3 , …… and so on, till we reach the
equation (1), which gives rn in the form ma + nb, for some m and n in Z.
Let us work out the following example to understand how E.A. helps to
find. g.c.d. as well as to find the pair of integers m and n.
Find (100, 15) and express it in the form (100, 15) = 100m + 15n, for
m, n ∈Z. We have
100 = 15 × 6 + 10 … (1)
15 = 10 × 1 + 5 … (2)
10 = 5 × 2 + 0
∴ (100, 15) = 5
Now from (2) we have
5 = 15 – 10 × 1
5 = 15 – (100 – 15 × 6) × 1 Using (1) for 10.
= 15 × 7 + 100 × (– 1)
Thus, 5 = 15 × 7 + 100 × (– 1),
where, m = 7 and n = – 1.
Exercise 1.2
1. Find g.c.d. ‘d’ of 31 and 13 and obtain pair of integers m and n

such that d = 31 m + 13 n.
2. Do the same for a = 24 and b = 114.
Relatively prime integers: Two integers a and b are said to be

relatively prime, if
(a, b) = 1
The fact that (a, b) = 1 is sometimes expressed by saying that a and b
are coprime or by saying that a is prime to b.
For instance, since (13, 17) = 1, 13 and 17 are relatively prime. Also,
(10, 21) = 1, hence 10 and 21 are relatively prime.
Least common multiple: Let a and b be non-zero integers. Then the
least common multiple (L.C.M.) of a and b is defined to be a positive
integer d such that (i) a | d and b | d and (ii) if a | c and b | c, then d | c.
We write L.C.M. of a and b as [a, b].
For instance, [6, 10] = 30, since 6 | 30 and 10 | 30. Also [12, 50] = 300.
Theorem 4 For any two non-zero integers a and b have unique L.C.M.
ab
[a, b] and [a, b] = .
(a‚ b)
Proof: Let (a, b) = d, then a = dk1 and b = dk2 where (k1, k2) = 1, by
example (2). Let g = k1 k2 d.
We shall show that g is L.C.M. of a and b. Clearly g is positive and

observe that
g = k1 k2 d = k1 . d . k2 , since d > 0, d = d.
=  k1 d  k2
 
So g = a k2 , since a = k1 d
g = ± a k2 , since a = ± a.
∴ a | g. Similarly, we can show b | g. Let c be positive integer such

that a |c and b| c, and c = ap, c = bq, for p, q ∈ Z.
Now (k1, k2) = 1, implies that there exist integers m and n such that
mk1 + nk2 = 1
⇒ c = mk1 c + nk2 c, multiplying by c
= mk1 bq + nk2 ap, ‡ c = ap and c = bq.
= mk1 k2 dq + nk2 k1 dp, ‡ b = k2 d and a = k1d
c = (k1 k2 d) (mq + np)

= ± g (mq + np), ‡ g = 1 k2 d
∴ g | c.
Therefore, g is L.C.M. of a and b.
Again, we have, g = k1 k2 d
So gd = k1 k2 d2
= k1 d k2 d , .. d > 0
.
= a . b , . . a = k d and b = k d
. 1 2
a b ab
∴ g = i.e. [a, b] = .
d (a‚ b)
Now, let us prove the uniqueness of g. If possible, suppose g' is

another L.C.M. of a and b. Then g is L.C.M. and a | g', b | g',
(... g' is L.C.M.).
∴ g | g'
Similarly, g' is L.C.M. and a | g, b | g,
∴ g' | g (... g is L.C.M.)
Therefore g = ± g', but g and g' are positive, hence g' = g.
Modular Arithmetic :
The division algorithm can be used to determine the day after 52
days or a month after 33 months etc. For example, if today is Saturday,
what day will be after 100 days ? It is Monday, as 100 = 13 × 7 + 2, so we
count two days next to Saturday, we do not count 100 days after
Saturday.
Modular arithmetic is an abstraction of a method of counting that we
often use.
if a = qn + r, where q is quotient and r is the remainder upon dividing
a by n, we write this as a mod n = r or a = r mod n.
For example, 5 mod 3 = 2 since 5 = 1 × 3 + 2
33 mod 7 = 5 since 33 = 4 × 7 + 5
104 mod 12 = 8 since 104 = 8 × 12 + 8
More generally, if a and b are integers and n is positive integer, we

often write a = b mod n, if n divides a − b.
Addition and multiplication mod n is defined as :
(a + b) mod n = (a mod n + b mod n) mod n
(ab) mod n = ((a mod n) (b mod n)) mod n
For example,
(15 + 33) mod 7 = (15 mod 7 + 33 mod 7) mod 7
= (1 mod 7 + 5 mod 7) mod 7
= 6 mod 7 = 6
Similarly, (15.33) mod 7 = ((15 mod 7) ⋅ (33 mod 7)) mod 7
= ((1 mod 7) ⋅ (mod 7)) mod 7
= (1.5) mod 7 = 5
Modular arithmetic is often used in assigning on extra digit to
identification numbers for the purpose of detecting forgery or errors.
Illustrative Examples
Example 1.1 : The Indian Postal Service money order bears an
identification number consisting of 10 digits together with an extra digit
called a check. This check digit is the 10 digit number modulo 9. The
number 9423567879 has the check digit 6 since, 9423567879 mod 9 = 6.
If the number 9423567879 were incorrectly entered into a computer
(programmed to calculate the check digit) as say, 9423767879 (an error in
the fifth position) the machine would calculate the check as 8, whereas
the entered digit would be 6. Thus, the error would be detected.
Example 1.2: Let a, b, x, y be non-zero integers and let xa + yb = 1.
Then show that (a, b) = (x, y) = (a, y) = (x, b) = 1.
Solution: Suppose d = (a, b) and let a = dk1 and b = dk2,
for k1 k2 ∈ Z. Using this in xa + yb = 1, we get,
x (dk1) + y (dk2) = 1
⇒ d (xk1 + yk2) = 1
⇒ d | 1,
⇒ d = d≤ 1 =1
i.e. d ≤ 1, but d > 0 implies d = 1.
Thus (a, b) = 1. Similarly, we can show that (x, y) = 1 etc.
Example 1.3: Let a and b be non-zero integers and let d = (a, b).
If a = dx and b = dy, show that (x, y) = 1.
Solution: Since d = (a, b), we have
d = ma + nb, for some m, n in Z.
= m (dx) + n (dy), since a = dx and b = dy
d = d (mx + ny)
⇒ mx + ny = 1, since d ≠ 0, by cancellation law.
⇒ (x, y) = 1, by Example 2.(1.1) above.
Example 1.4: If (a, m) = 1 = (b, m), then (ab, m) = 1.
(That is, if a and m are relatively prime and b and m are relatively
prime, then ab and m are also relatively prime).
Solution: By theorem 3, there exist integers x0, y0, x1, y1 such that
ax0 + my0 = 1 and bx1 + my1 = 1
Thus we write
(ax0) (bx1) = (1 – my0) (1 – my1)
= 1 – my2,
where, y2 = y0 + y1 – my0 y1, so that we obtain (ab) (x0 x1) + my2 = 1
By above example, we get (ab, m) = 1.
Example 1.5: For any integer x, show that (a, b) = (a, b + ax).
(Oct. 2013)
Solution: Let (a, b) = d and (a, b + ax) = g.
Since d = (a, b), d | a and d | b, which implies that d | a and
d | (b + ax), by definition d is c.d. of a and b + ax, hence d | g. … (1)
On the other hand, since g = (a, b + ax), so g | a and g | (b + ax).
⇒ a = gk1 and (b + ax) = gk2, for k1, k2 ∈ Z
⇒ a = gk1 and b + gk1 = gk2
⇒ a = gk1 and b = g (k2 – k1)
⇒ g | a and g | b … (2)
So g is c.d. of a and b, hence g | d, as d is g.c.d. of a and b. From (1)
and (2), we get g = d, which proves the result.
Example 1.6: If a, b, c are integers such that a | bc and (a, b) = 1, then

show that a | c. (March 10, April 13)
Solution: Given that a | bc and (a, b) = 1.
(a, b) = 1 so there exist integers m and n such that
ma + nb = 1
⇒ mac + nbc = c
⇒ mac + nak = c (‡ a | bc)
⇒ a [mc + nk] = c
⇒ ax = c (‡ mc + nk = x is integer)
⇒ a | cproved.
Example 1.7: Find g.c.d. 'd' of 3997 and 2947 and express it in the
form d = 3997m + 2947n for some m, n∈Z.
Solution: We have
3997 = 2947 × 1 + 1050 … (6)
2947 = 1050 × 2 + 847 … (5)
1050 = 847 × 1 + 203 … (4)
847 = 203 × 4 + 35 … (3)
203 = 35 × 5 + 28 … (2)
35 = 28 × 1 + 7 … (1)
28 = 7 × 4 + 0
∴ 3997, 2947) = 7
Now from (1),
7 = 35 – 28 × 1
= 35 – [203 – 35 × 5] × 1 by using (2)
= 35 × 6 – 203 × 1
= [847 – 203 × 4] × 6 – 203 × 1, by using (3)
= 847 × 6 – 203 × 25
= 847 × 6 – [1050 – 84 × 1] × 25, by using (4)
= 847 × 31 – 1050 × 25
= [2947 – 1050 × 2] × 31 – 1050 × 25, by using (5)
= 2947 × 31 – 1050 × 87
= 2947 × 31 – [3997 – 2947 × 1] × 87, by using (6)

∴ 7 = 2947 × 118 – 3997 × 87
∴ 7 = 3997 × (– 87) + 2947 × 118
Here m = – 87 and n = 118
Example 1.8: Show that 4999 and 1109 are relatively prime. Also find
m and n such that 1 = 4999 m + 1109 n. (March 2010)
Solution: We have,
4999 = 1109 × 4 + 563 … (5)
1109 = 563 × 1 + 546 … (4)
563 = 546 × 1 + 17 … (3)
546 = 17 × 32 + 2 … (2)
17 = 2 × 8 + 1 … (1)
2 = 1×2+0
∴ (4999, 1109) = 1
That is 4999 and 1109 are relatively prime.
From (1), we have,
1 = 17 – 2 × 8 by using (1)
= 17 – (546 – 17 × 32) × 8 by using (2)
= 17 × 257 – 546 × 8
= [563 – 546 × 1] × 257 – 546 × 8 by using (3)
= 563 × 257 – 546 × 265
= 563 × 257 – [1109 – 563 × 1] × 265 by using (4)
= 563 × 522 – 1109 × 265
= [4999 – 1109 × 4] × 522 – 1109 × 265 by using (5)
= 4999 × 522 – 1109 × 2353
∴ 1 = 4999 × 522 + 1109 × (– 2353)
Here, m = 522 and n = – 2353
Example 1.9: Find g.c.d. of 3587 and 1819 and express it in the form
3587 m + 1819 n. Find two distinct pairs of m and n.
(April 2009, 2013)
Solution: We have, by D.A.,

3587 = 1819 × 1 + 1768 … (4)
1819 = 1768 × 1 + 51 … (3)
1768 = 51 × 34 + 34 … (2)
51 = 34 × 1 + 17 … (1)
34 = 17 × 2 + 0
∴ (3587, 1819) = 17
Now using (1), we have
17 = 51 – 34 × 1
= 51 – [1768 – 51 × 34] × 1 by using (2)
= 51 × 35 – 1768 × 1
= [1819 – 1768 × 1] × 35 – 1768 × 1 by using (3)
= 1819 × 35 – 1768 × 36
= 1819 × 35 – [3587 – 1819 × 1] × 36 by using (4)
= 1819 × 71 – 3587 × 36
= 3587 × (– 36) + 1819 × 71
Here m = – 36 , n = 71.
For another pair, we have a = 3587, b = 1819 and k = 1 in the
formula
d = a (m – kb) + b (n + ka), we get
17 = 3587 × (– 1855) + 1819 × 3658
So m1 = – 1855 and n1 = 3658
1.3 Prime and Composite Numbers

Prime: A non-zero integer p (≠ ± 1) is called prime if it has no
divisors other than ± 1 and ± p.
For instance, ± 2, ± 3, ± 5, ± 7, ± 11 etc. are prime integers.
Note:
1. Thus, a prime integer is an integer which has no proper divisor.
2. Usually only positive primes are studied. If p and q are positive
primes and if p | q, then p = q.
Composite: A non-zero integer 'a' is called composite if 'a' has a

proper divisor. That is 'a' is called composite if we can write a = b.c, where
1 < b < a and 1 < c < a i.e. b is a proper divisor of a. For
example, 4, 10, – 12 etc. are composite integers.
Theorem 5 (Euclid's Lemma): If p is prime and a, b are integers such

that p | ab, then either p | a or p | b. (Oct. 12, 15; April 13)
Proof: If p | a, then the theorem is obvious.
If p | a, then (p, a) = 1 ⇒ ∃ x and y∈Z such that
1 = px + ay
Multiplying both sides by b, we get,
b = (px) b + (ay) b
⇒ b = p (xb) + (ab) y
⇒ b = p (xb) + (pk) y, ‡ p | ab,
we have ab = pk, for some k ∈ Z
⇒ b = p (xb + ky)
⇒ p|b
Thus, if p | a, then p | b.
Hence p ð ab ⇒ either p | a or p | b.
We prove, in the following, the generalisation of the above theorem.
Corollary: If p is a prime and p | (a1 . a2. … an), then p | ai, for at least
one i (1 ≤ i ≤ n). (March 2016)
Proof: We prove the result by mathematical induction on n.
If n = 1, we have p | a1, and the result is obvious.
If n = 2, we have proved it in theorem (above).
So suppose the result is true for n = k.
i.e. if p | (a1 . a2 … ak), then p | ai, for at least one i (1 ≤ i ≤ k).
Now, suppose p | (a1 . a2 …ak . ak + 1)
⇒ p | (a1 . a2 … ak) or p | ak + 1, by theorem. If p | ak + 1, then i = k + 1.
If p | (a1 . a2 … ak ), then by induction hypothesis, p | ai, for at least one

i (1 ≤ i ≤ k).
Thus, p | ai for at least one i (1 ≤ i ≤ k + 1) and the result is true for

n=k+1
Hence by induction, the result is true for all n ≥ 1.
Among all integers, the integers ± 2, ± 3, ± 5, ± 7, ± 11, … are called
prime integers, because all the composite integers are composed of
primes. In fact what we are saying, nothing but the following theorem
called 'Unique Factorisation Theorem' or is also called, 'The fundamental
theorem of arithmetic'.
Theorem 6 (Unique Factorization Theorem): Every integer a > 1

either is a prime number itself or can be expressed as a product of
positive primes. This representation is unique apart from the order of the
prime factors.
Proof: If a = 2, there is nothing to be proved as 2 itself is a prime.
So suppose a > 2. If 'a' is a prime then the integer itself stands as a
prime. If a is not prime, then it is composite. Since 'a' is composite, it can
be factorised as a = n1 n2, where 1 < n1 < a and 1 < n2 < a. If n1 is
prime, let it stand; otherwise it will factor into, say, n1 = n3 ⋅ n4, where,
1 < n3 < n1 and 1 < n4 < n1; similarly for n2. This process of writing each
composite number that arises as a product of factors must terminate
because the factors are smaller than the composite number itself; and yet
each factor is an integer greater than 1. Thus, we can write 'a' as a
product of primes. This proves that 'a' can be expressed as a product of
primes.
Now, let us establish uniqueness part.
Suppose a has two different factorings.
Let a = p1 · p2 … pk and also a = q1 · q2 … qr be two prime
factorisations of a; pi' s and qi's are all primes. So that we have
p 1 · p 2 … p k = q1 … q2 … qr … (1)
Therefore p1 | (q1 · q2 … qr)
⇒ p1 | qj for at least one j (1 ≤ j ≤ r), by using corollary of theorem 5,
since p1 is prime.
But qj is also prime, hence p1 = qj.
Cancelling p1 and qj from corresponding sides of (1), we get,
p2 · p3 … pk = q1 · q2 … qj–1 · qj + 1 … qr … (2)
Again p2 | (q1 · q2 … qj–1 · qj+1 … qr), p2 is prime it must divide at least

one factor on right hand side, which is also prime, hence p2 is equal to at
least one member on right hand side of (2), so cancelling from both sides
the like factors, we may obtain
p3 · p4 … pk = q1 · q2 … qi–1 · qi+1 … qj–1 · qj+1 … qr … (3)
Continuing in this way every time we cancel one factor from both
sides. Since the number of factors is finite, we will arrive at one stage,
where factors on either side get exhausted or all factors on both sides get
exhausted simultaneously, proving that r = k and factorisation is unique.
If possible only one side of (1) gets exhausted, then it means; whatever
prime factors left on other side, their product will be equal to 1, which is
impossible. Hence, both sides must exhaust simultaneously. This
completes the proof of the theorem.
Note: The proof of the above theorem is not expected in the syllabus.
Corollary: Let a (≠ ± 1) be any non-zero integer. Then
a = ± p1, p2 … pk, where pi's are primes.
Proof: Clearly a > 1, so by previous theorem, we have
a = p1 . p2 … pk , where pi's are primes and the expression is unique.

But we know
a = ± a, hence
± a = p1 p2 …pk
⇒ a = ± p1 p2 … pk
Note: 1. Let a (≠ ± 1) be any non-zero integer. The factorisation of 'a' as a
product of primes, need not yield distinct primes, hence collecting
together like primes, we may write 'a' as:
α1 α2 αr
a = ± p1 . p2 …p , … (*)
r
where, p1, p2, … pr are all distinct primes and αi ≥ 0 are integers.
For instance, 100 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 5,
So 100 = 22 × 52 × 30
Also 6750 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5
= 2 × 33 × 53 × 70
2. For any integer 'a', the expression (*) is called "Canonical form".
Using the canonical forms of the given integers, it is easy to find
g.c.d.
For example, (100, 6750) = 2 × 52 = 50
Exercise 1.3
1. Express 1757051 in canonical form.

2. Find g.c.d. and l.c.m. by using canonical forms of 216 and 675.
1.4 Relations and Equivalence Relations

Definition : Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. Let x ∈ X and y ∈ Y,
then the pair (x, y) is called an ordered pair if equality of such pairs is
defined as follows :
(x, y) = (x', y') if and only if x = x' and y = y'
Definition : Cartesian product of two non-empty sets X and Y,
denoted X × Y, and defined tobe the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) with
x ∈ X and y ∈ Y. Thus,
X × Y = {(x, y) | x ∈ X, y ∈ Y}
For instance, if X = {a, b, c} and Y = {1, 2},
then X × Y = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}
then X × Y = {(1, a), (2, a), (1, b), (2, b), (1, c), (2, c)}
We can generalize the above definition for Cartesian product of
n-sets.
Definition : If A1, A2, …, An are n non-empty sets, then the Cartesian
product of the sets A1, A2, …, An, denoted by A1 × A2 × … × An and is
defined tobe theset of all ordered n-tuples (x1, x2, …, xn) with x∈ Ai; i = 1
to n. Thus, A1 × A2 × … × An = {(x1, x2, …, xn) / x ∈ A, i = 1 to n}.
We quote here some observation, which are very important to be
remembered.
1. If the set X has m element and the set Y has n elements, then X ×
Y will consist of mn elements.
2. From definition of ordered pairs, it is clear that X × Y ≠ Y × X; that
is Cartesian product non commutative.
3. In particular we can think of a Cartesian product of the set with

itself, so if X is non-empty set, then
X × X = {(x, y) | x, y ∈ X}
Example 1 : If X = {Ram, Vijay, Vyas} is the set of three persons of if
Y = (Pune, Nashik, Dhule). Then
X × Y = {(Ram, Pune), (Ram, Nashik), (Ram, Dhule), (Vijay, Pune),
(Vijay, Nashik), (Vijay, Dhule), (Vyas, Pune, (Vyasj, Nashik),
(Vyas, Dhule)}
Definition : A relation from set X to the set Y is defined to be any
subset of X × Y.
For example, with example 1 above the subset R1 = {(Ram, Pune),
(Ram, Dhule)} is relation. From X to Y, which we may think in practical life
as say, Ram has his sister in Pune and another sister in Dhule.
The subset R2 = (Ram, Pune}, (Vijay, Dhule), (Vyas, Nashik) of X × Y is
a relation from X to Y, which we may interpret in practical life as Pune is a
native of Ram, Dhule is a native. Vijay and Nashik a native of vyas, or even
we ca think relation R2 as ram, Vijay and Vyas are working in cities Pune,
Nashik and Dhule respectively.
In the next discussion, we willthink of only a particular type of
relations, viz the relations from a set X to itself.
For example, if X is the set of members in a family, then we know that
the members of X (family) are related to reach other in different ways.
Inusual practice, we will be talking about relations of number sets. Let us
take note of the following :
1. If X is with m elements and Y is with n elements are set then how
many relations are possible from X to Y? As we know X × Y as mn
mn
elements, the number all subsets of X × Y will be 2 , hence there
mn
are 2 relations possible from X to Y.
2
2. If we think of relations from X to itself, then there will be 2m
relations from X to X if X has m elements.
Now, we define in the following particular significant relations from a
set X to itself, which we are studying in details.
Reflexive Relation : A relation R from X to X is said to be reflexive, if
to each x ∈ X the order pair (x, x) ∈ R.
Thus, reflexive relation is a relation in which each x ∈ R-related to x

itself.
For example, let us consider the following relations.
Let X be the set of all lines in a plane. Let the relation R be defined as:
For x, y ∈ X, x R y [or (x, y) ∈ R] if ‘x is parallel to y’. Then R is reflexive
relation, as we know that every lie in a plane is parallel to itself. So
(x, x) ∈ R, for each x ∈ X. If we define another relation S on X as. For
x, y ∈ X, (x, y) ∈ S, if ‘x is perpendicular to y’, then this relation is not
reflexive, since no line in a plane is perpendicular to itself.
Symmetric Relation : A relation R on X is said to be symmetric if
whenever (x, y) ∈ R then (y, x) also belongs to R.
Thus, R is symmetric on X if x is R-related to y, then y is also R-related
to x.
For example, if X is the set of lines in a plane and S be the relation
defined as. For x, y ∈ X, (x, y) ∈ S, if ‘x is perpendicular to y’, then y is also
perpendicular to x, hence S is symmetric relation. But if X is a set of
students in F.Y.B.Sc. class, and we define a relation R on X as. For x, y ∈ X,
(x, y) ∈ R if, ‘height of x is less than the height of y’ then this relation R is
not be symmetric.
Transitive Relation : A relation R on X is said to be transitive if
whenever (x, y), (y, z) ∈ R then (x, z) also belongs to R.
For example, if X is a set of family members and we define a relation
R as. For x, y ∈ X, (x, y) ∈ R, ‘if x is a brother of y’. Then R is transitive since
if (x, y) and (y, z) belongs R, means x is a brother of y and y is brother of z,
so it is clear that x is also brother of z, hence, (x, z) ∈ R. Note that this
relation need not be symmetric for, if x is brother of y, then it is possible
that y is sister of x and not brother of x.
Equivalence Relation : Let X be any non-empty set. A relation R in X
is said to be equivalence relation, if R is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive, that is, R s equivalence relation if :
1. For each x ∈ X, (x, x) ∈ R.
2. (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ (y, x) ∈ R.
3. (x, y), (y, z) ∈ R ⇒ (x, z) ∈ R.
Note 1 : Instead of speaking about subset of X × X we can speak
about a binary relation (one between two elements of X) on X itself.
Note 2 : If r is equivalence relation on X, and if (x, y) ∈ R, for x, y ∈ X,

we read this as ‘x is equivalent to y’.
Note 3 : The symbol ‘~’ is usually used for equivalence relation in
place of R.
Let X be a set of all lines in a plane, then the relation R, defined by for
x, y ∈ X, (x, y) ∈ R, if ‘x is parallel to y’ is an equivalence relation. However,
the relation S, defined by for x, y ∈ X, (x, y) ∈ S, ‘if x is perpendicular to y’
is not an equivalence relation, since it is not reflexive as well as it is not
transitive.
Exercise :
1. Let X be the set of all students in a college. For x, y ∈ X, define
(x, y) ∈ R if x and y belong to the same class. Show that R is an
equivalence relation on X.
2. Let X be the set of books in the binary. Define R as, two books x
and y are R-related if x and y are the books on the same subject.
Is R an equivalence relation ? Justify your answer.
3. In Z, the set of all integers, define a relation R as: two integers m
and n are said to be R-related if m and n are of the same parity
(that is, m and n are either both even or both odd). Is R an
equivalence relation ? Why ?
Equivalence class : Let ~ be an equivalence relation in X. For x ∈ X,
the set {y ∈ X | x ~ y} is called the equivalence class of x with respect to
−
the equivalence relation ~ and is denoted by [x] or x .
−
Thus, x or [x] is the set of all those y ∈ X which are equivalent to x,
−
that is, x ~ y. x = {y ∈ X | x ~ y}.
We recall the three examples given as an exercise after the definition
of equivalence relation, we leave it to the students as an exercise to show
that in all these three examples, the relations are equivalence relations. It
is interesting to see the equivalence classes in each of these examples. In
the first exercise, if Ramesh is a student in F.Y.B.Sc. class, then equivalence

class of Ramesh, we denote it by Ramesh is {y ∈ X | Ramesh ~ y} =
{y ∈ X| Ramesh and y are in the same class} = the set of those students,
which are in F.Y.B.Sc. class,since we know that Ramesh is in F.Y.B.Sc. class.
Thus, it is clear to see that, inthis case, the equivalence classes are
nothing but the different classes in a college. For instance, F.Y.B.Sc. class
is one equivalence class, whereas F.Y.B.Sc. or S.Y.B.Sc. class will be another

equivalence class.
Note : It is obvious still necessary to note that, if X is given set and ~ an
equivalence relation in X then the equivalence classes are non-empty
subsets of X.
In Exercise (2), the student can workout in similar manner that in this
case, the equivalence classes are nothing but the different racks in the
library having books on the same subject. (That is why, if you want to
issue a book of Mathematics, you have to reach the rack (equivalence
class) on which the books on Mathematics are arranged.)
In Exercise (3), the equivalence relation on Z, puts Z into two
equivalence classes, namely, the set of all even integers and the set of all
odd integers. That is, the set of all even integers and set of all odd
integers are the two equivalence classes.
It is better for us to see some illustrative examples of equivalence
relations and the calculations of the corresponding equivalence classes.
This will help us to understand the concepts so far developed.
Example 1.10 : Let A = {a, b, c, d}. How many elements are there in
power set P(A) ? Hence write down P(A). How many relations are there on
the set A ? (Practical Problem)
4
Solution : Since, A has 4 elements, p(A) has 2 elements, that is, 16
elements.
p(A) = {φ, (a), (b), (c), (d), (a, b), (a, c), (a, d), (b, c), (b, d),
(c, d), (a, b, c), (a, b, c), (a, c, d), (b, c, d), A}
Since, there are 16 elements in A × A and the relation on the set A is
16
any subset of A × A, hence there are 2 relations on the set A.
Example 1.11 : A relation R defined in the set of all lines L in a plane
by xRY ⇒ x || y is an equivalence relation.
Solution : (i) Let L1 ∈ L be any line in L, then
L1 || L1 ⇒ L1 RL1 ⇒ R is reflexive
(ii) Let L1, L2 ∈ L
L1 RL2 ⇒ L2 || L2
⇒ L2 || L1 ⇒ L2 RL1 ⇒ R is symmetric
(iii) Let L1, L2, L3 ∈ L

L1 RL2 ⇒ L1 || L2 and L2 RL3 ⇒ L2 || L3
Therefore R is transitive.
(i), (ii) and (iii) ⇒ R is an equivalence relation.
Example 1.12 : Let Z be the set of all integers. Given a, b ∈ Z, define
a ~ b if a − b is an even integer. Then show that ~ is an equivalence
relation.
Solution : (i) For any a ∈ Z, a − a = 0 is an even integer, hence a ~ a
for all a ∈ Z, so ~ is a reflexive relation.
(ii) If a ~ b, then by definition of a − b is an even integer, then b − a
= − (a − b) is also even integer, that is, b ~ a whenever a ~ b.
∴ ~ is symmetric.
(iii) If a ~ b and b ~ c, then both a − b and b − c are even integers,
then a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) is also even, implying that ~ is
transitive relation. Thus, ‘~’ is an equivalence relation. Now, for
a ∈ Z,
−
a = {x ∈ Z | a ~ x}
= {x ∈ Z | a − x is an even integer}
= {x ∈ Z | x − a is an even integer since ~ is symmetric}
= {x ∈ Z | x − a = 2k for k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = a + 2k, k ∈ Z}
For example, if a = 0, we have
−
0 = {……, − 4, − 2, 0, 2, 4, ……}
and, if a = 1
−
1 = {……, − 5, − 3, −1, 1, 3, 5, ……}
There are only two equivalence classes w.r.t. ‘~’.
Example 1.13 : Let Z be the set of all integers and n > 1 be a fixed
integer. For a, b ∈ Z, define a ~ b if a − b is multiple of n (that is, n
divides a − b or a − b is divisible by n). Then show that ~ is equivalence
relation in Z.
Solution : (i) For each a ∈ Z, since a − a = 0 = 0.n, is multiple of n,
hence a ~ a. Therefore, ‘~’ is reflexive.
(ii) If a ~ b, then a − b = nk, for some k.Z, then b − a = −nk = n(−k)

is also multiple of n; hence ~ is symmetric.
(iii) If a ~ b and b ~ c, then a − b = nk1 and b − c = nk2 for some
k1, k2 ∈ Z. We see that
a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) = nk1 + nk2
= n (k1 + k2)
= nk3, where, k3 = k1 + k2 ∈ Z
hence a − c is multiple of n. Therefore ~ is transitive.
Thus, ~ is an equivalence relation. Now, for a ∈ Z, let us find
equivalence class of a. We have,
−
a = {x ∈ Z | a ~ x}
= {x ∈ Z | x ~ a, since ~ is symmetric}
= {x ∈ Z | x − a = nk, for some k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = a + nk, for k ∈ Z}
In particular, if a = 0
−
0 = {x ∈ Z | x = nk, for k ∈ Z},
which is a set of all integer multiple of n.
Note :
1. In above case, there are precisely n distinct equivalence classes.
− − − − −
2. If n = 5, the five distinct equivalence classes are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. As
an exercise, students may try to list the elements (numbers) of
− − − − −
the sets 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Example 1.14 : Consider the set ù × ù of all ordered pairs of natural
numbers. For (a, b),(c, d) in ù × ù, we define (a,b) ~ (c, d) if ad = bc. Show
that ~ is equivalence relation.
Solution : (i) For any (a, b) ∈ ù × ù, since ab = ba implies (a, b) ~
(a, b). So ~ is reflexive.
(ii) If (a, b) ~ (c, d), then ad = bc, which can be written as, cb = db,
showing that (c, d) ~ (a, b), hence ~ is symmetric.
(iii) If (a, b) ~ (c, d) and (c, d) ~ (e, f), then by definition of ~, ad = bc
a c c e
and cf = de, that is = and = , since a, b, c, d, e, f ∈ ù are
b d d f
a a
not zero which shows that = i.e. af = be. Hence, (a, b) ~ (e, f);
b f
so ~ is transitive.
Thus, ~ is an equivalence relation.
Next, for (a, b) ∈ ù × ù, we have,

(a, b) = {(c, d) ∈ ù × ù | (a, b) ~ (c, d)}
= {(c, d) ∈ ù × ù | ad = bc}
 a c 
= (c, d) ∈ ù × ù | = , since b ∈ 0, c ∈ 0
 b d 
This shows that the equivalence class of (a, b) is the set of all
c a
(c, d) ∈ ù × ù, such that = . This shows that, it is a set of all positive
d b
a
rationals which are equal to . Therefore, the equivalence classes in this
b
example are nothing but the distinct positive rationals in disguised form.
To get this more clear, consider a particular pair (2, 3) ∈ ù × ù. Then
we know that
2 4 6 8 10
= = = = … so on
3 6 9 12 15
2 4 6
So, we usually use as a representative of all these rationals , ,
3 6 9
8 10
, … It is clear that,
12 15

(2, 3) = {(2, 3), (4, 6), (6, 9), (8, 12), …}
 2
Thus, (2, 3) can be viewed as rational number in disguised form.
3
Example 1.15 : Let R be defined on the set of integers Z by
xRy ⇒ 5x + 6y is divisible by 11, for x, y ∈ Z
Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution : xRy ⇒ 5x + 6y is divisible by 11 ⇒ 5x + 6y = 11k, k ∈ Z
(i) 5x + 6x = 11x ⇒ xRy ⇒ R is reflexive
(ii) xRy ⇒ 5x + 6y = 11 k
Now, 5y + 6x = 11y − 6y + 11x − 5x
= 11(x + y) − (6y + 5x) = 11(x +y) − 11k

= 11(x + y − k) = 11k1, k1 = x + y − k ∈ Z
⇒ yRx
Thus, xRy ⇒ yRx ⇒ R is symmetric
(iii) Let x, y, z ∈ Z
xRy ⇒ 5x + 6y = 11 k1
yRz ⇒ 5y + 6z = 11 k2
5x + 6z = 11 (k1 + k2 − y)
⇒ 5x + 6z = 11 k3, k3 = k1 + k2 − y
∴ ⇒ xRz
Thus, xRy, yRz ⇒ xRz ⇒ R is transitive.
(i), (ii) and (iii) ⇒ R is an equivalence relation.
For the students who know the playing cards, we give examples,
which will be appealing.
Example 1.16 : If D is the set of cards in a standard 52 card deck, we
define two relation on D as :
(i) Let ~c be a relation on D given by, for two cards a, b from D, we
say a ~c be if and only if a and b are of the same colour. Then it is
clear that ~c is an equivalence relation on D. Since, there are only
two coloured cards in a deck namely red and black, the
equivalence relation ~c on D gives rise two equivalence classes
namely the sets [red cards] and the set [black cards].
(ii) Let ~s be a relation on D given by; for two cards a and b from D,
we say that a ~s b if and only if a and b belong to the same suit.
Again students can check easily that ~s is an equivalence relation
on D. As we know there are four suits in a deck of cards, there are
four equivalence classes corresponding to ~s, namely the sets
(spade cards), (diamond cards), (heart cards) and (club cards).
Example 1.17 : Let A = {a, b, c, d}, write down all partitions of A. How
many equivalence relations are defined on the set A? Determine the
equivalence classes corresponding to each equivalence relation.
Solution : The following are the 15 partitions of the set A :
(1) X (2) {(a), (b), (c), (d)}
(3) {(a, b), (c), (d)} (4) {(a, c), (b), (d)}
(5) {(a, d), (b), (c)} (6) {(b, c), (a), (d)}
(7) {(b, d), (a), (c)} (8) {(c, d), (a), (b)}
(9) {(a, b), (c, d)} (10) {(a, c), (b, d)}
(11) {(a, d), (b, c)} (12) {(a, b, c), (d)}
(13) {(a, b, d), (c)} (14) {(b, c, d), (a)}
(15) {(a, c, d), (b)}
Since, there are 15 partitions of A, by fundamental theorem of the
equivalence classes, theorem 2 below, there will be 15 equivalence
relations on A. The equivalence classes of each of these equivalence
relation will be the subsets of A in that corresponding partition. For
instance P = {(c, d), (a), (b)} is partition of A, which defines an equivalence
relation on A, whose equivalence classes will be : (c, d), (a) and (b).
Till this stage, we have not proved any results. Let us state and prove
some of the important results related to equivalence relations,
equivalence classes and a partition of a set.
Theorem 7 Let ~ be an equivalence relation on a set X. Then :
−
(a) For every x ∈ X, x ∈ x .
− − −
(b) For x, y ∈ X, x ∈ y , if x = y .
− − − −
(c) For any x, y ∈ X, either x = y or x ∩ y = φ; i.e.
any two equivalence classes are either identical or disjoint.
Proof : (a) Since, ~ is an equivalence relation, it is reflexive, hence for
− −
any x ∈ X x ~ x . Therefore x ∈ x .
− − −
(b) First suppose x ∈ y . We have to show that x = y , the set
− −
equality. Let z ∈ x be any element. Then z ~ x, but x ∈ y implies x ~ y.
Thus, z ~ x and x ~ y and ~ is transitive relation, hence z ~ y which shows
−
that z ∈ y . Therefore,
− −
x ⊂ y … (i)
− −
On the other hand suppose z ∈ y , then z ~ y, but x ∈ y implies. So
that z ~ y and x ~ y.
⇒ z ~ y and y ~ x, (‡ ~ is symmetric)
⇒ z ~ x, (‡ ~ is transitive)
−
⇒ z∈ x
− −
Therefore y ⊂ x .
From equations (i) and (ii) it follows that
− −
x = y
− −
Conversely, suppose that x = y .
− − −
From (a), we know that x ∈ x = y . Hence, x ∈ y .
− − − −
(c) Let x, y ∈ X be any two elements. If x ∩ y = φ, that is if x and y
− −
are disjoint, there is nothing to be proved. So suppose x ∩ y ≠ φ. Then
− − − −
we have z ∈ x ∩ y , which implies that z ∈ x and z ∈ y .
− − − −
⇒ z = x and z = y , by (b) above.
− − − −
⇒ x = y ; that is x and y are identical, if they are not disjoint. This
completes the proof of the theorem.
Partition of a set : Let X be a set. A partition of X is a family of
non-empty subsets of X such that each element of X belongs to exactly
one member of the family.
In other words, a partition P of a set X is a set of non-empty subsets
of X, such that :
(i) U Pi = X for all Pe ∈ P, i.e. union of all members of P is equal to X.
(ii) Pi ∩ Pj = φ, for each i ≠ j. Fig. 1.1 shows Venn diagram of a set
with partition P having eight subsets of X.
I
IV VII
VIII
III
II V
VI
Fig. 1.1
For example, (1). Let Z be the set of all integers. Then P = (U, V),
where :
U = {… −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, …}, set of all even integers
and V = {…, −3, −1, 1, 3, …}, set of all odd integers.

Then clearly P is partition of Z.
(2) Let X = (a, b, c), P = {(a), (b), (c)} and P' = {(a, b), (c)} are partitions
of X. But example (1) of illustrative examples, we have seen that in case
−
of R = {(a, b), (b, b), (c, c)} is an equivalence relation on X and (a) = a,
− −
(b) = b and (c) = c are the corresponding equivalence classes so that
− − − − − −
P = ( a, b, c ), is a partition of X. Similarly, P' = ( a, c ), where a = (a, b) and
−
c = (c) is a partition of X.
(3) In example, (2) of the illustrative examples, ~ is equivalence
− −
relation and the equivalence classes are 0 and 1, and we see that
− −
P = ( 0, 1) is a partition of Z.
From these examples, we observe that, if ~ is an equivalence relation
on a set X, then its corresponding set of all equivalence classes form a
partition for X. This is the result which we are going to prove next. Infact,
the following theorem is more than what we are saying.
Theorem 8 Equivalence classes theorem : Let X be any non-empty

set. Every equivalence relation on X induces a partition of X. Conversely,
every partition of X defines an equivalence relation on X.
Proof : Let ~ be an equivalence relation on X. We will show that ~
−
induces partition of X. For this, let us consider P = { x | x ∈ X}, the set of all
equivalence classes of X w.r.t. ~.
Clearly, the members of P are non-empty subsets of X, since by (a) of
−
theorem 1, for any x ∈ X, x ∈ x . This also shows that each member of X
belongs to some (infact exactly one) members of P, so union of all
members of P is X. Also, by (c) of theorem 1 any two members of P are
either identical or disjoint. Thus, we see that P defines a partition of X.
Conversely, suppose P is any partition of X. We have to show that P
defines an equivalence relation on X. For x, y ∈ X, we define x ~ y if x and
y belong to the same members of X. We claim that ~ is an equivalence
relation on X :
(i) For any x ∈ X, x and x can belong tone and only one member of
P, hence x ~ x, for all x ∈ X ~ is reflexive.
(ii) If x ~ y, then x and y belong to the same member say V, of P,

hence y and x also belong to V. Therefore, y ~ x, whenever x ~ y.
This shows ~ is symmetric.
(iii) If x ~ y and y ~ z, then x and y belong to the same member V of
P and y and ? belong to the same member say U of P. It shows
that x and z must belong to the members U and V of P, since P is
partition, y belongs to one and only one members of P, hence U
and V must be equal and so x and z belong to the same member
of P, showing that ~ is transitive. Thus, ~ is an equivalence
relation on X.
1.5 Congruences
In this section, we continue the study of divisibility, but from a slightly
different point of view. A congruence is nothing more than a statement
about divisibility. However, it is more than just a convenient notation.
Congruence modulo n: Let a and b be any two integers and n > 1
be an integer. If n | (a – b), we say that 'a is congruent to b modulo n' and
write a ≡ b (mod n). Clearly, this defines a relation in the set of integers Z,
and is called congruence relation modulo n.
Thus a ≡ b (mod n) ⇒ n | (a – b) ⇒ a – b = kn, k ∈ Z.
For instance, 5 ≡ 11 (mod 6), since 5 – 11 = – 6 is divisible by 6.
Similarly, – 7 ≡ 10 (mod 17), since – 7 – 10 = – 17 is divisible by 17.
Example : Show that congruence relation in Z is an equivalence
relation: (Oct. 2011)
(i) For any a ∈Z, we have a – a = 0 is divisible by n, hence a ≡ a
(mod n), for any a ∈Z.
∴ The relation is reflexive.
(ii) If a ≡ b (mod n), then n | (a – b), ∴ hence n | – (a – b) n | (b – a),
so b ≡ a (mod n) and the relation is symmetric.
(iii) If a ≡ b (mod n) and b ≡ c (mod n), then n | (a – b) and n | (b – c).
So that n | [(a – b) + (b – c)], which implies n |(a – c).
∴ a ≡ c (mod n); and the relation is transitive.
Thus, the congruence relation modulo n is equivalence relation in Z.
Simple properties of the congruence relation:
Theorem 9 Let a, b, c, d, x, y denote integers. Then
(a) If a ≡ b (mod n), then

(i) ax ≡ bx (mod n).
(ii) (a + x) ≡ (b + x) (mod n).
(b) If a ≡ b (mod n) and c ≡ d (mod n), then
(i) (a + c) ≡ (b + d) (mod n) (April 2009, Oct. 2015)
(ii) (ax + cy) ≡ (bx + dy) (mod n)
(iii) ac ≡ bd (mod n) (April 2009)
Proof: (a) As a ≡ b (mod n), n | (a – b), so a – b = nk, for k∈Z.
(i) Now, ax – bx = (a – b) x = nkx, using (1)
⇒ ax – bx = n(kx)
⇒ n | (ax – bx)
⇒ ax ≡ bx (mod n)
(ii) We have, (a + x) – (b + x) = a – b = nk … by (1)
⇒ (a + x) – (b + x) = nk
⇒ n | [(a + x) – (b + x)]
⇒ (a + x) ≡ (b + x) (mod n)
(b) a ≡ b (mod n) ⇒ n | (a – b), so a – b = nk1 for some k1∈Z
c ≡ d (mod n) ⇒ n | (c – d), so c – d = nk2 for some k2∈Z … (2)
(i) Now (a + c) – (b + d) = (a – b) + (c – d)
= nk1 + nk2, … using (2)
= n (k1 + k2)
which shows that n | [(a + c) – (b + d)]
i.e. (a + c) ≡ (b + d) (mod n)
(ii) We have,
(ax + cy) – (bx + dy) = (ax – bx) + (cy – dy)
= (a – b) x + (c – d) y
= nk1 x + nk2 y … using (2)
= n [k1x + k2y]
Hence n | [(ax + cy) – (bx + dy)].

Proving that (ax + cy) ≡ (bx + dy) (mod n)
(iii) We have,
ac – bd = ac – bc + bc – bd
= (a – b) c + b (c – d)
= nk1 c + b (nk2) … using (2)
= n (k1c + bk2)
So that n | (ac – bd), hence
ac ≡ bd (mod n).
Theorem 10 (a) If a ≡ b (mod n) and d | n, d > 0, then
a ≡ b (mod d)
(b) If ax ≡ bx (mod n) and (x, n) = 1, then
a ≡ b (mod n). [cancellation law]
(c) If (x, n) = d and ax ≡ bx (mod n), then
a ≡ b (mod w), where n = dw.
Proof: (a) Since a ≡ b (mod n), we have a – b = nk, for some k ∈Z.
Again, d | n, we have n = dk1, for k1 ∈Z. So that
a – b = nk = (dk1) k, . . n = dk
. 1
⇒ a – b = d (k1 k)
⇒ d | (a – b) ⇒ a ≡ b (mod d)
(b) If ax ≡ bx (mod n), then n | (ax – bx), i.e. ax – bx = nk, for k ∈Z.
⇒ (a – b) x = nk, for k ∈Z
⇒ n | (a – b)x
⇒ n | (a – b), since (x, n) = 1.
⇒ a ≡ b (mod n).
(c) Since (x, n) = d, let x = dk1, and n = dw, for k1, w ∈Z … (1)
and (k1, w) = 1
Now, ax ≡ bx (mod n)
⇒ n | (ax – bx)
⇒ n | (a – b) x
⇒ (a – b) x = nz, for z ∈Z
⇒ (a – b) dk1 = dwz, … using (1)
⇒ (a – b) k1 = wz, (... d ≠ 0, cancelling)

⇒ w | (a – b) k1
⇒ w | (a – b), (... (w, k1) = 1)

⇒ a ≡ b (mod w)
Theorem 11 If a ≡ b (mod n), then (a, n) = (b, n).
Proof: We have a – b = nk, for some k ∈Z … (1)

Let (a, n) = d and (b, n) = g. Then d | a and d | n, we have d | b, from
(1). So that d | n and d | b implies d | g. In similar manner, we can show
g | d. Therefore d = g, since d, g > 0. Therefore (a, n) = (b, n).
ù. Then a ≡ b
Theorem 12 Let a and b be any two integers and n ∈ù
(mod n) if and only if a and b leave the same remainder when divided by
n. (April 2014)
Proof: Suppose a ≡ b (mod n). Then we have to show that a and b
leave the same remainder when divided by n.
Now a ≡ b (mod n).
⇒ a – b = nk, for some k ∈Z.
∴ a = b + nk … (1)
Applying division algorithm to b and n, there exist q and r such that
b = nq + r, 0≤r<n … (2)
i.e. r is the remainder when b is divided by n.
From equation (1) and (2), we have
a = (nq + r) + nk
= n (q + k) + r , 0≤r<n
which shows that r is also the remainder when a is divided by n.
Conversely, suppose a and b leave the same remainder when divided
by n. That is, by division algorithm, we have
a = nq + r and b = nq' + r, 0 ≤ r < nr, q, q'∈Z
Then, a – b = (nq + r) – (nq' + r)
= n (q – q')
⇒ n | (a – b)
⇒ a ≡ b (mod n).
We have seen that the relation "Congruence modulo n" is an
equivalence relation in Z. Hence we can define equivalence classes for the
elements in Z, which are called congruent classes modulo n or residue
classes modulo n.
–
Residue classes modulo: For a ∈ Z, the set a = {x ∈ Z | x ≡ a
(mod n)} is called the 'congruent class of a modulo n' or the 'residue class
of a modulo n'.
Thus, the residue class of a is the set of all integers which are
congruent to a modulo n.
Note: 1. For a ∈ Z, we have
–
a = {x ∈ Z | x ≡ a (mod n)}
= {x ∈ Z | n | (x – a)}
= {x ∈ Z | x – a = nz, z ∈ Z}
–
a = {x ∈ Z | x = a + nz, z ∈ Z} … (1)
If we apply division algorithm to a and n, we have unique q and r in
Z, such that
a = nq + r, where, 0 ≤ r < n … (2)
That is, r is the least positive remainder when 'a' is divided by n. Using
(2 ) in (1), we get
–
a = {x ∈ Z | x = r + nq + nz; q, z ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = r + n (q + z); q, z ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = r + nk; k ∈ Z}
This shows that, if a ∈ Z and r is the least positive integer obtained by
dividing a by n; then
–
a = {…, r – 2n, r – n, r, r + n, r + 2n, …} … (3)
2. In particular, let n = 5 and a = 2. Then by definition
–
2 = {x ∈ Z | x ≡ 2 (mod 5)}
= {x ∈ Z | x = 2 + nz, z ∈ Z}
–
so that 2 = {…, – 8, – 3, 2, 7, 12, … }
Similarly, we can work-out
–
0 = {…, – 10, – 5, 0, 5, 10, …}
–
7 = {…, – 8, – 3, 2, 7, 12, …} (using note 1)
Theorem 13 There are precisely n distinct residue classes modulo n.
Proof: Let a ∈ Z be an arbitrary integer. Applying division algorithm

to a and n, we have unique q and r in Z such that
a = nq + r, where, 0 ≤ r < n
∴ a – r = nq or n | (a – r)
∴ a ≡ r (mod n)
–
Therefore a ∈ r .
– – –
But we know that a∈ r iff a = r, the property of equivalence classes.
– –
Thus a = r. But r = 0, 1, 2, …, n – 1. This shows that every integer in Z
– –
belongs to one of the residue classes: 0 , 1 , …, n – 1 . That is, there are
at most n residue classes modulo n.
– –
We assert that 0 , 1 , …, n – 1 are all distinct;
– –
for if i = j , for 0 ≤ i, j < n, then i ≡ j (mod n)
⇒ n | (i – j), which is impossible unless
i – j = 0, since 0 ≤ i, j < n.
Hence i–j = 0⇒i=j
– –
Thus 0 , 1 , …, n – 1 are all distinct, proving that there are precisely n
distinct residue classes modulo n.
Notation: We denote by Zn, the set of all residue classes modulo n.
That is,
– – –
Zn = {0 , 1 , 2 , ……, n – 1 }
– – – – –
In particular, Z5 = {0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 } and
– – – – – – – –
Z8 = {0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 }
Definition: Let R denote a set. A mapping α: R × R → R is called a

binary operation on R.
In other words, binary operation on a set combines two elements to
form a new element in itself.
For instance, usual addition '+' and multiplication are binary
operations on the set of real numbers. Another example can be given as
follows: Let X be non-empty set; and P(X) denote the set of all subsets of
X. Then union and intersection of any two members in P (X) is again a
member of P(X), hence union and intersection are binary operations on
P(X).
– –
Definition: Let i , j ∈ Zn. We define binary operations of addition
– – – –
and multiplication in Zn as (i) i + j = i + j and (ii) i . j = i ⋅ j
Note:
1. Addition and multiplication as defined above are well defined.
– – – – –
That is, if we have i = i' and j = j' for 0 ≤ i, i', j, j' < n the additions i +
– – –
j and i' + j' i.e. i + j and i' + j' should be equal. This can be worked
out by the properties of congruence relation.
– –
Since i = i' ⇒ i ≡ i' (mod n)
– –
and j = j' ⇒ j ≡ j' (mod n)
Then we know i + j ≡ i' + j' (mod n)
hence i + j = i' + j'
Similarly, we can show that i ⋅ j = i' ⋅ j'
2. Sometimes addition and multiplication in Zn are denoted by +n

and ×n respectively, to distinguish these operations from our
usual addition and multiplication.
– –
We illustrate these operations in Z7. For 3 , 4 ∈ Z7, we have
– – – – – – – –
3 + 4 = 3 + 4 = 7 = 0 since in Z7, 0 = 7 . And 3 × 4 = 3 × 4 =
– – – –
12 = 5, since 12 = 5 in Z7.
Following are the composition tables for addition and

multiplication in Z7.
– – – – – – –
Z7 = {0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 }
+7 – – – – – – – ×7 – – – – – – –
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 1 3 5
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 0 3 6 2 5 1 4
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 1 5 2 6 3
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 3 1 6 4 2
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 6 5 4 3 2 1
The following properties of addition and multiplication in Zn, hold
good, which can be proved by using the corresponding properties of +
– – –
and · in Z. Let i , j , k ∈Zn.
– – – –
1. Addition in Zn is commutative i.e. i+j=j+i
– – – – – –
2. Addition in Zn is associative, i.e. ( i + j ) + k = i + ( j + k )
–
3. 0 is an additive identity, i.e. neutral element in Zn, w.r.t. addition.
– – – – –
i.e. i +0 = 0+ i = i
–
4. For i ∈ Zn, there is n – i in Zn,
– – –
such that i + ( n – i ) = 1 + (n – i) = n = 0.
– – – –
5. Multiplication in Zn is commutative i.e. i . j = j . i
– – – – – –
6. Multiplication in Zn is associative i.e. ( i . j ) . k = i . ( j . k ).
–
7. 1 ∈Zn is identity (neutral) element w.r.t. multiplication in Zn.
8. Multiplication distributes over addition in Zn. That is,
– . – – – – – –
i (j + k ) = i . j + i . k .
Exercise 1.4
1. Student should establish the above eight properties as an

exercise.
– –
Note: In Zn, for i ∈ Zn, it is not always possible to find j ∈ Zn such that
–.– – – – – – –
i j = 1. For instance 3 ∈ Z7, we have 5 ∈ Z7 such that 3 . 5 = 1. Infact
– – –
from the table, we see that to each i ≠ 0 in Z7 there is j ∈ Z7 such that i .
– – – –
j = 1 (List such pairs in Z7) . However, in Z6, for 3 and 4 , we cannot find
–
such j in Z6.
– – – – –
Theorem 14 For i ∈ Zn, there exists j ∈ Zn with i . j = 1 if and only if
(i, n) = 1.
– – – – –
Proof: Suppose i ∈ Zn and there is j ∈ Zn such that i . j = 1. We have
to show that (i, n) = 1.
–.– – –
Now i j =1 ⇒ i⋅j =1
⇒ i . j ≡ 1 (mod n)
⇒ n | (i.j – 1)
⇒ i . j – 1 = nk, for k ∈ Z
⇒ i . j – nk = 1
⇒ i . j + n (– k) = 1
⇒ (i, n) = 1
Conversely suppose (i, n) = 1, then there exist integers p and q in Z
such that
1 = iq + np
_______
–
⇒ 1 = iq + np
_____ _____
–
⇒ i = i . q + n . p , by definition of addition in Zn.
– – – – –
⇒ 1 = i . q + n . p , by definition of multiplication in Zn.
– – – – – – – –
⇒ i . q = 1 , since n = 0 , so n . p = 0
Exercise 1.5
− −
1. In ZB, list all the elements i such that there exists j ∈ ZB such
− − −
that i ⋅ j = 1.
2. Do the exercise (1) for Z12.
3. Prepare composition tables of addition and multiplication for
(i) Z6, (ii) Z11.
Example 1.18: If p is prime and a2 ≡ b2 (mod p), then show that
either p | (a + b) or p | (a – b).
Solution: Since a2 ≡ b2 (mod p), p | (a2 – b2).
i.e. p | (a + b) (a – b)
⇒ p | (a + b) or p | (a – b); by theorem (5), since p is prime.
Example 1.19: List all integers x in the range 1 ≤ x ≤ 100 that satisfy
x ≡ 7 (mod 17).
Solution: The integers x, which satisfy x ≡ 7 (mod 17) are nothing but
– –
7, the members of 7, the residue class of 7 modulo 17 since 7 is the
remainder when 7 is divided by 17, by (3) of note of the residue class we
have
–
7 = { …, 7 – 2 × 17, 7 – 17, 7, 7 + 17, 7 + 2 × 17, …}
= {…, – 27, – 10, 7, 24, 41, …}
We want the list in the range 1 ≤ x ≤ 100, hence the required list is
{7, 7 + 17, 7 + 2 × 17, 7 + 3 × 17, 7 + 4 × 17, 7 + 5 × 17}
i.e. {7, 24, 41, 58, 75, 92}
– –
Example 1.20: Express each of the following elements of Z3 as 0, 1
–
and 2.
____ ________
– 4 – –
(2)3, 100 , (– 100) , 10 + 1 .
– – – –
Solution: (2)3 = 2 × 2 × 2
__________
= 2 × 2 × 2 , by definition of multiplication in Z3
– – – –
= 8 = 2 since 2 ≡ 8 (mod 3), 2 = 8
___
100 , when 100 is divided by 3, the remainder (least positive) is 1,
hence,
___
–
100 = 1
_______
4
(– 100) , when – 100 is divided by 3, the least positive remainder is 2,
since – 100 = 3 × (– 34) + 2.
_______ 4
– – – –
∴ (– 100) = 2 , so ( – 100 ) = ( 2) 4 = (2)3 × 2
– – –
= 2 ×2=1
___ ______
– –
10 + 1 = 10 + 1 = 11 = 2 ; since 11 ≡ 2 (mod 3)
Example 1.21: Which elements of Z6 satisfy x2 = x?

– – – – – –
Solution: Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
– – – – – – – – – –
We have (0)2 = 0, (1)2 = 1 × 1 = 1, (2)2 = 2 × 2 = 4
– – – – –
(3)2 = 3 × 3 = 3 × 3 = 9 = 3, since 9 ≡ 3 (mod 6)
– – – –
(4)2 = 4 × 4 = 4 × 4 = 16 = 4, since 16 ≡ 4 (mod 6)
– – – –
(5)2 = 5 × 5 = 25 = 1, ‡ 25 ≡ 1 (mod 6)
Thus, we see that

–2 – – – – – – – –
0 = 0, (3)2 = 3 and (4)2 = 4; so 0, 3 and 4 satisfy the given condition.
– – – – –
Example 1.22: Find all pairs i and j in Z8 such that i · j = 1.
– – – – – – – –
Solution : Z8 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
– – – – –
We know that for i in Zn there is j in Zn such that i · j = 1 if and
only if (i, n) = 1. Here n = 8, and (1, 8) = 1, (3, 8) = 1, (5, 8) = 1, (7, 8) = 1.
– – – – – – – – – –
For i , we have 1· 1 = 1, 3, we have 3 · 3 = 9 = 1 for 5, we have
– – – – – – – – – – – – –
5 · 5 = 25 = 1 and for 7, we have 7 · 7 = 49 = 1. Thus, 1, 3, 5 and 7 are
paired with themselves.
– – – – – –
Example 1.23 : Z12, Calculate: (i) (2 · 9 + 1 ), (ii) – 5 · (4 + 5).
– – – – – – –
Solution : (i) (2 · 9 + 1)–1 = (6 + 1)–1 = (7)–1 = 7
– – – – – – – – – –
(ii) – 5 · (4 + 5) = – 5 · 9 = 7⋅ 9 = 3 ‡–5=7
1.6 Functions (Mappings)

While studying permutation groups, we need to know the function
and kinds of function and properties of function.
Definition : Function
A function (or mapping) f from a set A to a set B is a rule that assigns
to each element of A exactly one element of B. The set A is called domain
set and set B is called codomain set of f. If f assigns a ∈ A to b ∈ B, then
b is called image of a under f. The subset of B comprised of all the
images of elements of A is called the image or range of A under f.
We write f : A → B to mean that f is a function from A to B and
f(a) = b to mean that f maps a to b.
Definition : Composition of Functions
If f : A → B and g : B → C are functions, then the composition
gf (or g°f) is the function from A to C defined by (gf) (a) = g(f(a)) for all
a ∈ A. The composition function gf can be visualized in the following
figure.
A f B g C
a
g(fa) g(fa)
gf
Fig. 1.2 : Composition of functions f and g
Definition : One-to-one Function
A function f : A → B is said to be one-to-one, if f(a1) = f(a2) implies
a1 = a2.
Note : From definition it is clear that the function f is one-to-one then

one element of B can be the image of only one element of A.
Alternatively, f is one-to-one if a1 ≠ a2 implies φ(a1) ≠ φ(a2), that is, distinct
elements of A map to distinct elements of B. See the following figure.
f
a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
b1
a1 b2
a2
b3
a3
b4
g is not one to on
Fig. 1.3 : g is not one-to-one
Definition : A function f from a set A to the set B is said to be onto
(or surjective and B if each element of B is the image of at least one
element of A. In symbols, f : A → B is onto if each element b in B there is
at least one element a in A such that f(a) = b.
f g
a1 a1
a2 b1 a2 b1
b2 b2
a3 a3
b3 b3
a4 a4
f is not onto g is not onto

Fig. 1.4
Theorem 15 Properties of Functions
Let f : A → B, g : B → C, and h : C → D be the functions. Then :

1. Composition is associative i.e. (hg) f = h(gf) (associativity)
2. If f and g are one-to-one functions then the composition gf is
one-to-one.
3. If f and g are onto functions, then gf is also onto function.
−1
4. If f is one-to-one and onto, then there is a function f : B → A,
such that
−1
(f f) (a) = a for all a in A and
−1
(ff ) (b) = b for all b in B.
Proof : We skip the proof and request students to prove the theorem
as these results are studied in earlier classes.
Note : The statements (2) and (3) can be stated alternatively as : The
composition of two one-to-one and onto functions is again one-to-one
and onto.
Think Over It
1. The examples of functions which are 1-to-1 but not onto.

2. Number of primes of the form 4n + 1 or 4n + 3.
3. Generalization of Euclid’s Lemma.
4. The number subsets of a set with n elements.
5. The number of primes in the set Z.
6. Two ways to partition the students in the class. Partitions of the
playing cards.
7. Zn is a set of sets ?
8. The difference and significance of the first and second principle
of mathematical induction.
Points to Remember
• Well-ordering principle (WOP).
• Properties of divisibility.
• Division Algorithm, GCD, LCM.
• Euclid’s lemma.
• Unique factorization theorem.
• Equivalence relation, properties.
• Modular arithmetic.
• Congruence relation modulo n and its properties.
• Addition and multiplication modulo n in Zn.
• Functions and composition of functions and properties.
Miscellaneous Exercise
[A] Multiple Choice Questions :
1. If a, b, c are integers and a | (bc), then ……
(a) a | b (b) a | c
(c) a divides both (d) all of these may be true
2. If gcd (a, b) = d > 1, then ……
(a) gcd
 a , b = 1
d d
(b) ax + by = 1, for x, y,∈, Z
a b
(c) and are not relatively prime
d d
(d) none of these
3. For any integer a, a(a + 1) is always ……
(a) even integer. (b) odd integer.
(c) prime integer. (d) none of these.
4. For any integer a, a(a + 1) (a + 2) is ……
(a) even. (b) odd.
(c) square number. (d) none of these.
5. How many prime numbers divide 30!
(a) 10 (b) 40
(c) 25 (d) 3
6. What is the remainder when the following sum is divided by 4?
5 5 5
1 + 2 + …… + 20
(a) 0 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) none of these
2
7. If a is odd integer then the remainder when a – 1 divided by 8 is …
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) 3 (d) 5
97
8. 25 ≡ …… (mod 97)
(a) 1 (b) 25
9. The remainder when the sum 1! + 2! + 3! + …. + 1000 ! is divided by
12 is ……
(a) 9 (b) 5
(c) 0 (d) 11
10. If n > 4 is composite, then ……
2
(a) n | (n – 1)! (b) n | (n – 2)
2
(c) n | (n + 1) (d) none of these
11. If gcd(a, b) = 3 and lcm (a, b) = 30, if a = 6, then b = ……
(a) 30 (b) 15
(c) both 30 and 15 (d) none of these
12. If '≡n' is congruence relation modulo n on Z, then the number of
distinct equivalence classes corresponding to ≡n is ……
(a) n (b) less than n
(c) greater than n (d) none
Answers
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (a)

7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b)
[B] State whether the following statements are true or false :
1. a, b, ∈, Z then ab = 1, has four solutions.
2. If a, b, x, y, ∈, Z and ax + by = 1, then a and x are relatively prime.
3. There are infinitely many primes.
4. A number is divisible by 4 iff the last digit of the number is
divisible by 4.
2
5. If a is odd integer then a ≡ 1 (mod 4).
6. If (a, b) = (a, c), then [a, b] = [a, c].

7. If (a, b) = (a, c), then (a2, b2) = (a2, c2).
8. If p is a prime and p | a and p | (a2 + b2), then p | b.
9. If p is a prime and p | a7, then p | a.
10. If a3 | c3, then a | c.
11. If a3 | c2, then a | c.

12. If a2 | c3, then a | c.
13. If p is a prime and p | (a2 + b2) and p | (b2 + c2) then p | (a2 – c2).
14. If p is a prime and p | (a2 + b2) and p | (b2 + c2) then p | (a2 + c2).
15. If b | (a2 + 1), then b | (a4 + 1).
16. If b | (a2 – 1), then b | (a4 – 1).
Answers
(1) False (2) True (3) True

(4) False (5) True (6) False
(7) True (8) True (9) True
(10) True (11) True (12) False
(13) True (14) False (15) False
[C] Theory Questions :
1. Prove that the product of any three consecutive integers is
divisible by 6.
2. Show that, if (ac) | (bc), then a | b.
3. If a | b and c | d, then show that (ac) | (bd).
4. Show that any two consecutive integers are relatively prime.
5. Prove that no integers x, y exist satisfying x + y = 200 and
(x, y) = 7.
6. Prove that if (b, c) = 1 and a | b, then (a, c) = 1.
7. If a and b are relatively prime and b | (ac), then show that b | c.
8. Show that the product of any two consecutive integers is divisible
by 2.
9. Prove that an integer is divisible by 11 if and only if the difference

between the sum of digits in odd places and the sum of the
digits in the even places is divisible by 11.
10. If x and y are odd, prove that x2 + y2 cannot be a perfect square.
11. Prove that (a, a + 2) = 1 or 2 for every integer a.
12. If (a, b) = 1 and a | c, b | c, then show that ab | c.
13. Show that 3 is not rational number.

14. Write out addition, multiplication tables of (a) Z3, (b) Z6, (c) Z8,
(d) Z11.
15. If m is any integer, then prove that m2 ≡ 0 or 1 (mod 4), hence

show that the equation x2 + y2 = 4247 has no solution in
integers.
[D] Numerical Problems :
1. Find values of x and y which satisfy
(a) 243x + 198y = 9;
(b) 71 x – 50 y = 1;
(c) 43 x + 64 y = 1;
(d) 93 x – 81 y = 3.
2. Find the greatest common divisor d of the given two numbers a
and b and find the integers x and y to satisfy d = ax + by, for
each of the following:
(a) a = 7469, b = 2464; (b) a = 4001, b = 2689;
(c) a = 616, b = 427; (d) a = 1357, b = 1166.
3. Show that the integers 3927 and 377 are relatively prime and find
integers x and y which satisfy 1 = 3927x + 377y.
4. Show that g.c.d. 'd' of 2210 and 357 is 17 and find x and y such
that 17 = 2210x + 357y.
5. Find the least common multiple of 482 and 1687.
6. Find positive integers a and b satisfying the equations (a, b) = 10
and [a, b] = 100 simultaneously. Find all solutions.
7. If (a, b) = p, a prime, what are the possible values of (a2, b), (a3, b)
and (a2, b3)?
4 4 2
8. Evaluate (ab, p ) and (a + b, p ), given that (a, p ) = p and
3 2
(b, p ) = p , where p is pime.
9. Express in canonical form and hence find g.c.d. of 7007 and 2450.
10. List all the integers x in the range 1 ≤ x < 80, which satisfy
x ≡ 5 (mod 8).
– – – – –
11. Find all the pairs i and j , such that i . j = 1 in (a) Z3, (b) Z6,
(c) Z8, (d) Z11, (e) Z5, (f) Z12.
– – – – –
12. Express each of the following elements of Z5 as 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 .
__ __ __ __ ______
– –
– 1 , – 2 , (– 3 )2, (– 4) 3, (64 ) . (93) , 10001
13. Which elements satisfy the equation x2 = x? List all of them;
where x belongs to (a) Z6, (b) Z8, (c) Z7, (d) Z12.
Answers
1. (a) x = 9, y = –11; (b) x = 31, y = 44; (c) x = 3, y = – 2;
(d) x = 7, y = 8;
2. (a) d = 74, x = 1, y = – 3; (b) d = 1, x = – 1117, y = 1662;
(c) d = 7, x = – 9, y = 13; (d) d = 1, x = 641, y = – 746.
3. x = – 12, y = 125.
4. x = – 5, y = 31.
5. Hint: Find g.c.d. d = (482, 1687), then
l.c.m = (482 × 1687)/d …… l.c.m. = 3374.
6. a = 10, b = 100 is a solution in positive integers. All solutions are

given by a = ± 10, b = ± 100; a = ± 20, b = ± 50; a = ± 100,
b = ± 10; a = ± 50, b = ± 20; with all arrangements of sign.
There are 16 solutions in all.
8. p2, p
9. 49.
10. 10.
– – – – – – – – – –
11. (a) 2 × 2 , (b) 5 × 5 , (c) 3 × 3 , 5 × 5 , 7 × 7
__ __
– – – – – – – – – – – –
(d) 2 × 6 , 3 × 4 , 5 × 9 , 7 × 8 , 10 × 10, (e) 2 × 3 , 4 × 4
– – – – – – – –
(f) 5 × 5 , 7 × 7 , 8 × 8 . In each case 1 × 1 is always there.
– – – – – –
12. 4 , 3 , 4 , 1 , 2 , 1 .
– – – – – –
13. (a) 1 , 3 , 4 , (b) No, (c) No, (d) 1 , 4 , 9 .
✍✍✍
Chapter 2…
Groups
In this chapter, we define the basic algebraic structure GROUP; and
see some examples of groups. Also, we will see the basic properties of the
group, which are simple consequences of the axioms that define group.
2.1 Binary Operations

Binary operation is a function from the Cartesian product A × A to the
set A itself.
Definition : Binary Operation
Let G be a non-empty set. A binary operation on G is a function that

assigns to each pair of elements of G an element of G.
The binary operations are usually denoted by *, or u, or ⊕, or +, ⋅, ,
or ∆ etc. Thus, if * is binary operation on a set G, then for each pair of
elements a and b in G, * maps the pair (a, b) to unique element, element
in G, which is denoted by a * b.
Examples of binary operation :
1. The usual addition ‘+’ of numbers is a binary operation the set of

integers Z (also on Q, ú, ù), since sum of any two integers is
again an integer, that is, for any a, b in Z, a + b also belongs to Z.
2. The usual multiplication of numbers is binary operation on Z or

on Q or on ú.
3. If G = M2 × 2 (ú), the set of all 2 × 2 matrices with real entries.

Then the matrix addition is a binary operation on G. For, if
A=
a b and B =  e f  , where a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h are real
c d  g h
numbers, then the addition of A + B is defined as :
A+B=
a b +  e f  = a + e b + f  .
c d g h c + g d + h
2.1
Groups & Coding Theory 2.2 Groups
4. If G = M2 × 2 (ú) as in 3 above, then usual multiplication of

matrices in G is a binary operation on G. For A and B as in 3; then
AB is defined as,
A⋅B=
a b  e f  = ae + bg af + bh
c d g h ce + dg cf + dh
5. If G = Zn, the set of all residue classes modulo n, in fact,
− − − 
Zn = { 0, 1, 2, …, n − 1}.
Then, the addition modulo n tn which we have defined in
chapter 1 is a binary operation on Zn.
6. Similarly, the multiplication modulo n ‘⋅’ n is a binary operation
on Zn.
7. The usual multiplication of real numbers is a binary operation on
+
Q , the set of all positive rational numbers.
Properties of Binary Operations :
Let * be a binary operation on a set G, then :
1. * is said to be associative on G, if for any a, b, c in G.
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) (Associativity)
2. * is said to be commutative on G if for any a, b in G,
a*b = b*a (Commutivity)
3. If there exists an element, usually denoted by e in G such that for
all a in G,
a*e = e*a=a
(Existence of identity element with respect to *)
4. For a in G, if there exists an element b in G, such that
a * b = b * a = e,
then b is called an inverse of a in G with respect to *.
In example 1, of binary operations, we know that addition ‘+’ of
numbers is associative, an it is commutative also. The number zero 0 in Z
is the identity with respect to +. For any a in Z, −a ∈ Z is the inverse fo a
in Z.
In example 3, of binary operations, the addition of matrices is
associative as the addition of numbers is associative. Also, the addition in
M2 × 2 (ú) is commutative.
The matrix
0 0 in M
2 × 2 (ú) is the identity element and for
0 0
A=
a b in M (ú) −a −b is the inverse in M (ú).
c d  2×2
−b −d 2×2
Exercise 2.1
1. The students can check the properties of binary operations in all

the examples 1 to 7 of binary operations.
Remark: In the rest of this chapter and next chapter, we will use ab in
place of a * b, for convenience and brevity. a * b or ab represents how the
two element in set are combined. For instance, if the set is Z, the set of
integers, then ab will mean a + b, the usual addition of numbers a * b or
will mean a ⋅ b, the usual multiplication of numbers a and b or will mean
any formula that is defined in terms of a and b. For example, we may
have
ab = a + b − 2 or ab = a + b − a ⋅ b.
It is clear for a and b in Z both last expressions (formulae) define a
binary operation. If there is ambiguity, then in that we make it clear what
is ab.
2.2 Group : Definition and Examples

Definition (Group) :
A non-empty set G with binary operation (usually called
multiplication) that assigns to each ordered pair (a, b) of elements of G an
element in G denoted by ab is said to be a group under this operation, if
the following three axioms are satisfied :
G1 - Associativity : The binary operation is associativity; that is, for all
a, b, c in G.
(ab) c = a(bc)
G2 - Existence of identity : There is an element e (called the identity)
in G, such that
ae = ea = a for all a in G
G3 - Existence of Inverse : For each element a in G there is an
element b in G (called the inverse of a with respect to the binary
operation) such that
ab = ba = e
In other words, a group is a non-empty set with associative operation

such that there is an identity, each element has an inverse, and any pair of
elements can be combined without going outside the set. This last
condition is called closure property or closure axiom. In the definition
of group we did not mention the closure axiom, because by very
definition of binary operation it is closed on the set.
Caution : Usually, it is better to verify the closure axiom, while checking
the axioms for group.
Examples of Group :
Example 2.1 : The set of integers Z, the set of rational numbers Q,
and the set of real numbers are groups under usual addition of numbers.
Example 2.2 : The set of integers Z is not a group under
multiplication of numbers, though multiplication is associative and 1 is
identity with respect to multiplication but G3 fails as 2 in Z there is no b in
Z such that
2⋅b = 1
The set of rational number is not group under multiplication though
multiplication is associative, 1 is identity, every non-zero rational number
1 1
a in Q, is in Q such that a ⋅ = 1, but 0 in Q has no inverse in Q.
a a
Similarly, the set of real numbers ú is not a group under
multiplication of numbers.
Example 2.3 : The set of integers Z under the binary operation
defined by ab = a + b − 2 for a, b in Z, then Z is a group under this
operation.
Let us verify the axioms :
1. The operation is closed in Z since for any a, b in Z a + b − 2 is
also in Z. So closureness follows.
2. Associativity : For any a, b, c in Z, we have
(ab) c = (a + b − 2) c By the definition of a ⋅ b
= (a + b − 2) + c − 2 By definition of the operation
= a+b+c−4 … (i)
Also, a(bc) = a(b + c − 2) By definition of operation
= a + (b + c − 2) − 2 By definition of operation
= a+b+c−4 … (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we see that

(ab)c = a(bc)
So G1 follows.
3. Existence of identity : Suppose e is identity with respective this
operation then for any a in Z, we must have,
ae = ea = a
But by definition of the operation
ae = a + e − 2
Hence, a + e − 2 = a which gives e = 2.
Thus, 2 in Z is identity with respect to the given operation.
(Note that the identity element depends upon definition of
binary operation.)
4. Existence of inverse : For any a in Z, suppose we have b such
that
ab = 2 − the identity.
But ab = a + b − 2, therefore
a + b − 2 = 2 gives b = 4 − a
as 4 − a is in Z, so b = 4 − a is Z, such that
ab = ba = 2,
where, b = 4 − a is inverse for any a in Z.
Thus, all the axioms of group are satisfied by Z with given
operation, so (Z, ⋅) is a group.
Definition - Abelian Group :
A group (G, ⋅) is said to be Abelian or commutative if for all a, b in G
ab = ba
Clearly, the group in the examples 1 and 3 are commutative groups.
A group which not abelian is called non-abelian.
+
Example 2.4 : The set ú , the set of all positive real numbers under
usual multiplication is a group, as G1 is the property real numbers, 1 is
+ 1 + 1
identity and for any a in ú , we have in ú such that a ⋅ = 1, so every
a a
+ +
number to ú has inverse with respect to multiplication. Thus (ú , ⋅) is a
group, moreover it is commutative group.
+
Similarly, the set Q , of all positive rational numbers is a
commutative group under usual multiplication of numbers.
*
Example 2.5 : The set ú of all non-zero real numbers is a group
* 1
under ordinary multiplication. The identity is 1. The inverse of a in ú is .
a
*
ú is an Abelian group.
*
Similarly Q , the set of non-zero rational numbers is a commutative
group under usual multiplication.
Example 2.6 : The set I of irrational numbers together with 1 under
usual multiplication is not a group, though it satisfies G1 and G3, satisfied
because the multiplication is not closed in I. For 2 is irrational but
2⋅ 2 = 2 which is not irrational.
Note : We have studied the topic of matrices in earlier classes. We
know how to add, multiply matrices, and many more concepts regarding
matrices. In the following, see some examples of group to matrices.
Example 2.7 : Let M2 × 2 (ú) denote the set of all 2 × 2 matrices with
real entries. Then M2 × 2 (ú) is Abelian group under matrix addition.
Note : The matrix addition is defined in example (3) of binary
operation, which is called componentwise addition.
In this group, the identity element is a zero matrix

0 0 and the
0 0
inverse of
a b is −a −b .
c d −c −d
Example 2.8 : The determinant of 2 × 2 matrix

a b is the number
c d 
ad − bc; It is denoted by det A, so det A = ad − bc.
 a b 
The set GL(2, ú) =  c d a, b, c, d ∈ ú and ad − bc ≠ 0 of 2 × 2
 
matrices with real entries and non-zero determinant is a non-Abelian
group under matrix multiplication.
From example (4) of binary operations, we see that and the rule we
know that, det (AB) = det A ⋅ det B, we see the determinant of product of
two matrices with non-zero determinant also is a matrix with non-zero
determinant. Hence, the matrix multiplication is closed in the set GL(2, ú).
We know that the matrix multiplication is associative, so G1 follows.
The identity
1 0 is the identity element. The inverse of any matrix
0 1
A=
a b , det A = ad − bc is given by;
c d 
detd A −b
det A   d −b

ad − bc ad − bc
A
−1
=  −c a
= −c a  .
det A det A   
ad − bc ad − bc
This is important non-Abelian group, and is called as general linear
group of 2 × 2 matrices over ú.
Remark : In above example (8), we can take entries from Q (rationals), C
(complex numbers), or Zp, where p is prime. Thus, we can obtain many
more examples of non-Abelian groups.
Example 2.9 : The set of 2 × 2 matrices with determinant 1 with
entries from ú (reals) is also a non-Abelian group. The identity element
is
1 0 and inverse − A =
a b where det A = ad − bc = 1 is
0 1 c d 
−1
A =
 d −b .
−c a 
This is another important non-Abelian group is called a special linear
group of 2 × 2 matrices over ú and is denoted by SL(2, ú).
Note :
1. This example (9) is a special case of example (8).
2. In this case, again we can take Q, C and Zp, p-prime in place of ú
and get different examples of non-Abelian groups.
3. In example (7), we can take set of matrices of the same size m × n
over Z, or Q or C or Zk.
In example (8) and (9), we can consider matrices of size m × m
with given condition non-zero determinant and determinant 1
respectively.
Note : In chapter 1, we have studied addition and multiplication modulo
n and their properties.
− − − 
Example 2.10 : The set Zn = { 0, 1, 2, …, n − 1} for n ≥ 1 of residue
classes modulo n is a Abelian group under addition of residue classes
− − 
modulo n. Clearly 0 is identity and for any j in Zn, n − j is the inverse of
−
j in Zn. This group is called the group of residue classes modulo n.
− − − 
Example 2.11 : The set Zn = { 0, 1, 2, …, n − 1} is not group under
multiplication of residue classes modulo n, though closure axiom, the
− −
identity 1 and G1 follow, but the inverse of 0 under multiplication does
not exist.
Remark : The set M2 × 2 (ú) is not a group under matrix multiplication as
inverses do not exist. When determinant of the matrix is zero.
Example 2.12 : The subset G = {1, −1, i, − i} of complex numbers is

Abelian group under complex multiplication. Here, i = −1, i ⋅ i = −1. 1 is
identity element, −1 is inverse of itself; −i is inverse of i and i is inverse of
−i.
Example 2.13 : The set

 
 cos  n  + i sin  n  k = 0, 1, 2, …, n − 1 is called
n 2kπ 2kπ
U(Z = 1) =
     
th
the set of complex n roots of unity. The set contains precisely n complex
numbers. If w = cos
2π + i sin 2π , then by De Moivre’s, we see that,
n n
n 2 n−1 n n
U(Z = 1) = {1, w, w , …, w }, where w = 1. Then U(Z = 1) is an Abelian
i
group under complex multiplication. The identity is 1. For w , 1 < i < n,
n−i i i n−i n
w is inverse of w , since w , w = w = 1.
Note : The example (12) is a particular case of the example (13), with
n = 4. So for different values of n, we different groups of different size.
Example 2.14 : Let U(n) denote the set of all positive integers less
than n and relatively prime to n. That is.,
−
U(n) = { i ∈ Zn | 1 ≤ i < n and (i, n) = 1}.
Then we verify that U(n) is a group under multiplication modulo n.
− −
For i , j in U(n), (i, n) = 1, and (j, n) = 1, hence we know that (i ⋅ j, n) = 1.

Therefore i ⋅ j is in U(n), this proves that the multiplication modulo n is
closed in U(n). We know multiplication modulo n is associative, so G1
− −
follows 1 is in U(n), which is identity. Now for any i in U(n), (i, n) = 1,
hence there exist j and k in Z s.t.
1 = i⋅j+n⋅k
Taking residues on both sides modulo n, we have
−    − − − −
1 = i⋅j+n⋅k=i⋅j+n⋅k= i ⋅ j +n⋅ k
− − −
= i ⋅ j +0
− −
= i ⋅ j
− − −
Thus, there j in U(n) s.t. j is inverse of i in U(n). Thus, U(n) is a
group, in fact it is Abelian.
Note :
1. We have used the properties of residue classes, which we have
proved in chapter 1. So refer chapter 1 for this discussion.
2. In chapter 1, theorem 14, which is proved there. We can use this
theorem to show the existence of inverses in U(n).
− − − − −
Theorem 1 For i in Zn there exist j in Zn such that i ⋅ j = 1 if and
only if (i, n) = 1.
− − − −
Example 2.15 : U(12) = { 1, 5, 7, 11} is a group under multiplication
− − − −
modulo 12. Note that 1 is identity, inverse of 5 is 5 itself, inverse of 7 is
− − − − −
7 itself and inverse of π is π itself, since 5 ⋅ 5 = 25 = 1 (modulo 12).
Groups with finite number of element, we can prepare multiplication
table :
Mode 12 − − − −
1 5 7 11
− − − − −
1 1 5 7 11
− − − − −
5 5 1 11 7
− − − − −
7 7 1 11 5
− − − − −
11 11 7 5 1
* − − 
Example 2.16 : Zn = { 1, 2, …, n − 1} is a group under multiplication
modulo n if and only if n is prime.
*
Solution : Suppose n = p − a prime, then clearly Zn = U(n), and
hence is a group.
*
Conversely, suppose Zn is a group, to show that n is prime. Suppose
− − *
n is composite, say n = i ⋅ j, where i < i, j ≤ n − 1, so i and j are in Zn. So
− * * −
i in Zn must have inverse in Zn, but we know i in Zn has multiplicative
inverse in Zn if and only if (i, n) = 1, but we have (n, i) = j, but j > 1, hence
a contradiction. Therefore, n must be a prime.
* − − − −
Example 2.17 : In example 16, we take n = 5, so Z5 = { 1, 2, 3, 4} is a
group, similarly,
* − − − − − −
Z7 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is a group.
Let us now see the simple consequences of group axioms.
2.3 Elementary Properties of Groups

Theorem 2 In a group 6, there is one and only identity element.
OR
There is unique identity element in a group.
−
Proof : Let G be a group and suppose e and e are two identity
elements in G. Then by axiom of identity G2.
ee' = e, since e' is identity elements.
Also, ee' = e', since e' is identity element.
Thus, ee' = e = e', that is e' = e.
This proves that identity element in a group is unique.
Remark : From above theorem, we may speak of “the identity” of the
group and denote by “e”.
Theorem 3 (Cancellation laws)
In a group, the right and left cancellation laws holds; that is,
ab = ac implies b = c and
ac = bc implies a = b
Proof : Let G be a group and for a, b, c in G.

Suppose, ab = ac … (1)
Since, every element in G has inverse, let a' be an inverse of a, so that
aa' = a'a = e.
Now premultiplying by a' on both sides of (1), we get
a'(ab) = a'(ac)
(a'a) b = (a'a) c Since, the operation is associative
eb = ec Since, a'a = e
b = c Since, e is the identity in G.
This proves left cancellation law.
Similarly, we can prove right cancellation law, that
ac = bc implies a = b.
Theorem 4 (Uniqueness of Inverses)
For each element in a group, there is unique inverse element of a.

Proof : Let G be a group and a is any element in G. Suppose b and c
in G are both inverses of a. Then by axiom G3,
ab = ba = e
and ac = ca = e
Therefore, ab = ac = e
That is, ab = ac, then by left cancellation law, we get b = c.
Thus, there is only one inverse of a in G.
Remark : Because of Theorem 3, we may speak of “the inverse” of an
−1
element a of a group. We denote the inverse of a by a .
Theorem 5 Let g be a group and a and b elements in G. Then :

−1 −1
(i) If b is inverse of a then a is inverse of b, hence (a ) = a.
−1 −1 −1
(ii) (ab) = b a (The reversal law); that is, inverse of the product
of two elements is the product of inverses of the elements taken
in reverse order.
Proof : (i) From definition of group by G3,
ab = ba = e
If b ie inverse of a, which it implies that a is inverse of b.

−1 −1 −1
Since, we denote inverse of a by a , so G3 rays that aa = a a = e.
−1 −1 −1
Hence, a is inverse of a , so in symbols (a ) = a.
−1 −1
(ii) We want to show that inverse of ab is b a , so by G3, we need
to show that
−1 −1 −1 −1
(ab) (b a ) = (b a ) (ab) = e
First, consider first part of the equality,
−1 −1 −1 −1
(ab) (b a ) = a(bb ) a By associativity
−1
= aea ‡ bb−1 = e
−1
= aa ‡ e is identity
= e
−1 −1
Thus, (ab) (b a ) = e
Similarly, we can show that,
−1 −1
(b a ) (ab) = e
Thus, we proved that,
−1 −1 −1 −1
(ab) (b a ) = (b a ) (ab) = e
−1 −1
So again by G3, inverse of ab is b a and symbols this same as
−1 −1 −1
(ab) = b a
Integral Powers of Elements of Group :
For elements in a group, we define integral powers of the elements.
Definition : Let G be a group and a be an element of G, we define
integral power n of a as follows :
n
a = aa…a if n is positive integer
n factors
−1 −1 −1
= a a …a if n is negative integer
−n factors
= e if n = 0
5
For example, a = aaaaa, and
−4 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 4
a = a ⋅a ⋅a ⋅a = (a )
0
and a = e
Definition : Product of Groups

Let G1 and G2 be two groups. Consider the Cartesian product :
G = G1 × G2 = {(a, b) | a ∈ G1, b ∈ G2}
We define binary operation G using the binary operations of G1 and
G2 as : For (a, b) and (c, d) in G, we define (a, b) = (c, d) = (ac, bd), where
a, c are in G1 and ac is combined by the binary operation in G1 and bd is
combined by the binary operation in G2. Then G is a group under this
binary operation (Componentwise multiplication).
Clearly, the operation is closed in G, by definition. If e1 and e2 are
identity elements in G1 and G2 respectively then (e1, e2) is identity in G.
−1
If (a, b) is any member in G, then for a in G, there is a in G1k, such
−1 −1 −1
that aa = a a = e1. Similarly for b in G2, there b and G2 such that
−1 −1 −1 −1
bb = b b = e2. Hence, there (a , b ) in G, such that
−1 −1 −1 −1
(a, b) (a , b ) = (aa , bb ) = (e1, e2) and
−1 −1 −1 −1
(a , b ) (a, b) = (a a, b b) = (e1, e2).
−1 −1
Thus, (a , b ) is inverse of (a, b) in G. The associativity can be
easily verified. Thus, from two groups G1 and G2 we get a new group
G = G1 × G2, called the product group of the groups G1 and G2.
Remark : If G1 = G2 = say, then from above definition, we have a product
group G × G.
In the fourth chapter of Coding Theory, this product group plays an
important roll. In particular, Z2 = {0, 1} under addition modulo 2 is
particularly of great importance in Coding Theory.
In Z2, we know 1 + 1 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1. We denote Z2 by B, so B = {0, 1}
is a group under the operation addition as 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 = 1,
1 + 1 = 0. By definition of product group, we have
2
B = B × B = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)} is a again a group under
n
componentwise addition. In fact for any positive integer n, we have B ,
n
where B = B × B × … × B is a group under componentwise addition.
n-times
n
Clearly, the elements of B are the n-tuples of 0’s and 1’s. For
example,
3
B = {(0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1),
(0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1)}
In Chapter 3, we can see that,

H1 = {(0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0)}, H2 = {(0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)}
H3 = {(0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (1, 0, 1)}
3
are subgroups of B !
Note : In coding theory a message is transmitted by using a string
n
(sequence) of 0’s and 1’s. Hence, the group B is significant in that
chapter.
Example 2.18 : In the following groups, find elements which
correspond to the given expressions.
−−5 7
(i) In G = {1, −1, i, −i}, 2 (−i)
* − − − − − − −4 −−3 −−5
(ii) In Zn = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, 3 , 5 , 6
−5 −1 5 5
Solution : (i) i = (i ) = (−i) ‡ i−1 = − i
= (− i) (− i) (− i) (− i) (− i) = − i
7
(− i) = (− i) (− i) (− i) (− i) (− i) (− i) (− i)
= i
−4 − − − −  − −
(ii) 3 = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 81 = 4
−4 − − −  −
5 = 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5 = 125 = 6
− −5 −−1 5 −5 − −
( 6) = ( 6 ) = ( 6) ‡ 6 −1 = 6 in Z7*
− −5 − −5 − − − − −
( 6) = ( 6) = ( 6 ⋅ 6) ( 6 ⋅ 6) 6
− − −
= 36 ⋅ 36 ⋅ 6
− − −
= 1⋅1⋅6
−
= 6
Remark :
1. If G is a group, a and b, then the following of exponents for real
numbers hold good in groups also
m n m+n m n mn
a ⋅a = a and (a ) = a ,
for all integers m and n.
2. In general, we take groups with binary operations multiplication
ab and additive a + b if it is not specifically mentioned.
3. The properties of groups and integral powers are worked out in

the case of groups with multiplicative binary operations.
4. We can convert all these results for additive groups.
For example, the cancellation law ab = ac will be
5
a + b = a + c, a mean a + a + a + a + a
5 −3
i.e. a = 5a, a = (−a) + (−a) + (−a) = − 3a
−1
a = −a
The table given below, describe the rules for additive group
corresponding the multiplicative group.
Multiplicative Group Additive Group
a ⋅ b or ab multiplication a+b addition
e or 1 identity or 1 0 zero
−1
a multiplicative inverse of a −a additive inverse of a
n
a power of a na multiple of a
−1
ab quotient a−b difference
Example 2.19 : Let G be group with following property : If a, b and c
belong to G and ab = ca then b = c. Prove that G is Abelian group.
−1 −1
Solution : We have, aa = a a = e, so that
−1 −1
b = eb = (a a) b = a (ab) … (i)
−1 −1
Also, b = be = b(aa ) = (ba)a … (ii)
Therefore, equations (i) and (ii) gives,
−1 −1
a (ab) = (ba)a
So by the given property of the group, this gives
ab = ba
Which is true for any a and b in G, hence, G is Abelian group.
Example 2.20 : Show that the set G = {5, 15, 25, 35} is group under
multiplication modulo 40. We prepare Cayley table for this set.
Modulo 5 15 25 35
5 25 35 5 15
15 35 5 15 25
25 5 15 25 35
35 15 25 35 5
(i) From table, we see that multiplication modulo 40 is closed in G.

(ii) We know that multiplication modulo any n(n ≥ 1) is associative.
(iii) From table, we see that “25” is the identity element as the column
and row headed by 25 are identical with heading column and
heading row respectively.
(iv) Inverse of 5 is 5 itself.
Inverse of 15 is 35.
Inverse of 35 is 15.
Thus, G is a group.
Example 2.21 : Find the inverse of

2 6 in GL(2, Z * ).
3 5 11
Solution : Let A =
2 6 , then determinant of
3 5
det A = 2 × 5 − 3 × 6
det A = 10 − 18 = − 8 = 3 (mod 11)
1 −1
So, = 3 (mod 11)
det A
= 4 (mod 11) ‡ 3.4 = 12 = 1 (mod 11)
− 6.4 = 5.4 = 2.0 = 9 (mod 11)
∴ A
−1
=
 5.4 − 6.4 =  9 9
− 3.4 2.4  10 8
Think Over It
1. Examples binary operations those are familiar to you in

mathematics that you studied till date.
2. Examples operations on set which are binary operations.
3. Examples of groups from your prior knowledge.
4. Examples in day-to-day life that we use reversal law.
5. Finite group of matrices under matrix multiplication.
Points to Remember
• Binary operation and examples.
• Definition of group and examples.
• Consequences of group axioms.
• Integral powers of elements in group.
Miscellaneous Exercises
1. Binary operation on a set G is a function ……
(a) from G × G → G (b) G → G
(c) G → G × G (d) None of these
2. The set of odd integers is not a group under addition because ……
(a) Addition is not associative
(b) Addition is not commutative
(c) Addition is not closed in the set
(d) None of the above
3. The set G = {5, 15, 25, 35} is a group under multiplication modulo 40,
then the identity in G is ……
(a) 5 (b) 15
(c) 25 (d) 35
4. The set {1, 2, 3, …, 10, 11} is not a group under multiplication modulo
12 because ……
(a) there is no identity
(b) multiplication is not associative
(c) 6 has not inverse in the set
(d) none of these
 a a 
5. The set G =  a a a ∈ ú, a ≠ 0 is a group under matrix
 
multiplication. Then the identity element in G is ……
12 12 2 2
(a)  1 1 (b)
2 2
 2 2
(c)
1 1 (d) None of these
1 1
Answers
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a)


1. The operation * defined on ù, the set of natural numbers as :
For a, b in ù
a * b = a + b − 1; then * is a binary operation.
2. The operation * defined on Q, the set of natural number as :
For a, b in Q{1} a * b = a + b − ab, then 0 is identity in Q{1} with
respect to *.
3. ù, the set of natural numbers is a group under multiplication.
4. The rows or columns in the multiplication tale (Cayley table) of a
group contain repeated elements.
− − − − − − − −2 −3 −
5. In Z7 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} the value of ( 3) + ( 2) in Z7 is 5.
2 3
6. The multiplicative expression a b translates to 2a + 3b in
additive group.
− − − − − −
7. In U(10) = { 1, 3, 7, 9} the inverse of 7 is 7 itsself.
8. In the set of integers Z the subtraction is associative binary
operation.
− − − − 2 −
9. In U(12) = { 1, 5, 7, 11}, the equation x = 1 has 4 solutions.
− − − − − − − −
10. In Z6 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} inverse of 5 is 2.
Answers

(7) False (8) False (9) True
(10) False
1. Prove that in a group G, the identity element is unique.
2. In a group G, prove that for a in G there is unique inverse in G.
3. State and prove cancellation laws in group.
4. In group G, prove that,
−1 −1
(i) For a in G (a ) = e.
−1 −1 −1
(ii) For a, b in G (ab) =b a .
2 2 2
5. In a group G, (ab) = a b for all a, b in G, then prove that G is
commutative group.
1. The set of natural numbers ù is not group under addition of
numbers. Which group axioms fail to hold ?
2 2 2
2. Let (a, b) be a fixed point in ú , define Ta, b : ú → ú by
T(x, y) = (x + a, y + b).
2
Then show that G = {Ta, b | a, b ∈ ú } is a group to under
composition of functions. Is G an Abelian group ?
3. Construct Cayley tables (multiplication table) for
− − − − − * − − − −
Z5 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and Z5 = { 1, 2, 3, 4} under addition and
multiplication, modulo 5 respectively.
*
4. In problem (3) above, find elements in Z5 and Z5 which are
inverses of itself.
5. Find the inverse of A =

2 3 in GL(2, Z )
1 2 5
6. Show that the group GL(2, ú) is non-abelian by exhibiting a pair

of matrices A and B such that AB ≠ BA.
7. For any elements a and b in a group G and any positive integer n
−1 n −1 n
prove that (a ba) = a b a.
n n n
8. If G is abelian group, a and b in G, then prove that (ab) = a b ,
for any integer n ≥ 1.
9. Construct a Cayley table for U(8).
10. Give an example of infinite non-abelian group.
11. Translate each of the following multiplicative expressions into its
additive counter part.
3 4 −3 2 2 −2 3
(a) a b (b) a (bc) (c) (a b) c =e
Answers
1. Identity with respect to addition does not hold; G2 fails to hold.

Hence, no question of inverses.
2. G is Abelian group.
3.
+ mod 5 − − − − − ⋅ mod 5 − − − −
0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
− − − − − − − − − − −
0 0 1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4
− − − − − − − − − − −
1 1 2 3 4 0 2 2 4 1 3
− − − − − − − − − − −
2 2 3 4 0 1 3 3 1 4 2
− − − − − − − − − − −
3 3 4 0 1 2 4 4 3 2 1
− − − − − −
4 4 0 1 2 3
− − − − −
4. In Z5, 3, (as 3 + 3 = 6 = 1)
* − − − − −
In Z5, 4 (as 4 ⋅ 4 = 16 = 1)
5. A
−1
=
2 2
4 2
6. A=
1 −1 and B = 2 3 
2 3  1 −2
7. Hint: Use mathematical induction.
8. Hint: Use induction.
9.
Mod 9 − − − −
1 3 5 7
− − − − −
1 1 3 5 7
− − − − −
3 3 1 7 5
− − − − −
5 5 7 1 3
− − − − −
7 7 5 3 1
10. One can take GL(2, ú) as one.
11. (a) 3a + 4b (b) − 3a + 2(b + c) (c) − 2(2a + b) + 3 = 0.
✍✍✍
Chapter 3…
Finite Groups and Subgroups
In this chapter, we shall study the important part of groups, namely
subgroups, we shall start with finite groups, order of an element of a
group, tests for subgroups, cyclic subgroups, generators. Next, apart from
many examples of groups that we have seen in chapter 1, in present
chapter. We will study another class of groups, namely permutation
groups in some details. Lastly, cosets of subgroups and the basic
important Lagrange’s theorem.
3.1 Order of a Group and Order of an Element

Definition : A group G is called finite, if there are finite number of
elements in a set G, and is called infinite if there are infinitely many
elements in G.
The group Z of integers is infinite group and the group Z6 of residue
− − − −
classes modulo 6 or U(12) = { 1, 5, 7, 11} are finite group.
Definition : Order of a Group
The number of elements in a group (finite or infinite) G is called
order of G, we denote order of G by |G|.
Thus, |U(12)| = 4, |Z6| = 6 and |Z| is infinite.
Definition : Order of an Element
The order of an element a in a group G is the smallest positive
n
integer n such that a = e. (In additive notion, this would be na = 0). If no
such integer exists, we say that a has infinite order.
The order of an element a is denoted by |a|.
Thus, to find the order of an element a in a group G, we need only
2 3
compute the sequence of products a, aa = a , aaa = a , …, until, we reach
the identity for the first time. The exponent n of the product (or
n
coefficient if the operation is addition) of a for which a is identity for the
first time is the order of a. If in the above sequence, the identity never
appears, then a has infinite order.
3.1
Groups & Coding Theory 3.2 Finite Groups & Subgroups
Example 3.1 : State the order of the groups and find the orders of
each element in the groups :
* − − − − − −
(i) Z7 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under multiplication mod 7.
− − − −
(ii) U(8) = { 1, 3, 5, 7} under multiplication mod 8.
(iii) G = {1, −1, i, −i} under complex multiplication.
− − − − − −
(iv) U(14) = { 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13} under multiplication modulo 14.
*
Solution : (i) The order of the group is 6 is |Z7| = 6.
*
Now, we calculate orders of elements in Z7.
−
Clearly, | 1| = 1.
− − − − − − − − − −
For 2; 2, 2 ⋅ 2 = 4, 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = 8 = 1 (mod 7)
−3 − −
So, 2 = 1 (mod 7), hence, | 2| = 3
− − − − − −
For 3 : 3, 3 ⋅ 3 = 9 = 2 (mod 7)
− − − − − − − − − − − − − −
3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 2 ⋅ 3 = 6, 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 6 ⋅ 3 = 18 = 4 (mod 7)
−5 −4 − − −  −
Next 3 = 3 ⋅ 3 = 4 ⋅ 3 = 12 = 5 (mod 7)
−6 −5 − − −  −
3 = 3 ⋅ 3 = 5 ⋅ 3 = 15 = 1 (mod 7)
−
Thus, | 3| = 6
− − − −  −
For 4 : 4, 4 ⋅ 4 = 16 = 2 (mod 7)
−3 − − − −
4 = 2 ⋅ 4 = 8 = 1 (mod 7)
−
∴ | 4| = 3
− − −2 − −3 − − −
For 5 : 5, 5 = 4 (mod 7), 5 = 4 5 = 5 (mod 7)
−4 − − −
5 = 6 ⋅ 5 = 2 (mod 7)
−5 − −  −
5 = 2 ⋅ 5 = 10 = 3 (mod 7)
−6 − −  −
5 = 3 ⋅ 5 = 15 = 1 (mod 7)
−
∴ | 5| = 6
− − −2  −
For 6 : 6, 6 = 36 = 1 (mod 7)
−
∴ | 6| = 2
(ii) |U(8)| = 4
− −2 − − −
| 1| = 1, 3 = 9 = 1 (mod 8) ∴ | 3| = 2
− −2  − −
5, 5 = 25 = 1 (mod 8) ∴ | 5| = 2
− −2  − −
7, 7 = 49 = 1 (mod 8) ∴ | 7| = 2
(iii) |G| = 4
2
|1| = 1, −1, (−1) = 1 ∴ |−1| = 2
2 3 4
i, i = −1, i = −i, i = 1 ∴ |i| = 4
2 3
−i, (−i) = −1, (−i) = −1 ⋅ (−i) = i
4
(−i) = i(−i) = 1 ∴ |−i| = 4
(iv) |U(14)| = 6
− − −2 − −3  
| 1| = 1, 3, 3 = 9, 3 = 27 = 13 (mod 14)
−4 −4 −  −  −
3 = 3 ⋅ 3 = 13 ⋅ 3 = 11 (mod 14) = − 3 (mod 14)
−5 −4 − − − − −
∴ 3 = 3 ⋅ 3 = (− 3) ( 3) = − 9 = 5 (mod 14)
−6 −5 − − −  −
∴ 3 = 3 ⋅ 3 = 5 ⋅ 3 = 15 = 1 (mod 14)
−
∴ | 3| = 6
− −2  − −3 − − 
5, 5 = 25 = − 3 (mod 14), 5 = − 3 × 5 = − 15
− −4 − − − −5 − −
= − 1 (mod 14), 5 = − 1 × 5 = − 5, 5 = − 5 × 5
− −
= + 3 = + 3 (mod 14)
−6 − −  −
5 = + 3 × 5 = + 15 = 1 (mod 14)
−
∴ | 5| = 6
− − − −
9; 9, 9 = − 5 (mod 14)
−2 − −  −
9 = − 5 × − 5 = 25 = − 3 (mod 14)
−
| 9| = 3
  − 2 − − −
11 : 11 = − 3 (mod 14) ∴ 11 = − 3 × − 3 = 9 (mod 14)
2 − 3 −   −
11 = − 5 (mod 14), 11 = − 5 × 11 = − 55 = 1 (mod 14)
  2 − −
13 : 13 = − 1 (mod 14) ∴ 13 = − 1 × − 1 = 1 (mod 14)

∴ |13| = 2
Example 3.2 : State the order of the following groups and find
orders of the elements :
− − − − − −
(i) Z6 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under addition mod 6.
− − − − − − −
(ii) Z7 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under addition modulo 7.
(iii) Z the group of integers under addition.
(iv) M2 × 2 (ú) under matrix addition.
−
Solution : (i) |Z| = 6. Of course | 0| = 1.
− − − − − − − − − − − − − −
For 1 : 1, 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 1 + 1 = 3, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
− − − − − − − − − − − − − −
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 5, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 6 1 = 0
−
∴ | 1| = 6.
− − − − − − − − − −
For 2 : 2, 2 + 2 = 4, 2 + 2 + 2 = 6 = 0
−
∴ | 2| = 3
− − − − − − −
For 3 : 3, 3 + 3 = 2 3 = 6 = 0
−
∴ | 3| = 2
− − − − − −
For 4 : 4, 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 (mod 6) so
− − − − − − −
4+4+4=2+4=6=0
−
∴ | 4| = 3
− − − −  − − −
For 5 : 5, 5 + 5 = 10 = 4 (mod 6) is 2 5 = 4 (mod 6)
− − − − − − −
∴ 4 5 = 2 5 + 2 5 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 (mod 6)
− − − − − −
∴ 65 = 45 + 25 + 2 + 4 = 6 = 0
−
∴ | 5| = 6.
−
(ii) |Z7| = 7, | 0| = 1
− −
It is clear that, 7 1 = 0, and 7 is smallest, hence | 1| = 7.
− − − − − − − − − −
For 2 : 2 + 2 = 4, 2 + 2 + 2 = 3 ⋅ 2 = 6 = − 1 (7)
− − − − − − −
∴ 6 ⋅ 2 = 3 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 2 = − 1 + − 1 = − 2 = 5 (mod 7)
− − − − − − −
∴ 7⋅2=6⋅2+2=5+2=7=0
−
∴ | 2| = 7.
In this group, one can calculate and see that,

− − − −
| 3| = 7 = | 4| = | 5| = | 6|
−
That is, we see that order of each element in Z7, except 0 is 7.
(iii) Z is infinite group.
For 0 in Z, |0| = 1.
For any a ≠ 0 in Z, if add a to itself for any number of time, we will

never reach zero. Therefore, order a is infinite, hence order of each non-
zero integers in Z is infinite
(iv) The order of the group M2 × 2 (ú) is infinite.
The identity element

0 0 is of order 1, in 0 0 = 1.
0 0 0 0
Again for any non-zero matrix A, as the matrix addition is

componentwise, we see that adding A to itself for any number of times,
we will never reach to zero matrix, hence A is of infinite order. Thus, it is
clear that any non-zero matrix in M2 × 2 (ú) is of infinite order.
3.2 Subgroups
It is to be noted that there are group examples which are subsets of
some group (higher) with same binary operation.
For example, the group G = {1, − 1, i, − i} under complex
*
multiplication and clearly G ⊂ C the group of non-zero complex numbers
under multiplication. The group of integers Z under addition is subset of
the group Q-set of rationals (or ú-set of reals) under addition. This
situation is described by a special term : subgroup.
Definition : Subgroup
Let G be a group. A subset H of G is said to be a subgroup of G if H
itself is group under the operation that of G.
Notation : We use the notation H ≤ G to mean that H is a subgroup
of G. The notation H < G is to mean that H is a subgroup of G but H ≠ G.
In this case, the subgroup H is called proper subgroup of G.
For any group G with identity e, {e} is clearly a group under the
operation that of G this subgroup {e} is called trivial subgroup of G. The
subgroup of G which is not {e} is called non-trivial subgroup of G.
Note : Zn under addition modulo n is not a subgroup of Z, since addition
modulo is not operation of Z.
Tests for a Subset to be a Subgroup :
Given a subset H of a group, G, to determine whether H is a
subgroup of G, we need to determine all the axioms of group. However,
this work is reduced by the following three theorems/tests.
Theorem 1 (One Test Subgroup Test)
Let G be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is subgroup of G if and

−1
only if ab ∈ H whenever a, b belong H. (In additive notation, H is a
subgroup if and only if a − b ∈ H whenever a, b below to H.)
Proof : Suppose H is a subgroup of G, then H itself is a group hence
−1
satisfies all the group axioms. For b in H, b also belongs to H, hence for
−1
any a and b in H by closure property ab belongs to H.
Conversely, suppose H is non-empty subset of G, with property that
−1
whenever a, b belong H, ab is in H. Since, H is non-empty there are
−1 −1
some x ∈ H; so by taking a = x, b = x by given hypothesis e = xx = ab
−1
is in H; i.e. e is in H. Now for any x in H, to see that x is in H, we choose
−1 −1 −1
a = e, b = x so that x = ex = ab is in H. Thus, G2 and G3 axioms
follow. Since, H is is subset of G, and associativity holds for all elements of

G, so does it holds for elements in H. Lastly, we need to verify that
the operation is closed in H. For this, if x and y are two elements in H,
−1
then x and y are also in H, hence by given hypothesis with a = x,
−1 −1 −1
b = y , xy = x(y ) is in H, i.e. xy is in H. Thus, H satisfies all the group
axioms hence is a subgroup of G.
Example 3.3 : Show that intersection of any two subgroups of a
group is again a subgroup.
Solution : Suppose H and K be subgroups of a group G. We have to
show that H ∩ K is subgroup of G. We use theorem 1 to establish this,
since H and K are subgroups H ∩ K is non-empty as e belongs to both H
and K.
Let a and b be any two elements in H ∩ K, so that a and b belong to
H as well as belong to K, hence by theorem 1, H and K being subgroups
−1 −1 −1
ab is in H and ab is in K. Thus, ab is H ∩ K, so by theorem 1 H ∩ K is
a subgroup of G.
Example 3.4 : Let G be an Abelian group with identity e.
2
Let H = {x ∈ G | x = e}. Show that H is a subgroup of G.
2
Solution : Since, e = e, so e is in H, hence H is non-empty subset of
2 2
G. Let a and b be any two elements in H, then a = e and b = e by
−1 2 −1
hypothesis. We need to show that (ab ) = e, so that ab is in H. So,
consider,
−1 2 −1 −1
(ab ) = (ab ) (ab )
2 −1 2
= a (b ) ‡ G is Abelian
2 2 −1 −1
= a (b ) = ee =e
−1
Hence, ab is in H, whenever a and b are in H, therefore, by one-step
test, H is subgroup of G.
Example 3.5 : Let G be an additive group of integers.
Let H = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3} and K = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Is H ≤ G ? Is K ≤ G ?
Solution : H is not subgroup of G, though it satisfies G1, G2 and G3,
because addition in H is not closed, since 2 and 3 are in H but 2 + 3 = 5 is
not in H. K is also not subgroup, since additive inverse of 3, which −3 is
not in K.
Remark : The example 3.5 above suggest when we say that a subset of a
group is not subgroup ? The answer is that one of the group axioms fails
to hold. That is :
(i) the identity element is not in the subset.
(ii) some element in the subset has no inverse element in the subset.
(iii) there exist two elements in the subset whose product is not in it.
Example 3.6 : Let G be an Abelian group under multiplication and

3
H = {x | x ∈ G} − a set of all cubes of the elements of G. Then show that
H is subgroup of G.
3
Solution : Since, e in G, e = e, so e is in H, hence H is non-empty.
3 3
Let x and y be any two elements in H, then x = a and y = b for some
−1
a and b in G. We have to show that xy is in H; that is, we have to show
−1
that xy is a cube of some element in G. Since, G is Abelian group, we
−1 3 3 −1 3 −1 3 −1 3 −1
have xy = a (b ) = a (b ) = (ab ) . For a, b in G, ab is in G, thus
−1 −1 −1
xy is cube of ab in G, hence xy ∈ H; and H is subgroup of G.
Theorem 2 Two-step Subgroup Test
Let G be a group and H be a non-empty subset of G. Then H is

subgroup of G if :
(i) Whenever a and b are in H, ab is in H (closed under
multiplication).
−1
(ii) For any a ∈ H, a ∈ H (closed under inverse).
Proof : By theorem 1, it suffices to show that a, b ∈ H implies
−1
ab ∈ H. So suppose that a, b ∈ H, since H is closed under inverses C
−1 −1
condition (ii) of the hypothesis b ∈ H, thus a, b ∈ H, so by condition (i)
−1
of the hypothesis, ab ∈ H. Thus, H is a subgroup of G.
Theorem 3 Finite Subgroup Test
Let H be a non-empty subset of a group G. Then, H is a subgroup of

G, if H is closed under the operation of G.
−1
Proof : By theorem 2, we need to prove that for any a ∈ H, a ∈ H. If
−1 −1 2
a = e, then a = a, so a ∈ H. If a ≠ e, then consider the sequence a, a ,
3 2 3
a , … . Since, H is closed under multiplication, all the elements a, a , a , …
i j i−j
are in H. But H is finite, so we must have a = a for i > j. Then a = e, and
i−j i−j−1
since a ≠ e, i − j > 1. Thus, we have a =a⋅a = e and therefore
−1 i − j − 1 i − j − 1
a =a , but i − j − 1 ≥ 1 implies that a ∈ H, so H is closed
under inverse, by theorem 2 H is a subgroup of G.
The following theorem suggests the technique to finite some
subgroups of a groups.
Let G be a group and a is any element in G. We denote by <a> the
n n n
set {a | n ∈ Z}. In particular, <a> = {a | n ∈ Z}, then set of all a , where n
is negative as well as positive and zero also.
In addition group, this is given by <a> = {na | n ∈ Z}.
n
Since, we have defined a = e, if n = 0 and na = 0, if n = 0, clearly, the
identity element belongs to <a>.
Theorem 4 Let G be a group and let a be any element of G. Then <a>

is a subgroup of G.
Proof : As noted above e ∈ <a>, and <a> is non-empty subset of G
(In fact a ∈ <a>). Let x and y are any two elements in <a>. Then by
m n
definitions of <a>, x = a and y = a for some m, n in Z.
−1 m n −1 m −n m−n
Then, xy = a ⋅ (a ) =a ⋅a =a ∈ <a>
∴ <a> is a subgroup of G.
Definition : Let G be a group and a be any element of G, then the
subgroup <a> is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a.
In the case, that G = <a>, we say G is cyclic group and a is
generator of G.
Note :
1. A cyclic group may have many generators.
−2 −1 0 1 2
2. Although the sequence … a , a , a , a , a , … has infinitely
n
many elements, which are in <a> , the set <a> = {a | n ∈ Z}
might have only finitely many elements.
i
3. Every cyclic group is Abelian. For any x, y in <a>; we have x = a ,
j i j i+j j+i j i
y = a for i, j in Z. So xy = a ⋅ a = a = a = a ⋅ a = yx.
∴ xy = yx, for all x, y in <a>.
Example 3.7 : Find the subgroups generated by the elements of the
groups given below.
* − − − − − −
(i) Z7 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under multiplication mod 7.
(ii) G = {1, −1, i, − i} under complex multiplication.
− − − −  
(iii) U(14) = { 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13} under multiplication modulo 14.
Which of the above groups are cyclic and what are the generators ?
Solution : (i) From example 3.1, we have seen that :
− − − − − − − − − −
< 2> = { 2, 2 ⋅ 2 = 4, 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = 8 = 1}, that is
− − − −
< 2> = { 1, 2, 4}
− − − − − − −3 − −4 − −5 −
< 3> = { 3, 3 ⋅ 3 = 9 = 2, 3 = 6, 3 = 4, 3 = 5
−6  −
3 = 15 = 1}
− − − − − − *
= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = Z7
− − − − − − − *
Similarly, < 5> = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = Z7
*
Thus, Z7 is cyclic.
− − − −
< 4> = { 1, 2, 4}
− − −
< 6> = { 1, 6}
− −
< 1> = { 1}
− − − *
Thus, we see that < 2> = < 4>, < 6> are proper subgroups of Z7.
* − − *
Z7 is cyclic group and 3 and 5 are generators of Z7. Since,
− − *
< 5> = < 3> = Z7.
(ii) We refer to example 3.2, so we have,

<−1> = {1, −1}, <1> = {1}
 = {1, −1, i, − i} = <− i>
G is cyclic and i and −i are generators <−1> is the only proper

subgroup of G.
(iii) Again referring to example 1, we see that
− −
< 1> = { 1}
− − − − −  
< 3> = { 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13} = U(14)
− − − − −  
< 5> = { 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13} = U(14)
− − − 
< 9> = { 1, 9, 11}
 − − 
<11> = { 1, 9, 11}
 − 
<13> = { 1, 13}
− 
Thus, < 9>, <13> are the only proper subgroup of U(14).
− −
U(14) is cyclic group and 3, 5 are generators of U(14).
Example 3.8 : Find the subgroups generated by the elements of the
given groups :
− − − − − −
(i) Z6 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under addition modulo 6.
− − − − − − − − − −
(ii) Z10 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} under addition modulo 10.
(iii) Z, the additive group of integers.
Solution : (i) Referring example 1.
− − − − − −
< 0> = { 0}, < 2> = { 0, 2, 4}
− − − − − − −
< 3> = { 0, 3}, < 4> = { 0, 2, 4}
− − − − − − −
One can < 1> = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = Z6
− − − − − − −
and < 5> = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = Z6
− − − − −
Thus, < 2> = { 0, 2, 4} = < 4> and
− − −
< 3> = { 0, 3} are proper subgroups of Z6.
− −
Z6 is cyclic and 1 and 5 are two generators of Z6.
− −
(ii) One can find that < 0> = { 0}
− − − − − − − − − − −
< 1> = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
− − −
= < 3> = < 7> = < 9>
 − − − − − − − −
<27> = { 0, 2, 4, 6, 8} = < 8> = < 4> = < 6>
− − −
< 5> = { 0, 5}
− − − − −
Thus, { 0, 2, 4, 6, 8} is a proper subgroup of Z10 is a proper subgroup
− − − − −
of Z10 and the generators are 2, 4, 6 and 8. < 5> is also a proper
− − − −
subgroup. Z10 is cyclic group and the generators are 1, 3, 7, 9.
(iii) Z is cyclic and 1 and −1 are the only generators of Z.
For n⋅1 = 1+1+1+…+1=n if n > 0
n-times
= 0 if n = 0
= −n if n < 0
∴ Z = <1>
Similarly, we can show Z = <−1>. For any non-zero integer, say 3,
<3> = {n ⋅ 3 | n ∈ Z}
= {… 3, 0, 3, 6, …}
is a proper subgroup of Z.
<3> is denoted by 3Z - the integer multiplies of 3. Thus,
<3> = 3Z
For any integer m,
<m> = mZ = {…, −2m, −m, 0, m, 2m, …}
is a proper subgroup of Z if m ≠ 1, and m ≠ − 1.
If m = 0, mZ = {0}
Definition : Centre of a Group
Let G be a group. The subset Z(G) defined as
Z(G) = {a ∈ G | ax = xa for all x ∈ G} is called the center of G.
Thus, the center, Z(G) of a group G is the subset of elements of G
which commute with every element of G.
Theorem 5 The center of a group G is a subgroup of G.
Proof : We will show that Z(G) is closed under multiplication and

closed under inverses, so that by theorem Z(G) is a subgroup of G. First
we show closures. Let a and b be any two elements of Z(G).
Then for any x in G
ax = xa and bx = xb … (*)
Now, (ab)x = a(bx) By associativity
= a(xb) By (*)
= (ax)b By associativity
= (xa)b By (*)
= x(ab) By associativity
Thus, Z(G) is closed under multiplication.
Next for any a ∈ Z(x), we have ax = xa for all x in G.
−1
We multiply the equation ax = xa from left and right by a on both
sides, so that we have
−1 −1 −1 −1
a (ax) a = a (xa) a
−1 −1 −1 −1
(a a) (xa ) = (a b) (aa ) By associativity
−1 −1
e(xa ) = (a x) e
−1 −1
xa = a x
−1 −1
Thus, xa = a x for any x in G.
−1
Therefore, a ∈ Z(G)
And Z(G) is a subgroup of G. Z(G) is non-empty, since e ∈ Z(G).
Note :
1. Z(G) is an Abelian subgroup of a group G, even though G is not
Abelian.
2. In case of G is Abelian Z(G) = G.
Definition : Centralizer of an element in a group
Let G be a group and a be any element in G. Then the centralizer of
a in G, denoted by C(a), is defined to be set
C(a) = {g ∈ G | C(a) = ag}
Thus, C(a) is the set of elements of G, which commute with a.
Theorem 6 Let G be a group, and a be any element of G, then C(a) is a

subgroup of G.
Proof : If a = e, then C(a) = G, since for g ∈ G, ge = g = eg.
So C(a) is a subgroup of G.
Let a ≠ e. For any g1, g2 in C(a).
We have, g1a = ag1 and g2a = ag2 … (*)
Then, (g1g2)a = g1(g2a) By associativity
= g1(ag2) By (*)
= (g1a) g2 By associativity
= (ag1) g2 By (*)
= a(g1g2) By associativity
Thus, (g1g2)a = (g1g2)a
∴ g1g2 ∈ C(a)
So C(a) is closed under multiplication.
Next for any g ∈ C(a), we have,
ag = ga … (I)
−1
Multiplying by g on left and right of the equation on both sides, we
get
−1 −1 −1 −1
g (ag) g = g (ga) g
−1 −1 −1 −1
(g a) (gg ) = (g g) (ag ) By associativity
−1 −1
(g a)e = e(ag )
−1 −1
So, g a = ag
−1
Hence, g ∈ C(a) and C(a) is closed under inverses. Therefore, by
theorem (2), C(a) is a subgroup of G.
Note :
1. Since elements in center Z(G) of a group G is a set of element
which commute with every element of G, hence commute with a,
therefore, Z(G) ⊂ C(a).
2. G is Abelian if and only if C(a) = G, for all a in G.
Example 3.9 : Find all the cyclic subgroups generated by the
elements of U(15). What is order of U(15) ? Is U(15) cyclic group ?
− − − − −   
Solution : We have U(15) = { 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}
Therefore, |U(15)| = 8, order of U(15) is 8.

− − − − −2 − −3 − −4 
Now, < 1> = { 1}, < 2> = { 2, 2 = 4, 2 = 8, 2 = 16}
 −
Since, 16 = 1 (mod 15), we have
− − − − − −
< 2> = { 1, 2, 4, 8} = < 8> … (i)
− − −2  −
< 4> = { 4, 4 = 16 = 1 (mod 15)}
− − −
< 4> = { 1, 4} … (ii)
− − −2 − −3  −4  −
< 7> = { 7, 7 = 4, 7 = 13, 7 = 91 = 1}
− − − −  
< 7> = { 1, 4, 7, 13} = <13> … (iii)
  2 − − − 
<11> = {11, 11 , | 2| = 1} = { 1, 11} … (iv)
  2  − − 
<14> = {14, 14 = 196 = 1} = { 1, 14} … (v)
From equations (i), (ii), (ii), (iv) and (v) we see that there are 5 cyclic
proper subgroups of U(15).
Since, no element in U(15) generates whole U(15), U(15) is not cyclic
group.
3.3 Cyclic Groups

We have defined cyclic group and some examples of cyclic groups. In
this section, we will study the properties of cyclic groups.
A group G is cyclic if there exists an element a in G such that
n
G = {a | n ∈ Z}, ‘a’ is called a generator of G. We have a notation
G = <a> to mean that G is cyclic group generated by a.
In the last section, we have seen that :
1. Z, the group of integers under usual addition is cyclic and 1 and
−1 are generators of Z. Thus, Z = <1> = <−1>.
− − −  −
2. Zn = { 0, 1, 2, …, n − 1} is cyclic and 1 is generator of Zn. There
are more generators of Zn, depending on n, which we see in the
later discussion.
* − − − − − −
3. The group Z7 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under multiplication modulo 7 is
− −
cyclic group with 3 and 5 as generators.
4. The group G = {1, −1, i, − i} under complex multiplication is cyclic

and, i and − i are generators is G = = <− i>.
− − − −  
5. U(14) = { 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13} under multiplication modulo 14, with
− − − 
3, 5, 9 and 11 as generators.
− − − 
Example 3.10 : Is U(12) = { 1, 5, 7, 11} under multiplication modulo
12 a cyclic group ? If yes, find its generators.
− − −
Solution : Clearly, < 1> = { 1} so 1 cannot be generator
− − −2  −
< 5> = { 5, 5 = 25 = 1 (mod 12)}
− −
= { 1, 5} ≠ U(12)
−
So, 5 is not generator of U(12).
− − −
< 7> = { 1, 7} ≠ U(12) and
 − 
<11> = { 1, 11} ≠ U(12)
Thus, there is no element in U(12) which generates whole of U(12).
Therefore, U(12) is not cyclic group.
Note : We have seen in example 9 that U(15) is not cyclic.
The following theorem is the first property of cyclic group.
i j
Theorem 7 Criterion for a = a
Let G be a group and let a be an element in G. If a has infinite order,

then all distinct powers of a are distinct group elements. If a has finite
2 n−1 i j
order, say, n then <a> = {e, a, a , …, a } and a = a if and only if n
divides i − j.
n
Proof : If a has infinite order, there is no n such that a is the identity.
i j i−j
Since a = a implies a = e, we must have i − j = 0 i.e. i = j. This proves
the first statement that the distinct powers of a are group elements.
n
Now, suppose that order of a is finite say n. Then a = e and n is the
n
least positive integer with a = e.
2 n−1
Claim : <a> = {e, a, a , …, a }.
n − 1 i j
Clearly, the elements of e, a, …, a are distinct. Because if a = a
i−j
with 0 ≤ j < i ≤ n − 1, then a = e; where 0 ≤ i − j ≤ n − 1 < n, which is
n
contradiction to the fact that n is least positive integer such that a = e.
n − 1
Hence, i = j. Thus, e, a, …, a are distinct elements and are in <a>.
n − 1 m
Therefore, {e, a, …, a } ⊆ <a>. To establish reverse inclusion, let a is
an arbitrary element in <a>. By applying division algorithm to m to and n,
there exist integers q and r such that
m = qn + r, with 0 ≤ r < n
m qn + r qn r n q r r
Then, a = a =a ⋅ a = (a ) ⋅ a = e ⋅ a
n
Since, a = e
m r m 2 n − 1
Thus, a = a and 0 ≤ r < n, hence a ∈ {e, a, a , …, a }, so this
proves that
2 n−1
<a> ⊆ {e, a, a , …, a }
2 n−1
Thus, we proved <a> = {e, a, a , …, a } and the claim is established.
i j
To prove that a = a implies that n divides i − j.
i j i−j
So suppose a = a , then a = e.
Again by division algorithm to i − j and n, there exist integers q and r
such that i − j = nq + r, with 0 ≤ r < n
i−j nq + r nq r n q r r
Then, a = a =a ⋅ a = (a ) ⋅ a = e ⋅ a
i−j r i−j r
Thus, a = a and a = e, so that a = e with r < n, but n is the least
n
positive integer with a = e, hence r = 0, then i − j = qn, so that n divides
i − j.
Conversely, if n divides i − j, then i − j = nq for integer q, and
i−j nq n q q i j
a =a = (a ) = e = e, so that a = a .
K
Corollary : a = e implies that |a| divides K
K
Let G be a group and let a be an element of order n in G. If a = e,
then n divides K.
K 0
Proof : Since, a = e = a , then by last part of theorem 7 shows that n
divides K − 0, i.e. n divides K.
Remark : The above theorem 7, provides the way of multiplying
two elements in a finite or infinite cyclic group. That is if |a| = n,
i j
then multiplication in <a> is similar as in Zn. For if a , a ∈ <a>, then
i j i+K i j K
a ⋅ a = a , if i + j = K mod n, then a ⋅ a = a ∈ <a>.
If <a> is infinite group, or a has infinite order, then multiplication in

i j i+j
<a> work same as addition in Z, since a ⋅ a = a , no modular arithmetic
is required.
The following theorem provides arithmetic to find the generators of
the cyclic group.
Theorem 8 Generators of Cyclic Groups

K
Let G = <a> be a cyclic group of order n. Then G = <a > if and only
if (K, n) = 1.
Proof : First suppose that (K, n) = 1, then we can write 1 = kx + ny for
some integers x and y.
1 kx + ny kx ny kx n y kx n
Then we have a = a = a ⋅ a = a ⋅ (a ) = a ⋅ e as a = e.
kx k x k
Thus, a = a = (a ) . Therefore, a ∈ <a >, so all powers of a belong to
k k k
<a >. Therefore, G = <a > and a is generators of G.
k k k k
Here clearly <a > ⊆ G and a ∈ <a > so G ⊆ <a >, hence G = <a >.
k
Conversely, if <a > = G to show that (k, n) = 1.
Suppose (k, n) = d > 1. Then k = dx and n = dy, for some x, y ∈ Z.
k y dx y
Then, (a ) = (a ) , since k = dx
dy x
= (a )
n x
= (a ) ‡ dy = n
x
= e =e
k
Therefore, |a | ≤ y < n
k
This shows that a can not be a generator of G. Hence, by proof by
k
contrapositive if a generates G, then (k, n) = 1.
−
In the above theorem, we take G = Zn and a = 1, which gives
important result.
Corollary : Generators of Zn
−
A residue class k in Zn is a generator of Zn if and only if (k, n) = 1.
Note : From theorem 8, and the following corollary, it is clear that the
generators of Zn are members of U(n).
Example 3.11 : Find the generators of the following groups :
(i) Z12, (ii) Z15, (iii) U(14), (iv) U(18).
Solution : (i) By corollary, since 1, 5, 7 and 11 only integers less than

− − − 
12 are relatively prime to 12, hence 1, 5, 7, 11 are the generators and Z12
is a group under addition modulo 12.
(ii) Similars as in (i), 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14 are integers less than 15
− − − − −   
and relatively prime to 15, hence 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14 are generators
of Z15, under addition modulo 15.
−
(iii) In this we refer to (iii) of example 7, in which we have seen that 3,
−
5 are the generators of U(14).
−
As 5 is generator of U(14), and |U(14)| = 6, therefore using theorem 8
−1 −5
the other generators of U(14) are 5 and 5 , since only 1 and 5 are only
−
integers less than 6 and relatively prime to 6. Therefore, 5 and
−5 −2 −2 − − − −
5 = 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5 = (− 3) (− 3) × 5 (mod 14)

= 45
−
= 3 (mod 14)
− −
So, 3, 5 are the generators of U(14).
− − −   
(iv) U(18) = { 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17} under multiplication mod 14 and
mod 18
and |U(18)| = 6
− − −2  −
If we work out the orders of 5 : 5, 5 = 25 = 7 (mod 18),
−3 − −  −
5 = 7 × 5 = 35 = − 1 (mod 18)
−4 − − − −5 − −  −
5 = − 1 × 5 = − 5, 5 = − 5 × 5 = − 25 = − 7 (mod 18)
−6 − −  −
5 = − 7 × 5 = − 35 = 1 (mod 18)
− − − −   
Thus, < 5> = { 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17} = U(18).
Therefore, U(18) is cyclic group under multiplication modulo 18 and
− −
5 is generator. To find other generators we look at the powers of 5 which
are less than 6 and relatively prime to 6. Since, 1 and 5 are the only
integers less than 6 and relatively prime to 6. Therefore, by theorem 8, the
−2 −5 −5 − 
generators of U(18) are 5 and 5 . We know, 5 = − 7 (mod 18) = 11.
− 
Thus, 5 and 11 are only generators of U(18).
Classification of Subgroups of Cyclic Groups :
The following theorem gives the account of number of subgroups of
finite cyclic group and the method of finding them.
Theorem 9 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. Moreover, if |<a>| = n,

then the order of n; and for each positive divisor k of n, the group <a>
n/k
has exactly one subgroup of order k − namely, <a >.
Proof : We prove the first statement : Every subgroup of a cyclic
group is cyclic.
Let G = <a> be a cyclic group generated by a; and let H be any
subgroup of G. If H = {e}, then it is a cyclic group generated by e, since
any integral power of e is e itself.
Next, suppose that H ≠ {e}, so there is a non-identity element in H,
say x. But as H is subgroup of G, every element in H is an integral power
r
of a. Let x = a , where r may be positive or negative. If r is positive and H
−r
is subgroup of G. H is closed under inverse, so H must contain a , the
r −r
inverse of x = a , If r is negative then again a is H, where − r is positive.
This argument proves that H contains positive integral powers of a. Let
r r
S = {r > 0 | a ∈ H}, the set of positive integers r such that a is in H. Then
k
by Well Ordering Principle, there exist least integer in S, say k. That is a
is in H, and k is the least positive exponent of a among all members of H.
k
Now, we claim that H = <a >.
k k
Since a is in H, by closure axiom any integral power of a is also in H;
k n
that is (a ) ∈ H, for n ∈ Z. On the other hand, if y is any element in H,
m
then y = a , for m in Z. Applying division algorithm to m and k, there
exist integers q and r such that m = kq + r, 0 ≤ r < k.
m kq + r kr r k q r
Then, a =a = a ⋅ a = (a ) ⋅ a
r m k q −1
a = a [(a ) ] is in H
m k q m k q −1
as a is in H, (a ) is in H, hence a and [(a ) ] is in H, hence, by
r
closureness a belongs to H. But this contradicts, the choice of k as r < k.
m qk k q
Therefore, we must have r = 0; so that m = qk and y = a = a = (a ) =
k
an integral power of a .
This completes the proof that H is a cyclic subgroup of G.

Now to prove the next part of the theorem, suppose that G = <a>
n
and |G| = n, that is the order of a is n, so that a = e. Let H be any
subgroup of G. By first part of the theorem H is cyclic subgroup of G and
m
H = <a > for some m. Observe that,
m n n m m
(a ) = (a ) = e = e
m
So by the corollary following theorem (9) |a | must be a divisor of n
m
and |H| = |a |, so that |H|, the order of H is a divisor of n.
n/k k n
In the last, suppose k is any divisor of n. Then clearly, (a ) = a = e,
n/k t n/k n/k
and (a ) ≠ e for any t < k, so <a > has order k. To show that <a > is
n
the only subgroup of order k. We have shown that H = <a >, where m is
m
the least positive integer such that a is in H. Now writing n = mq + r,
where 0 ≤ r < k, m.
n mq + r mq r r mq −q
We have, e = a = a =a ⋅ a so that a = (a ) ∈ H.
m n
Thus, r must be zero and n = mq. So k = |H| = |<a >| = Thus, it
m
n m n/k
follows that m = and H = <a > = <a >
k
Let us verify the theorem for particular example.
Example 3.12 : Let G = <a> be a cyclic group where order of a is 36.
Then from above theorem 9; the subgroup of <a> are precisely those of
k
the form <a >, where k is divisor of 36. Moreover, if k is a divisor of 36,
36/k
the subgroup of order k is <a >.
The divisors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 18 and 36.
2 35 36
1 divides, so <a> = {e, a, a , … , a } of order = 36.
1
2 2 32 34 36
2 divides, so <a > = {e, a , …, a , a } of order = 18.
2
3 3 30 33 36
3 divides, so <a > = {e, a , …, a a } of order = 12.
3
4 4 28 32 36
4 divides, so <a > = {e, a , …, a , a } of order = 9.
4
6 6 30 36
6 divides, so <a > = {e, a , …, a } of order = 6.
6
9 9 18 27 36
9 divides, so <a > = {e, a , a , a } of order = 4.
9
18 8 36
18 divides, so <a > = {e, a } of order = 2.
18
36 36
36 divides, so <a > = {e} of order = 1.
36
n/k
Thus, in general, if <a> has order n and k divides n, then <a > is the
unique subgroup of order k.
−
Similarly, if the group is Zn = < 1>, then by theorem 9, we state the
following important special case.
Corollary : Subgroup of Zn
n
For each divisor k of n, the set < > is the unique subgroup of Zn of
k
order k; moreover, these are the only subgroups of Zn.
Example 3.13 : List the subgroups of Z36.
− − − 
< 1> = { 0, 1, …, 35} of order 36
− − −  36
< 2> = { 0, 2, …, 34” of order 18 =
2
− − −  36
< 3> = { 0, 3, …, 33} of order 12 =
3
− − −  36
< 4> = { 0, 4, …, 32} of order 9 =
4
− − −  36
< 6> = { 0, 6, …, 30} of order 6 =
6
− − −  36
< 9> = { 0, 9, …, 27} of order 4 =
9
 −  36
<18> = { 0, 18} of order 2 =
18
 − 36
<36> = { 0} of order 1 =
36
Remark : In first chapter, we know the number theoretic function called

Euler phi function φ, which is defined to φ : ù → ù by φ(n) = the number
of integers less than n and relatively prime to n. For example, φ(4) = 2,
φ(6) = 2, φ(5) = 4, φ(7) = 6, φ(8) = 4, φ(10) = 4, φ(12) = 4 etc.
Thus, |U(n)| = φ(n).
So in particular |U(4) | = 2, |U(8) = 4, |U(14)| = 6 etc.
Theorem 10 Number of Elements of Each Order in a Cyclic Group
If d is a positive divisor of n, the number of elements of order d in a

cyclic group of order n is φ(n).
Proof : By theorem 9, there is exactly are subgroup of order d, let say
<a> is subgroup of order d. Then every element of order d also
k
generates a subgroup <a> and by theorem 8, an element a generates
<a> if and only if (k, d) = 1. Thus, the number of such elements is
precisely φ(d).
Example 3.14 : Let G = <a> be a cyclic group of order 20, then find
all generators of G.
k
Solution : If a positive integer k divides 20, then <a > is a proper
20
subgroup of G of order . So the generators of G must be the integers
k
less than 20 and relatively prime to 20. So we see that 1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17,
3 7 9 11 13 17
19 are integers relatively prime to 20. Therefore, a, a , a , a , a , a , a
19
and a are the generators of G.
Example 3.15 : Find an example of a non-cyclic group, all of whose

proper subgroups are cyclic.
− − − 
Solution : Consider U(12) = { 1, 5, 7, 11} under multiplication modulo
− − − − − −  − 
12. We see that < 5> = { 1, 5}, < 7> = { 1, 7} = <11> = { 1, 11> are proper
cyclic subgroups of U(12) and there is no member of U(12) which
generates whole of U(12), therefore U(12) is not cyclic.
Note : U(12) is a group which is Abelian but not cyclic.
−1
Example 3.16 : Let G be a group and a ∈ G. Prove that <a > = <a>.
−1 −1
Solution : Since a ∈ <a>, all the integral powers of a also belong
−1
to <a> by closure axiom, hence <a > ⊆ <a> … (i)
−1 −1
Also, we have a = (a ) . By the same argument as above applied
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
with (a ) in place a and a in place of a, we have <(a ) > ⊆ <a >.
That is,
−1
<a> ⊆ <a > ‡ (a−1)−1 = a … (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we get
−1
<a > = <a>
Example 3.17 : Determine the subgroup lattice for Z12 and U(12).
− − − −
Solution : We know that, < 2>, < 3>, < 6> and < 4> are the proper
− − − −
subgroups of Z12. The inclusion relation is < 4> ⊂ < 2>, < 6> ⊂ < 2> and
− −
< 6> ⊆ < 3>. Therefore, the lattice for Z12 is
<1>
<2>
<3>
<6>
<4>
<0>
Fig. 3.1
− − − 
For U(12) = { 1, 5, 7, 11} under multiplication modulo 12, we have,
− − − − − −  − 
< 5> = { 1, 5}, < 7> = { 1, 7}, <11} = { 1, 11}
− − − − 
< 1> = { 1}. So < 5>, < 7>, <11>
are proper subgroups U(12). Therefore, lattice for U(12) is
U(12)
< >
<7> 11 <5>
<1>
Fig. 3.2
 1 n 
Example 3.18 : Show that H =  0 1 n ∈ Z is a cyclic subgroup
 
of GL(2, Z).
Solution : Let A =
1 1 , then
0 1
2
A =
1 1 1 1 = 1 1 + 1 = 1 2
0 1 0 1 0 1  0 1
Let us assume that for in k ≥ 1,
k
A =
1 k , then
0 1
A
k+1 k
= A ⋅A=
1 k 1 1 = 1 1 + k
0 1 0 1 0 1 
Thus, A
k+1
=
1 k + 1
0 1 
Thus, by mathematical induction
n
A =
1 n ∀ n ≥ 1 integer
0 1 
0
A =
1 0
0 1
For n < 0, let m = −n m is positive integer. Therefore,
n
A = A
−m m −1
= (A ) =
1 m−1
0 1
=
1 −m = 1 n
0 1  0 1
Therefore, we have shown that, A =

n 1 n for all n ∈ Z.
0 1 
Thus, ever matrix in H is an integral power of A; that is, H = <A> is a
cyclic. Subgroup of GL(2, Z) generated by A.
Example 3.19 : List all the elements of Z40 that have order 10.
Solution : First, we find a subgroup H of Z40 of order 10, then the
40 −
generator of H is = 4; that is 4 is generator of H. Thus, |H| = 10 and
10
− − −       −
H = { 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 36} = < 4>.
− − −
By theorem 10, the number of elements of order 10 are 4, 3 ⋅ 4, 7 ⋅ 4,
− − −   
9 ⋅ 4, since, 1, 3, 7, 9 are relatively prime to 10. Therefore, 4, 12, 28, 36
are members of Z40 of order 10.
3.4 Permutation Groups

In this section, we study groups of function of specific types. Let A be
a set and let SA denote the set of all 1-to-1 functions from A onto A.
Then SA is group under composition of functions. We know that, the
composition of functions is associative, so G1 follows. The identity
function IA : A → A, given by IA(a) = a, for every a in A plays the roll of the
identity and G2 follows. In calculus, we know any 1-to-1 and onto
−1 −1
function f on A, there is inverse function f : A → A defined by f (y) = x
−1
if and only if f(x) = y, for x, y ∈ A. So f is in SA and is inverse of f in SA,
thus G3 holds. Finally, composition of any two 1-to-1 and onto functions
from A to A is again 1-to-1 and onto function on A, hence belong to SA,
which justifies the closureness of composition.
Thus, SA where A is finite on infinite is a group under composition of
functions, moreover SA is non-Abelian if the number of elements in A ≥ 3.
We will study this group in this section with a finite set A.
Definition : Permutation and Permutation Group
Let A be a set. Any function from A to A, which both 1-to-1 and onto
is a permutation of A. The set of all permutation of A that forms a group
under function composition is called permutation group of a set A.
In this section, we will consider A to be only finite set. In particular,
we take A of the form {1, 2, 3, …, n} for some positive integer n. In
calculus, the functions are given by some formula, but we will explicitly
list the images of each element of the domain for the corresponding
functional value.
For example, we define a permutation α of the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} by
specifying.
α(1) = 4, α(2) = 5, α(3) = 1, α(4) = 3, α(5) = 2.
The more convenient way to express this correspondence is to write
α in the array form as
α =
1 2 3 4 5
4 5 1 3 2
Here the images of elements of the domain set are placed directly
below corresponding to each element in the domain set.
Similarly, the permutation β of the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is given by
β(1) = 3, β(2) = 1, β(3) = 4, β(4) = 5, β(5) = 6, β(6) = 2 can be written in
array form as
β =
1 2 3 4 5 6 .
3 1 4 5 6 2
How to find composition of two permutations ?
Let φ =
1 2 3 4
3 1 4 2
and ψ =
1 2 3 4
2 1 4 3
Then in usual composition φψ, we have
φψ(1) = φ[ψ(1)] = φ(2) = 1
φψ(2) = φ[ψ(2)] = φ(1) = 3
(φψ) (3) = φ[ψ(3)] = φ(4) = 2 and
(φψ) (3) = φ[ψ(4)] = φ(3) = 4.
Thus, φψ maps 1 to 1, 2 to 3, 3 to 2 and 4 to 4.
Thus, φψ =
1 2 3 4
1 3 2 4
We will use the convenient as follows :
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
fy =
3 1 4 2 2 1 4 3
=
1 2 3 4
1 3 2 4
This looks like usual multiplication and so we call it multiplication of
permutation. This multiplication (composition) is carried out from right to
left by going from top to bottom, then again from top to bottom.
Notation : The group of permutation of a set A is denoted by SA.
In particular, if A = {1, 2, 3, …, n} it is denoted by Sn. For A = {1, 2, 3},
it is denoted by S3, for A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, it is denoted by S4, and so on.
The group Sn is called the symmetric group of degree n.
Example 3.20 : The Symmetric Group S3.
For A = {1, 2, 3}, the group of permutations of A is S3. There are six
elements (permutations) of A. These elements are given by :
ε=
1 2 3 , α = 1 2 3 , α2 = 1 2 3
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
β=
1 2 3 , αβ = 1 2 3 , α2β = 1 2 3
1 3 2 2 1 3 3 2 1
Note that α
−1 2
= α , since αα =
2 1 2 3 1 2 3 = 1 2 3 and
2 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 3
3
α = ε.
−1 −1 2 −1 2
One can work out that β = β, (αβ) = αβ and (α β) = α β; and
2 2 2 2
that β = (αβ) = (α β) = e
Also, βα =
1 2 3 1 2 3 = 1 2 3 ≠ αβ.
1 3 2 2 3 1 3 2 1
Therefore, S3 is non-Abelian group.
Let us write down the Cayley table for S3.
2 2
ε α α β αβ αβ
2 2
ε ε α α β αβ αβ
2 2
α α α ε αβ αβ β
2 2 2
α α ε α αβ β αβ
2 2
β β αβ αβ ε α α
2 2
αβ αβ β αβ α ε α
2 2 2
αβ αβ αβ β α α ε
−1
While completing the table, we are using the fact βα = α β, and the
above expressions.
The Symmetric Group Sn :
The generalization of example (20) is Sn, the group of permutations
of A = {1, 2, 3, …, n}. The element α in Sn have the form
α =
 1 2 … n 
… (*)
α(1) α(2) … α(n)
α(1) is image of 1 under α, α(2) is image of 2 under α, and so on.
We state below theorem regarding Sn.
Theorem 11 Sn, the symmetric group of degree n has order n!; that is,
|Sn| = n! and Sn is non-Abelian group when n ≥ 3.
Proof : We observe that, there are n choices of α(1). Once, α(1) has
been determined, there are n − 1 possibilities for α(2), since α is 1-to-1,
we must have α(1) ≠ α(2). After choosing α(2), there are n − 2 possibilities
for α(3). Continuing in this way, we see that Sn must have n(n − 1) (n − 2)
… 3.2.1 = n! elements. Thus, |Sn| = n!.
To see that Sn is non-Abelian for n ≥ 3, let
α =
1 2 3 4 … n
2 3 1 4 … n
and β =
1 2 3 4 … n
2 1 3 4 … n
as n ≥ 3, this is possible. Then,
αβ =
1 2 3 4 … n and
3 2 1 4 … n
βα =
1 2 3 4 … n
1 3 2 4 … n
Therefore, αβ ≠ βα
since, αβ(1) = 3 and (βα) (1) = 1,
so αβ(1) ≠ βα(1)
Thus, Sn is non-Abelian for n ≥ 3.
Note : The example 20 can viewed in other way :
Let ABC be an equilateral triangle AD, BE, CF be the meridians. We
label A vertex as 1, B vertex as 2, and C vertex as 3. Now we rotate this
triangle through 120° the orthocenter O in anticlockwise direction, then
the triangle occupies the some space on the paper as it occupied
originally. This motion of the triangle more 1 to 2, 2 to 3 and 3 to 1,
hence we can express it as permutation.
α =
1 2 3
2 3 1
E 3 D
120º 120º
1 120º 2
A B
F
Fig. 3.3
Similarly, we can rotate the triangle again through 120° in
anticlockwise direction, this gives
α =
2 1 2 3
3 1 2
Next, again if we rotate the triangle through 120° in anticlockwise
direction then the triangle comes back to its original position, which we
denote by
ε =
1 2 3
1 2 3
Similarly, reflections of the triangle through 180° along each meridian
AD, BE and CF, we get three more permutations,
β =
1 2 3 − reflection through AD
1 3 2
αβ =
1 2 3 − reflection through CF
2 1 3
αβ =
2 1 2 3 − reflection through BE.
3 2 1
Thus, the example 20, is group of motions of a triangle as asserted
above.
Any combination of those 6 motions gives rise the motion in S3 itself.
That is one reason, S3 is called the group of symmetries.
Example 3.21 : Let ABCD be a square and work out the motions
described as in the note, then we obtain 8 such motions : 4 - rotation of
the square about the center through 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° in
anticlockwise direction. We denote by;
ε=
1 2 3 4 rotation through 0° - orthogonal position
1 2 3 4
and ρ =
1 2 3 4 rotation through 90°.
2 3 4 1
There are four more motions due reflection through 180° in the
horizontal axis, in vertical axis and in two diagonals. We denote one by
φ =
1 2 3 4
2 1 4 3
Thus, the set of all such motions of a square is denoted by D4; and
2 3 2 3
D4 = {ε, ρ, ρ , ρ , φ, ρφ, ρ φ, ρ φ} which is group under multiplication
of permutations or composition of functions. We can observe the
following formulae or expression that can be verified by actual
computations :
4 2 2 2 2 3 2
ρ = ε, φ = ε, (ρφ) = ε, (ρ φ) = ε, (ρ φ) = ε
2 2 2
that is, |ρ| = 4, |φ| = |ρφ| = |ρ φ| = |φ φ| = 2, |ρ | = 2.
−1
ρφ = φρ ≠ φρ, that is, this shows that D4 is non-Abelian group of
order 8.
−1
Note that ρ is obtained by writing the top row as bottom and
bottom row as top row and then rearrange the top in sequence, 1, 2, 3, 4
maintaining the images.
ρ
−1
=
2 3 4 1 = 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 4 1 2 3
In general the inverse of any element (permutation) in Sn is found in
this manner.
2 3 2 3
Thus, D4 = {ε, ρ, ρ , ρ , ρφ, ρ φ, ρ φ}
It is clear that D4 is a subgroup of S4. Note |Sn| = 24.
CYCLE NOTATION
Definition : Let A = {1, 2, …, n}. Then an expression of the form
α = (a1, a2, …, am), where a1, a2, …, am are from A, is called a cycle of
length m or an m-cycle and is a permutation α such that α(a1) = a2,
α(a2) = a3, …, α(am − 1) = am and α(am) = a1, α(b) = b, for all b’s in A, which
do not appear in α.
For example, φ = (4, 1, 2, 6) is a cycle of length 4 in S8, then
φ =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 6 3 1 5 4 7 8
How to multiply two or more cycles ?
Let α = (4, 3, 5, 1) and β = (2, 3, 6, 5, 1) in S8 be cycles of length 4 and
5 respectively. Then the multiplication αβ is worked out as the product of
the corresponding permutations. In present case α is a permutation
α =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 2 5 3 1 6 7 8
and β =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 3 6 4 1 5 7 8
αβ =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 5 6 3 4 1 7 8
This can be carried out as
αβ = (4, 3, 5, 1) (2, 3, 6, 5, 1)
= (1, 2, 5, 4, 3, 6)
Example 3.22 : If α = (2, 4, 6) (6, 2), β = (2, 1, 3, 7) (4, 5) are in S8.
Find the product αβ.
Solution : Here α, β are themselves product of cycles. We can find
first precise permutations α and β, then find their product. Other way is
directly, we can multiply α with β. First we have,
αβ = (2, 4, 6) (6, 2) (2, 1, 3, 7) (4, 5).
We find image of any symbol in the right most cycle, then image of
image in previous cycle and so on. We keep in mind that if the symbol is
not present in the cycle, then it fixes that symbol. Let us start with 1.
Image of 1 in (4, 5) is 1 itself, image of 1 in (2, 1, 3, 7) is 3, image of 3 in
(6, 2) is 3, image of 3 in (2, 4, 6) is 3. So ultimately, in the product 1 maps
3. This can be depicted as 1 → 1 → 3 → 3 → 3. now start with 3, and find
its in the rightmost cycle, its image of image in previous cycle, and find
ultimate image of 3 in the product, so 3 → 3 → 7 → 7 → 7, so 3 maps to
7 in the product. We continue this till we get image 1, and we stop. This
gives one cycle of the product. next we repeat the above process for the
symbol which does not occur in the first that, we have found. We process
this, we have,
αβ = (1, 3, 7, 2) (4, 5, 6) (8).
In the first cycle of the product, the image of 2 in the product of

cycles is 1, so we closed this cycle with 2. Then 4 is not in the first cycle,
so we start with it. There is number 8 in any cycle the product of cycles,
means it is fixed by all cycles. Hence, we write (8) a cycle of length 1.
Note : The product αβ (above) can be written in permutation notation :
αβ =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 1 7 5 6 4 2 8
Properties of Permutations :
In above example, we have seen how to shift from cycle notation to
permutation notation, in the following theorem, we prove converse.
Definition : Two cycles are said to disjoint if they have no symbol in
common.
Theorem 12 Product of Disjoint Cycles
Every permutation of a finite set can be written as a cycle or a

product of disjoint cycles.
Proof : Let α be any permutation of the set A = {1, 2, …, n}. We want
to express α as a product of disjoint cycles. We start by choosing any
symbol from A, say a1, and let
3
a2 = α(a1), a3 = …… = α (a1),
m
and so on, until we reach a1 = α (a1) for some m. Such an m exists
2
because the sequence a1, α(a1), α (a1), … must be finite as A is finite, so
i j
there must eventually be repetitions, say α (a1) = α (a1) for some i and j
j−i
with i < j. Then a1 = α (a1).
m
Let j − i = m, hence a1 = α (a1). We express the relationship among
a1, a2, …, am as a cycle (a1, a2, …, am).
If the symbols in A are exhausted by a1, a2, …, am, there we have
α = (a1, a2, …, am) − a simple cycle of length m.
If the symbols in A are not exhausted then choose a symbol say b1,
which is not among a1, a2, …, am; and we proceed as before. That is, we
2 k
let b2 = α(b1), b3 = α (b1), and so on until we arrive b1 = α (b1) for some k.
This is a new cycle, and we will no elements common with previous cycle.
j j i − j
For if α (a1) = α (b1) for some i and j with i > j, then α (a1) = b1,
therefore b1 = at, for some 1 ≤ t ≤ m. This contradicts the way b1 was
chosen. If a’s and b’s appearing in the above cycles exhaust all the
symbols of A, then
α = (a1, a2, …, am) (b1, b2, …, bk)

a product of two disjoint cycles. If not, then we continue the above
process. Until we exhaust all the symbols in A; then the permutation α will
be
α = (a1, a2, …, am) (b1, b2, …, bk) … (c1, c2, …, cs)
In this way, we see that every permutation of a finite set can be
written as product of disjoint cycles.
Example 3.23 : Let, α =

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 , then express α as
2 1 3 5 4 7 6 8
a product of disjoint cycles.
2
Solution : We start with symbol 1, then α(1) = 2 and α (1) = α(2) = 1;
so we get first cycle (1, 2). Then choose 3, α(3) = 3, so we get another
cycle (3) of length 1. Next choose 4, which is not in the above two cycles.
2
The α(4) = 5, α (4) = 5. So we have next cycle (4, 5). Next we choose 6,
2
and α(6) = 7, and α (6) = α(7) = 6. Thus, we have,
α = (1, 2) (3) (4, 5) (6, 7) (8) − a product of disjoint cycle.
Theorem 13 Disjoint Cycles Commute
Any two disjoint cycles of a finite set commute with each other.
OR
If α = (a1, a2, …, am) and β = (b1, b2, …, bn) are two disjoint cycles,
that is, they no symbol in common, then
αβ = βα
Proof : Let α and β be cycles of the set
A = {a1, a2, …, am; b1, b2, …, bm; c1, c2, …, ck}
where c’s are members of A which are fixed by both α and β. To prove
that αβ = βα, we need to show that (αβ) (x) = βα(x) for every x in A.
If x is one of a’s, xy ai, then
(αβ) (ai) = α(ai) ‡ β(ai) = ai
= ai + 1 ‡ α(ai) = ai + 1
Also, (βα) (ai) = β(ai + 1)
= ai + 1 ‡ β fixes a’s
Thus, (αβ) (ai) = (βα) (ai) for i = 1 to m
Also, (αβ) (bj) = α(β(bj))

= α(bj + 1) ‡ β(bj) = bj + 1
= bj + 1 ‡ α fixes b’s
Also, (βα) (bj) = β(α(bj))
= β(bj) ‡ α fixes b’s
= bj + 1
So, (αβ) (bj) = (βα) (bj), for j = 1 to n.
Also, (αβ) (ci) = ci = (βα) (ci)
Since, both α, β fix c’s.
Thus, (αβ) (x) = (βα) (n), for all x in A.
∴ αβ = βα
Theorem 14 Order of a Cycle
Let α = (a1, a2, …, am) be cycle of the set A, then order of α is m; that
|α| = m, the length of the cycle.
m
Proof : Observe that, α = α ⋅ α … α … (i)
m-factors
So, if we start with a1 and find the image of a1 in the right most cycle
th
(− m factor), which is of course a12, then image of a2 in the previous
th
factor ((m − 1) factor) in (1), which is a3, and continuing this way, we
arrive with am as the image of am − 1 in the second factor, then image of
m
am in the first factor is a1, thus α maps a1 to a1 itslef. Similar argument
m m
show that image of any ai, 1 ≤ i ≤ m is ai itself under α . Thus, α fixes all
a1, a2, …, am, and rest of the symbols in A are fixed by α itself, hence
m
α = ε - the identity permutation. Therefore, |α| = m, the length of the
cycle.
Theorem 15 Order of a Permutation
The order of a permutation of a finite set expressed as product of

disjoint cycles is the least common multiple of lengths of cycles in the
expression.
Proof : From theorem (14) we know that, a cycle of length m has
order m. Suppose α and β are disjoint cycles of length m and n, and let k
be the least common multiple of m and n; that is m divides k and n
k k
divides k. Then clearly, α = ε and β = ε-identity permutation. We know
k
that, a = e in a group then |a| divides k. Now; since α and β are disjoint
k k k k k
αβ = βα, therefore (αβ) = α ⋅ β = ε, since α = ε, β = ε. Therefore, the
order of αβ say l must divide k. But,
l l l l −l
(αβ) = α ⋅ β = ε, so that α = β .
However, it is clear that if α and β have no common symbols, the
l − l
same is true for α and β , since raising a cycle to a power does not
l −l
introduce any new symbol. But a and β are equal and have no common
l
symbols, they must both be the identity, because every symbol in α is
−l
fixed by β and vice versa. It follows, then, that both m and n must divide
l. This means that k, the least common multiple of m and n, divides l also.
This shows that k = l.
Thus, we proved theorem when the permutation is a product of two
disjoint cycles or a single cycle. The general case involving more than 2
cycles can proved.
We have seen that a cycle of length 2 is called 2-cycle or
transposition. It is denoted by (a, b), by theorem 14 order of (a, b) is 2. It
is interesting to note that 2-cycle interchanges the images of a and b;
that, a maps to b and b maps to a. We have the following theorem
related to 2-cycles.
Theorem 16 Product of 2-cycles
Every permutation in Sn, n > 1, is a product of 2-cycles.

Proof : Let α be any permutation in Sn. If α = ε - the identity
permutation, then we can write α = ε = (1, 2) (2, 1), so it is a product of
2-cycles. Since we know that every permutation is expressed as product
of disjoint cycles; we can write α as :
α = (a1, a2, …, am) (b1, b2, …, bn), … (c1, c2, …, ck)
where, any two cycles in α are disjoint.
A direct computations shows that
(a1, a2, …, am) = (a1, am) (a1, am − 1) … (a1, a2)
a product of 2-cycles. So similarly, writing other cycles as product of
2-cycles, we have,
α = (a1, am) (a1, am − 1) … (a1, a2) (b1, bn) (b1, bn − 1) …
(b1, b2) … (c1, ck) (c1, ck − 1) … (c1, c2)
which is a product of two cycles, and theorem is proved.
Example 3.24 : Express the following permutations as product of

2-cycles.
(i) α = (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 3)
(ii) β =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 2 1 7 8 9 3
Solution : (i) α = (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 3)
= (1, 3) (1, 7) (1, 6) (1, 5) (1, 4) (1, 2)
(ii) For β, we need to express it as product of disjoint cycles. We have
β = (1, 4, 2, 5) (3, 6, 7, 8, 9)
= (1, 5) (1, 2) (1, 4) (3, 9) (3, 8) (3, 7) (3, 6)
Note :
1. The number of 2-cycles in the expression of a permutation as
2-cycles is not unique.
For example, we take α as given in the above example 23, we have
α = (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 3)
= (1, 3) (1, 7) (1, 6) (1, 5) (1, 4) (1, 2) … (i)
= (1, 3) (1, 7) (1, 6) (1, 5) (1, 4) (1, 2) (2, 4) (4, 2) … (ii)
In expression (i) α is a product of 6. 2-cycles, whereas in (ii)
expression it is product of 8-cycles. In expression (ii) the addition (2, 4)
(4, 2) is just identity so makes no change in α.
The number of 2-cycles in any expression of a permutation is always
odd or even. This is important result we will prove a particular case first.
Lemma : If ε = β 1, β 2, …, β r, where β’s are 2-cycles, then r is even.
Proof : Since, 2-cycles are not identity elements, s r ≠ 1. If r = 2, we
are done. So suppose r > 2 and we proceed by induction. We know that
(i, j) = (j, i), so the product β 1β 2 can be expressed in one of the following
forms shown on the left :
(a, b) (a, b) = ε
(a, b) (a, c) = (b, c) (a, b)
(a, b) (c, d) = (c, d) (a, b)
(a, b) (b, c) = (b, c) (a, c)
If the first case occurs, we may delete β 1β 2 from original product
and will obtain ε = β 3β 4 … β r and therefore, by induction Principle
(Second Principle), r − 2 is even. In the other three cases, we replace the

form of β 1β 2 on the left by its counterpart on the right to obtain a new
product of r 2-cycles that is still the identity, but where the first
occurrence of the integer a is in the second cycle of the product instead
of the first. We now repeat the procedure just described with β 2β 3, and as
before, we obtain a product of (r − 2). 2-cycles equal to the identity or a
new product of r 2-cycles, where the first occurrence of a is in the third
2-cycle. Continuing this process, we must obtain a product of (r − 2)
2-cycles equal to identity, because otherwise, we have a product equal to
the identity in which the first occurrence of the integer a is in the last
2-cycle, and such a product, does not fix a whereas the identity does.
Hence, by induction, (r − 2) is even and r is even as well.
Theorem 17 Always Even or Always Odd
If a permutation α can be expressed as a product of an even number

of 2-cycles, then every decomposition of α into a product of 2-cycles
must be have an even number of 2-cycles. Symbolically, if
α = β 1β 2 … β r and α = γ1γ2 … γk,
where β’s and γ’s are 2-cycles, then r and k are both even or both odd.
Proof : From given hypothesis, we have β 1β 2 … β r = γ1γ2 … γk
−1 −1 −1
This implies that ε = γ1γ2 … γk ⋅ β r βr − 1 … β1
But inverse of 2-cycles is itself, hence
ε = γ1γ2 … γk β r β r − 1 … β 1
Thus, the lemma above assures that r + k is even. So it follows that r
and k must be both even or both odd.
Theorem (17) suggest the definition of odd permutation and even
permutation, without ambiguity.
Definition : Even and Odd Permutation
A permutation that can be expressed as product of even number of
2-cycles is called an even permutation. A permutation that can be
expressed as a product of odd number of 2-cycles is called an odd
permutation.
The lemma and the theorem (17) classify permutation into two
classes even or odd in such a way that a permutation cannot be both
even and odd; it must be even or it must be odd. Therefore, the theorem
(17) and the definitions of even and odd permutation assures the
following.
Observations :
1. The product of two even permutations is even.
2. The product of two odd permutations is even.
3. The product of one even and one odd permutations must be
odd.
4. The identity permutation ε is even permutation.
−1
5. if a permutation α is even then α must be even.
We justifies this observation.
−1
Since, αα = ε and ε is even permutation, α is even permutation,
−1
the third observation above asserts that α must even.
−1
6. If a permutation β is odd, then β must be odd permutation.
−1 −1
Since, ββ = ε, is even permutation and β is odd permutation β
must odd permutation.
The above observations appeal the following theorem.
Theorem 18 Even Permutation Form a Group
The set of even permutations in Sn forms a subgroup of Sn.

Proof : Let An denote the set of all even permutations in Sn.
Since, then identity permutation is identity permutation, hence An is
non-empty and identity belongs to An (G2 follows).
As An is subset of Sn, the associative property holds in An so G1 holds
for An. If α is any even permutation in An, then by observation (5) above
−1
α is also even permutation hence, belongs to An. Thus, An is closed
under inverses is G3 follows. Finally, closure property follows from the first
observation that we have made above.
Thus, An is a group, hence is a subgroup of Sn.
Notation : The set of all even permutations in Sn is usually denoted by An.
Definition : Alternating Group of Degree n
The subgroup of Sn of even permutations, denoted by An is called the
alternating group of degree n.
n!
Theorem 19 For n > 1, the order of the alternating group An is , that
2
n!
is |An| = .
2
Proof : Suppose α1, α2, …, αk be the total even permutations in Sn
and β 1, β 2, …, β r be the total odd permutations in Sn. Since, we know
|Sn| = n!, so we must have k + r = n!.
Now the 2-cycle (1, 2) is odd permutation and αi’s are even
permutations, (1, 2) α1, (1, 2, 2α2, … (1, 2) αk must be all odd
permutations but there are only r-odd permutations, so we must have
k ≤ r … (i)
Similarly, (1, 2) β 1, (1, 2) β 2, … (1, 2) β r all even permutations since, all
β i’s are odd permutation but there are only k-even permutations hence
we must have,
r ≤ k … (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we get k = r.
n!
∴ k = ; that
2
n!
|An| =
2

Example 3.25 : Let, α = (1, 2, 4) (5, 3, 7, 8)
β =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 6 1 2 3 4 5
γ = (1, 2, 3, 4) (3, 5, 2, 1)
(i) Express each permutation as a product of disjoint cycles.
(ii) Find the order of each permutation.
(iii) Check each permutation whether it is even or odd permutation.
Solution : (i) α is already a product of disjoint cycles
β = (1, 7, 5, 3) (2, 6, 4)
γ is not a product of disjoint cycles, hence we have
γ = (1, 4) (2) (3, 5) = (1, 4) (3, 5)
(ii) |α| = order of α
= l.c.m. of the lengths of disjoint cycles of α
= l.c.m. (3, 4) = 12
= 12
|β| = l.c.m. (4, 3) = 12
|γ| = l.c.m. (2, 2) = 2
∴ |γ| = 2
(iii) We have, α = (1, 2, 4) (5, 3, 7, 8)
= (1, 4) (1, 2) (5, 8) (5, 7) (5, 3)
There are five 2-cycles hence, α is odd permutation
β = (1, 7, 5, 3) (2, 6, 4)
= (1, 3) (1, 5) (1, 7) (2, 4) (2, 6)
There are five 2-cycles hence β is odd permutation.
γ is clearly even permutation.
Example 3.26 : Let α =

1 2 3 4 5 6 and
4 1 2 3 6 5
β=
1 2 3 4 5 6 .
6 2 3 1 4 5
−1
Compute (a) α , (b) βα, (c) αβ.
Solution : (a) α
−1
=
4 1 2 3 6 5 interchanging the rows in α.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Now, write top row in sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 maintaining their
images in the bottom row.
α
−1
=
1 2 3 4 5 6 .
2 3 4 1 6 5
(b) βα =
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 2 3 1 4 5 4 1 2 3 6 5
=
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 6 2 3 5 4
(c) αβ =
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
4 1 2 3 6 5 6 2 3 1 4 5
=
1 2 3 4 5 6
5 1 2 4 3 6
Example 3.27 : α and β as in Example 3.26 above :

−1
(a) Compute |α|, |β|, |α |, |αβ| and |βα|.
−1
(b) Determine odd and even permutation for α, β, α , αβ and βα.
Solution : (a) To compute the order of the permutation, we have to
express each permutation as a product of disjoint cycles, then the order
of the permutation is the least common multiple of the lengths of the
cycles in the expression.
α = (1, 4, 3, 2) (5, 6), so |α| = l.c.m. (4, 2) = 4
β = (1, 6, 5, 4) (2) (3) ∴ |β| = 4.
−1 −1
α = (1, 2, 3, 4) (5, 6) ∴ |α | = l.c.m. (4, 2) = 4.
αβ =
1 2 3 4 5 6
5 1 2 4 3 6
= (1, 5, 3, 2) (4) (6) ∴ |αβ| = 4.
βα =
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 6 2 3 5 4
= (1) (2, 6, 4, 3) (5) ∴ |βα| = 4.
(b) To determine even and odd permutation, we express the
permutation as a product of 2-cycles. For this, we use (a) above and we
have,
α = (1, 4, 3, 2) (5, 6)
= (1, 2) (1, 3), (1, 4) (5, 6)
There are 4. 2-cycles, so α is even permutation.
β = (1, 6, 5, 4) (2) (3)
= (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6), so β is odd.
−1
α = (1, 2, 3, 4) (5, 6)
= (1, 4) (1, 3) (1, 2) (5, 6)
−1
∴ α is even.
αβ = (1, 5, 3, 2) (4) (6)
= (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 5)
∴ αβ is odd permutation.
βα = (1) (2, 6, 4, 3) (5)
= (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 6)
∴ βα is odd permutation.
Note : Product of even and odd permutation is odd is verified in the

above example.
−1 −1
Example 3.28 : Let α and β belong to Sn. Prove that α β αβ is an
even permutation.
Solution : We have to consider three cases :
(a) α and β both even, (b) α and β both odd and (c) one even and
other odd among α and β.
−1 −1
In the first case, if α and β are even then α and β are also even.
−1 −1
Therefore, the product of 4-even permutation : α β αβ is even.
−1 −1
In second case, if α and β are odd, then α and β are also odd,
−1 −1
hence the product of 4-odd permutations α β αβ is even permutation.
−1 −1
In the third case, let α is even and β is odd then α is even and β is
−1 −1
even, so the product of 2-even and two odd permutations α β αβ is
even.
Example 3.29 : Let α = (a1, a2, …, am) be a cycle of length m. What is

inverse of α?
Solution : We have, (a1, a2, …, an) (an, an−1, …, a2, a1) a1 maps to an in
the second factor and on maps to a1 in the first, so a1 → an → a1
continuing in this way a2 → a1 in second and a1 → a2 in the first, so on an
→ an−1 in the second factor and an−1 → an in the first factor. Thus, in the
product a1 → a1, a2 → a2, …, an → an; that is, the product is identity
permutation.
−1
∴ α = (an, an−1, …, a2, a1) - the cycle with reverse sequence of α.
The cycle with reverse sequence of α.
m
Example 3.30 : Let α = (1, 3, 5, 7, 9) (2, 4, 6) (8, 10). If a is a 5-cycle,
what can you say about m ?
Solution : Order of the (1, 3, 5, 7, 9) is 5, so if raise it to power 5 or
multiple of 5, it will be identity; so we should avoid to α to the power 5 or
multiple of 5. Order of the cycle (2, 4, 6) is 3, raising it to the power 3 or
multiple of 3, it will be identity and similar argument for 2-cycle (8, 10).
Thus, if we raise α to the power 6, the last two cycles will be identity
m
5-cycle will remain 5-cycle. The order of α is 30. Therefore, α will be a
5-cycle, if m is multiple of 6 and not multiple of 30.
Example 3.31 : In S3, find elements α and β, so that |α| = 2, |β| = 2

and |αβ| = 3.
Solution : Let α =
 1 2 3  and β = 1 2 3 . Then αβ = 1 2 3
2 1 3 3 2 1 3 1 2
So we have α = (1, 2), β = (1, 3) and αβ = (1, 3, 2). ∴ |α| = 2, |β| = 2 and
|αβ| = 3.
Example 3.32 : Find the group elements α and β, so that |α| = 3,
|β| = 3 and |αβ| = 5.
Solution : For |α| = 3 = |β|, α and β must be 3-cycles. |αβ| = 5, so αβ
must be a 5-cycle. Therefore, we choose α, β 3-cycles such that the αβ is
5-cycle. This can be done in many ways. For example, α = (2, 3, 5) and
β = (2, 6, 7), so that αβ = (2, 6, 7, 3, 5), and |α| = 3 = |β| and |αβ| = 5.
3.5 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

We introduce in this section, a notion of a coset, which relates to a
subgroup of a group. The notion of coset is a powerful tool for analyzing
the group. The first most important and significant theorem is due
Lagrange relating to this notion. We will study the properties cosets,
Lagrange’s theorem, corollaries to Lagrange’s theorem, application to
permutation groups.
Definition : Coset of a Subgroup in Group
Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. For any a in G, the set
{ah | h ∈ G} denoted by aH is called the left coset of H in G. The set
{ha | h ∈ H} denoted by Ha is called the right coset coset of H in G by a.
The element a is called the coset representative of aH (or Ha).
Note :
1. Thus, the left coset of a subgroup H of G by an element a is
the set aH = {ah | h ∈ H} and right coset of H in G by a is the set
Ha = {ha | h ∈ H}.
−1 −1
2. Analogously, we define a set aHa = {aha | h ∈ H}.
3. We denote the number of elements in aH by |aH|, in Ha by |Ha|.
4. If G is additive group, we have a + H = {a + h | h ∈ H} and
H + a = {h + a | h ∈ H} the corresponding left coset and right
coset of H.
− − −
Example 3.33 : Let H = { 0, 4, 8} be a subgroup of
− − − − 
Z12 = { 0, 1, 2, 3 …, 11}
−
For 1 ∈ Z12, the coset (left ) of H is
− − − − − − − − − −
1 + H = { 1 + 0, 1 + 4, 1 + 8} = { 1, 5, 9}
− − − − − − − − − 
2 + H = { 2 + 0, 2 + 4, 2 + 8} = { 2, 6, 10}
− − − − − − − − − 
3 + H = { 3 + 0, 3 + 4, 3 + 8} = { 3, 7, 11}
− − − − − − − − − −
4 + H = { 4 + 0, 4 + 4, 4 + 8} = { 4, 8, 0} = H
One compute in similar manner, and see that
− − − − − − − − − −
0 + H = { 0 + 0, 0 + 4, 0 + 8} = { 0, 4, 8} = H
− − − − − −
1 + H = { 1, 5, 8} = 5 + H = 9 + H
− − −  − 
2 + H = { 2, 6, 10} = 6 + H = 10 + H
− − −  − 
3 + H = { 3, 7, 11} = 7 + H = 11 + H
Thus, there are only four distinct left cosets of H in G, usually we write
− − − − − −
these as 0 + H, 1 + H, 2 + H and 3 + H, 1 + H 1 is the representative of
− − −
1 + H, 5 + H and 9 + H. Thus, the set of cosets of H in G is written as
− − −
{H, 1 + H, 2 + H, 3 + H}.
Example 3.34 : We know that the symmetric group S3 is given by
2 2
S3 = {ε, α, α , β, αβ, α β}, where, ε - is identity
α =
1 2 3 = (1, 2, 3)
2 3 1
α =
2 1 2 3 = (1, 3, 2)
3 1 2
β =
1 2 3 = (2, 3)
1 3 2
αβ =
1 2 3 = (1, 2)
2 1 3
2
αβ =
1 2 3 = (1, 3)
3 2 1
Thus, we can write specifically S3 as

S3 = {ε, (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (2, 3) (1, 2), (1, 3)},
ε-identity instead of symbols.
Now, H = {ε, (1, 3)} is a subgroup of S3, since H is finite and it closed
under multiplication. Then the cosets of H are εH = H
εH = H, (1, 2, 3) H = {(1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 3), (1, 3)}
{(1, 2, 3), (1) (2, 3)} = {(1, 2, 3), (2, 3)}
(1, 3, 2) H = {(1, 3, 2), (1, 3, 2), (1, 3)} = {(1, 3, 2), (1, 2) (3)}
= {(1, 3, 2), (1, 2)}
(2, 3) H = {(2, 3), (2, 3) (1, 3)} = {(2, 3), (1, 3, 2)}
(1, 2) H = {(1, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3)} = {(1, 2), (1, 3, 2)}
(1, 3) H = {(1, 3), (1, 3) (1, 3)} = {(1, 3), ε}
Thus, we see that,
εH = (1, 3) H = H
(1, 2, 3) H = (2, 3) H = {(2, 3), (1, 2, 3)}
(1, 3, 2) H = (1, 2) H = {(1, 2), (1, 3, 2)}
Thus, there are three distinct left cosets of H in S3.
Similarly, we find right cosets of H in S3.
Hε = H(1, 3) = {ε, (1, 3)}
H(1, 2, 3) = H(1, 2) = {(1, 2), (1, 2, 3)}
H(1, 3, 2) = H(2, 3) = {(2, 3), (1, 3, 2)}
Note : In this example, we observe that H(1, 2) ≠ (1, 2) H
Similarly, H(2, 3) ≠ (2, 3) H
Thus, the right coset of H is not equal to the left coset by (1, 2). That
is, we may have Ha ≠ aH.
Example 3.35 : Let H = {…, −6, −3, 0, 3, 9, …}. Then H is a subgroup
of Z. Then find all cosets of H in Z.
Solution : 0 + H = H = {…, −6, −3, 0, 3, 9, …}
1 + H = {…, −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, 0, …}
2 + H = {…, −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, 4, …}
3 + H = {…, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, …} = H
It can be seen that,

0+H = 3+H=6+H…
1 + H = 4 + H = 7 + H = 10 + H = …
2 + H = 5 + H = 8 + H = 11 + H = …
Also, 0 + H = −3 + H = −6 + H = …
1 + H = −2 + H = −5 + H = …
2 + H = −1 + H = −4 + H = …
Thus, there are only three distinct left cosets of H in Z, namely H,
1 + H and 2 + H.
Similarly, we can show that there are only three distinct right cosets
of H in Z, namely, H, H + 1, H + 2.
Property of Cosets :
Theorem 20 Let H be a subgroup of G, and let a and b are in G. Then :
1. a ∈ aH; that is left coset of H by a contains a.
2. aH = H if and only if a ∈ H; that is a ∈ aH if and only if a ∈ H.
3. aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = φ; that is, any two left cosets are identical
or disjoint.
−1
4. aH = bH if and only if a b ∈ H.
5. |aH| = |bH|; the number of elements in any two left cosets is
same.
We claim that this correspondence 1-to-1 and onto.
−1
6. aH = Ha if and only if H = aHa .
7. aH is a subgroup of G if and only if a ∈ H.
Proof : 1. Since H is a subgroup of G, e belongs to H, hence
a = a ⋅ e ∈ aH.
2. Suppose aH = H, then by (1) above a ∈ aH = H; that is, a ∈ H.
Conversely, suppose a ∈ H. Then let x ∈ aH be any element, so
that x = ah for some h in H. Since, H is subgroup and a and h
belong to H by closureness ah ∈ H; i.e. x ∈ H. So aH ⊆ H. … (i)
−1 −1
Next for any h in H, h = (aa ) h, h = a(a h) = ah1 where,
−1
h1 = a h ∈ H, hence h ∈ aH. So H ⊆ aH … (ii)
∴ aH = H
3. To prove this property, we assume that one does not hold
implies that other holds. Let us suppose that aH ∩ bH ≠ φ. Then
there some x such that x ∈ aH ∩ bH; that is x ∈ aH and x ∈ bH.
This implies that there exist some h1 and h2 in H, such that
−1 −1
x = ah1 and x = bh2. x = ah1 gives a = xh1 = (bh2)h1 , since
−1
x = bh2. That is a = b(h2h1 ).
−1 −1 −1
Therefore, aH = b(h2h1 ) H = b(h2h1 ) H = bH, since h2h1 ∈ H, by
−1
property (2), (h2h1 )H = H. Thus, we get aH = bH.
−1
4. We have aH = bH if and only if (b a) H = H, then by property (2)
−1
b a ∈ H.
5. To show that |aH| = |bH|, we define a correspondence f : aH → bH
by f(ah) = bh, for h ∈ H.
Suppose f(ah1) = f(ah2) for h1, h2 ∈ H.
This gives, bh1 = bh2. Then by cancellation law in group implies
that h1 = h2. Therefore, ah1 = ah2. So f is 1-to-1. Next suppose
y ∈ bH is any element then y = bh2, for some h2 in H, then we
have x ∈ ah2 ∈ aH, such that f(x) = f(ah2) = bh2 = y. Thus, f is
onto. Thus, there is 1-to-1 correspondence from aH onto bH,
therefore, |aH| = |bH|.
6. We have, aH = Ha if and only if
−1 −1 −1
(aH)a = (Ha)a = H(aa ) = He = H
−1
∴ aHa = H
7. Suppose aH is a subgroup of G then aH contains the identity
element e, so e = ah for some h ∈ H.
−1 −1
This gives a = eh = h ∈ H.
so a ∈ H.
Conversely, suppose a ∈ H, then by property (2) aH = H is a
subgroup of G.
Definition : Partition of a Set
Let S be a set. A set of subsets A1, A2, …, Ak of a S is said to form a
partition of S if :
(i) A1 ∪ A2 ∪ … ∪ Ak = S and
(ii) Ai ∩ Aj = φ, for each i ≠ j.
For example, let S = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and A1 = {a, d, f}, A2 = {b},
A3 = {c, e}.
Then S = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 and A1 ∩ A2 = φ, A1 ∩ A3 = φ and A2 ∩ A3 = φ.
So, A1, A2 and A3 form a partition of S.
Note : The properties 1, 3 and 5 of the theorem 20 and definition of a
partition of a set, we see that the left cosets of a subgroup H of G
partition G into block (sets) of equal size.
Example 3.36 : Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Define a

relation ~ on G by : For a, b in G a ~ b if aH = bH. Then show that ~ is an
equivalence relation on G. What are the equivalence classes ?
Solution : For each a in G, aH = aH, hence ~ is reflexive relation.
For a and b in G, suppose a ~ b then aH = bH; this is same as
bH = aH, hence b ~ a, so ~ is symmetric relation. For a, b and c in G,
suppose a ~ b and b ~ c, then by definition of ~, aH = bH and bH = cH,
hence aH = cH ⇒ a ~ c. Thus, ~ is transitive relation. Thus, ~ is an
equivalence relation on G. Now, for a ∈ G, what is equivalence class of a
with respect to ~.
−
a = Equivalence class of any a in G
= {x ∈ G | x ~ a}
= {x ∈ G | xH = aH}
−
We show that, a = aH
−
If x ∈ a is any element, then xH = aH, since, H is is subgroup, e ∈ H
So, x = xe ∈ xH = aH; that x ∈ aH
−
∴ a ⊆ aH … (i)
If x ∈ aH, then x = ah1 for some h1 ∈ H.
−1
This gives, h1 = a x, so
−1
H = h1H = (a x) H
This gives, aH = xH by property (4)
−
∴ x ~ a, and x ∈ a.
−
Thus, aH ⊆ a … (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii) we get,
−
a = aH.
Thus, for a in G, aH is the equivalence class of a. Thus, the
equivalence classes of this relation are the distinct left cosets of H.
Therefore, the distinct left cosets of a subgroup partition G.
2
Example 3.37 : Let ú = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ ú} is a group under
componentwise addition. Let H be a line passing through the origin, and
2 2
H is a subgroup of ú . For any (a, b) in ú , then the coset (a, b) + H is the
line passing through the point (a, b) and parallel to H. Thus, the cosets of
2
H constitute a partition of the plane ú into the lines parallel to H.
Example 3.38 : If G = GL(2, ú) and H = SL(2, ú). Then for any matrix A.
  x y  ∈ GL(2, ú) | H = H
AH = B =
 z w B A

−1
But, AH = BH ⇒ B A ∈ H.
−1 −1 −1 1
Therefore det (B A) = 1 or det B det A = 1. or det B = . or
det A
det A = det B.
Thus, AH is the set of matrices (2 × 2) with the same determinant as A.
For example, if A =
1 0 , then H is the set of all 2 × 2 matrices in
0 3 A
G of determinant B.
And if A =
3 1 , then H is the set of all 2 × 2 matrices in G with
2 5 A
determinant 13.
Now, we are in position to state the important theorem of Lagrange
for finite groups. In the syllabus, the proof of theorem is not
expected.
Theorem 21 Lagrange’s Theorem
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then |H| divides |G|.

|G|
Moreover, the number of distinct left (right) cosets of H in G is .
|H|
Proof : Let a1H, a2H, …, akH denote the distinct left cosets of H in G.
Then for each a ∈ G, aH = aiH for some i. Also, by property (1) of theorem
20, a ∈ aH. Thus, each member of G belongs to one of the cosets aiH. This
proves
G = a1H ∪ a2H ∪ … ∪ akH.
We know that cosets are distinct, so by property (3), the union of
right hand is disjoint. Therefore, |G| = |aiH| + |a2H| | … + |akH|.
Finally, we know |H| = |aiH| for each i = 1 to k.
∴ |G| = K |H|.
That is, |H| divides |G|.
Note : The first significant importance of the Lagrange’s theorem is that,
incase of finite group G, it provides a list of orders of probable subgroups
of G.
For example, if |G| = 6, then the probable subgroups of G must have

orders 1, 2, 3 and 6. In other words, it assures that there are no
subgroups of G of order 4 or 5. Another example, if |G| = 12, then G
cannot have subgroups of orders 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11.
Caution : If k divides n, n = |G| does not assure that G has a subgroup of
order k. That is the converse of the Lagrange’s theorem is not true. For
example, the group A4 is of 12 but it has no subgroup of order 6,
though 6 divides 12.
Definition : Index of a Subgroup
Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. The number of distinct
left (right) cosets of H in G is called index of H. This number is denoted
by |G : H| or iG(H).
Note : If G is finite group, then Lagrange’s theorem tells us that
|G|
|G : H| =
|H|
Next, let us see the important results due to Lagrange’s theorem.
Corollary 1 : Order of an Element Divides the Order of the Group
Let G be a finite group and a be any element in G, then order of a
divides the order of G, that is |a| divides |G|.
Proof : We know, any element a in group generates a subgroup of
order of a. Thus, <a> is a subgroup of G of order |a|, hence |a| divides |G|.
Corollary 2 : Groups of Prime Order are Cyclic
Any group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof : Let G be a group of prime order, say p. Let a be any element
in, not identity, then <a> is the cyclic subgroup generated by a in G. By
Lagrange’s theorem |<a>| must divide |G| = p, which is prime and <a> is
not trivial subgroup, therefore, this compels that <a> = G, and G is cyclic.
|G|
Corollary 3 : (a = e)
|G|
Let G be a finite group and a be any element in G, then a = e.
Proof : We know that <a> is the cyclic subgroup generated by a in G,
then |<a>| = |a|. Therefore, by corollary 1, |a| divides |G|; that is, |G| = |a| k,
for some integer k. Then
|G| |a| k |a| k k
a = a = (a ) = e = e
Corollary 4 : Fermat’s Little Theorem

p
For any integers a and any prime p, a = a(mod p)
Proof : Applying division algorithm to a and p, we have
a = pq + r, where 0 ≤ r < p.
This shows that a = r (mod p).
p
We will show that r = r modulo p.
If r = 0, the result is trivial.
Suppose r ≠ 0, then r ∈ U(p), since (r, p) = 1. We know that for p
prime, U(p) = {1, 2, 3, …, p − 1} and is a group order p − 1, under
p−1
multiplication modulo p. Therefore, by corollary (3) r = 1 mod p, and
p p
therefore, r = r mod p, so a = a ε modulo p.
15 13
Example 3.39 : Compute 5 modulo 7 and 7 modulo 11.
7
Solution : By Fermat’s little theorem 7 is prime, so 5 = 5 modulo 7.
7 7
∴ 5 ⋅ 5 = 5 ⋅ 5 modulo 7
14
That is, 5 = 4 modulo 7
15
or 5 = 4 × 5 modulo 7
15
5 = 6 modulo 7.
Similarly, 11 is prime,
10
7 = 7 mod 11
2
7 = 5 mod 11
13 10 2
∴ 7 = 7 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 7 = 7 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7 mod 11
13
∴ 7 = 2 mod 11.
The Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem is False.
Example 3.40 : Show by an example that the converse of Lagrange’s
theorem is not true.
Solution : The alternating group A4 of degree 4, is a subgroup of S4
and is of order 12. |A4| = 12 and 6 divides 12, but A4 has no subgroup of
order 6. For, suppose H be a subgroup of A4 of order 6. As, we know that
A4 is a subgroup of S4 which contains all the even permutations in S4, and
3-cycles are even permutations. H being of order 6 and |A4| = 12, we
must have 3-cycles in H. If a is any 3-cycle, then |a| = 3. |A4 = H| = 2.
Since, we know that there are only two distinct left coset of H in A4.
2
Therefore at most two cosets H, aH and a H are distinct. That is, one of
the cosets must be equal to any one of the other two. But H = aH implies
2 2 3 2
a ∈ H, H = a H ⇒ aH = a(a H) = a H = H implies that a ∈ H and aH = a H
2
implies a H = H which implies a ∈ H. Thus, equality of any pair of three
cosets implies that a ∈ H. This shows that all eight cycles belong H, which
is impossible. Therefore, A4 has no subgroup of order 6.
Applications of Cosets to Permutation Groups :
Definition : Stabilizer of a Point
Let G be a group of permutation of a set S. For each i in s, let
stabG(i) = {φ ∈ G | φ(i) = i}
We call stabG(i) the stabilizer of i in G.
For example, S3 = {ε, (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (1, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3)} is a group
of permutations of the set S = {1, 2, 3}.
Then stabS3(1) = {φ ∈ S3 | φ (i) = i}
For i = 1, StabS3(1) = {ε, (2, 3)}
StabS3(2) = {ε, (1, 3)}
and StabS3(3) = {ε, (1, 2)}
We know that all these subgroups of S3. In general.
Example 3.41 : Let G be a group of permutations of a set S. For each

in S, StabSG(1) is a subgroup of G.
Solution : Since, the identity element ε fixes each element in S, so

ε ∈ StabG(i). As StabG(i) is finite subset of G, we need only to verify the
closureness. For any φ and ψ in StabG(i), we have φ(i) = i and ψ(i) = i.
Therefore, (φψ) (i) = φ[ψ(i)] = φ(i) = i, hence φψ ∈ StabG(i).
Thus, StabG(i) is a subgroup of G.
Next, we define orbit of a point.
Definition : Orbit of a Point

Let G be a group of permutations of a set S. For each s in S, let
orbG(s) = {φ(s) | φ ∈ G}. The set orbG(s) is a subset of s called the orbit of s
under G.
For example, as above S3 be group of permutation of a set

S = {1, 2, 3}.
2 2
Then OrbG(1) = {ε(1), α(1), α (1), β(1), αβ(1), α β(1)}
= {1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1} = {1, 2, 3}
Similarly, we can see that,
OrbG(2) = {1, 2, 3}
OrbG(3) = {1, 2, 3}
Theorem 22 Orbit - Stabilizer Theorem
Let G be a finite group of permutations of a set S. Then, for any i from

S, |G| = |OrbG(i)|| StabG(i).
|G|
Proof : By Lagrange’s theorem, is the number of distinct left
StabG(i)
cosets of StabG(i). Thus, it suffices to show a one-to-one correspondence
between the left cosets of StabG(i) and the elements in the orbit of i. So,
T
we define T by φ StabG(i) → φ(i). T is well defined function, because if
α StabG(i) = β StabG(i) implies α(i) = β(i). As α StabG(i) = β StabG(i) implies
−1 −1
that α β ∈ StabG(i), so that (α β) (i) = i and therefore, a(i) = β(i).
Reversing the argument from the last step to the first step shows that T is
one-to-one. To show that T is onto : OrbitG(i). Let j ∈ OrbG(i). Then α(i) = j
for some α ∈ G and clearly T(α StabG(i)) = α(i) = j; so that T is onto.
Example 3.42 : Let n be an integer > 1. Let HZ = {…, −3n, −2n, −n,
0, n, 2n, 3n, …}. Find all the left cosets in H in Z. How many are there ?
Solution : Let m be any integer in Z. Applying division algorithm
m and n, we have unique integers q and r such that m = nq + r, where
0 ≤ r < n.
Then, m + H = (nq + r) + H
= (nq + H) + (r + H)
= H+r+H ‡ nq ∈ H and nq + H = H
= r + H, where 0 ≤ r < n
Thus, the left coset of H by any m equal to the left coset r + H, where
0 ≤ r < n. Therefore, there are n distinct left cosets of H in Z and they are :
H, 1 + H, 2 + H, …, (n − 1) + H.
Example 3.43 : Suppose H and K are subgroups of a group G. If

|H| = 12 and |K| = 35, find |H ∩ K|.
Solution : Since H ∩ K is a subgroup of both H and K, by Lagrange’s
theorem |H ∩ K| divides both |H| and |K|. But (|H|, |K|) = (12, 35) = 1.
Therefore, |H ∩ K| = 1.
Example 3.44 : Let G = {(1), (1, 2), (3, 4), (1, 2, 3, 4), (5, 6), (1, 3), (2, 4),
(1, 4, 3, 2), (5, 6), (5, 6), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (5, 6)}
(a) Find stabilizer of 1 and orbit of 1.
(b) Find stabilizer of 5 and orbit of 5.
Solution : (a) StabG(1) = {(1), (2, 4), (5, 6)}
OrbG(1) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4}
(b) StabG(5) = {(1), (1, 2), (3, 4), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (2, 3)}
OrbG(5) = {5, 6, 6, 6, 6} = {5, 6}
Note : The orbit stabilizer theorem says that |G| = |StabG(i)| |OrbG(i)|
For each i in S, where G is a group of permutations of S. In the above
example (3.44), we verify this theorem :
(a) 8 = |G| = |StabG(1)| | OrbG(1)|
= 2×4=8
(b) S = |G| = |StabG(5)| | OrbG(5)|
= 4×2=8
Think Over It
• Two examples of groups of order 4 which are not cyclic.
• G = GL(2, ú) and A =
1 1 . The centralize of A. Center of G.
1 0
• U(50) = {i | 1 ≤ i < 50, (i, 50) = 1}. Is U(50) cyclic ?
• Five examples of non-Abelian groups.
• View S3, the symmetric group of degree as a result of motions of
equilateral triangle.
• D4, as motions of a square.
3
• Cosets of a plane passing through origin in ú .
Points to Remember
• Order of a group, order of an element.
• Subgroup and subgroup tests.
• Examples of subgroup, center of a group.
• Cyclic groups, generators of cyclic groups.
• Classification of subgroups of cyclic groups.
• Permutation of a set, permutation group of a set. Examples.
• Cycle notation, Disjoint cycles, 2-cycles.
• Properties of permutations.
• Order of a permutation.
• Even and odd permutations.
• The alternating group of degree n An.
• Cosets of subgroup in a group.
• Properties of cosets.
• Lagrange’s theorem and its corollaries.
• Stabilizer and orbit of a point.
1. Let H = {(1), (1, 2) (3, 4), (1, 3) (2, 4), (1, 4) (2, 3)} be a subgroup of A4.
Then the number of cosets of H in A4 is ……
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 2 (d) 6
2. Let G be a group of order 12, then which is not the possible order of
elements in G is ……
(a) 4 (b) 6
(c) 3 (d) 8
3. Let H = {…, −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, …} be a subgroup of Z under
addition. 2 + H is coset of H in Z. Which of the following is identical
coset with 2 + H ?
(a) 3 + H (b) 4 + H
(c) 5 + H (d) 7 + H
4. Which of the following not true, H ≤ G.

−1
(a) a ∈ aH (b) aH = bH implies a b ∈ H
(c) aH ≠ bH implies aH ∩ bH = φ (d) aH ∩ bH = φ for all a, b in G
5. Let α = (2, 3, 5), (1, 7), (6, 8, 9, 10) be a permutation in S10. The order
of α is ……
(a) 12 (b) 24
(c) 6 (d) 3
6. Let α =
1 2 3 4 , then α−1 is ……
2 3 1 4
(a)
1 2 3 4
(b)
1 2 3 4
4 1 3 2 3 1 2 4
(c)
1 2 3 4
(d) None of the above
1 3 2 4
7. The order of the alternating group A4 of degree 4 is ……
(a) 24 (b) 12
(c) 4 (d) 6
8. The alternating group An of degree n contains ……
(a) all even permutations in Sn.
(b) all odd permutations in Sn.
(c) exactly half even and half odd permutations.
(d) none of these
9. Let G be a cyclic group of order 20, then the generator of G is ……
(a) 10 (b) 15
(c) 17 (d) 5
10. The number of generators of Z13 is ……
(a) 12 (b) 10
(c) 11 (d) 5
11. The order of U(14) is ……
(a) 14 (b) 6
(c) 5 (d) 10
12. Which of the following statements is true ?
(a) Every group of order 4 is cyclic.
(b) Every group of order 5 is cyclic.
(c) Any group of order 7 is Abelian but not cyclic.
(d) None of the above.
13. Let G be an Abelian group, Z(G) the center of G, and for a ∈ G, C(a) is
the centralizer of a in G. Then ……
(a) Z(G) ≠ C(a) (b) Z(G) = C(a) = G
(c) C(a) ≠ G (d) Z(G) ≠ G
Answers
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b)

8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b)
*
1. Let Q be the group of non-zero rational numbers under
*
multiplication. The order 2 in Q is 5.
2. Z10 is a cyclic group generated by 3.
3. The order of
−1 0  in SL(2, ú) is 2.
 0 −1
4. U(12) = {1, 5, 7, 11} is cyclic group.
5. Z6 has two proper subgroups.
n
6. If in a group G, a = e, then |a| ≥ n.
7. Every permutation can be written as product of disjoint cycles.
8. Inverse of odd permutation is odd.
9. Any group of prime order is cyclic.
10. Let H = {…, −8, −4, 0, 4, 8, …} be a subgroup of Z under
addition. Then the number of cosets of H in Z is 5.
Answers

(7) True (8) False (9) True
(10) False
1. Let G be a group and H be a non-empty subset of G. Then prove
−1
that H is subgroup of G, if ab ⊆ H, whenever a and be belong
to H.
2. If H is a non-empty subset of a group G, then prove that, H is
−1
subgroup of G, if (i) ab ∈ H for all a, b in H. (ii) a ∈ H for all
a ∈ H.
3. If H is finite non-empty subset of a group G, then prove that, H is

subgroup, if ab ∈ H, whenever a, b are in H.
4. Prove that center of a group G is an Abelian subgroup of G.
5. Let G be a group and let a belongs to G. If a has infinite order,
then prove that, all distinct powers of a are distinct group
2 n−1
elements. If a has finite order n, then <a> = {e, a, a , …, a } and
i j
a = a , if and only if n divides i − j.
6. Let G = <a> be a cyclic group of order n. Then prove that,
k
G = <a > if and only if (k, n) = 1.
7. Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
8. If |<a>| = n, then prove that, the order of any subgroup of <a> is
a divisor of n, and, for each positive divisor of n, the group <a>
n/k n/k
has exactly one subgroup of order k generated by a , …, <a >.
9. Prove that, if d is a positive divisor of n, the number of elements
of order d in a cyclic subgroup of order n is φ(d).
10. Prove that, the symmetric group Sn of degree n has order n!. Also
prove that Sn is non-Abelian, if n ≥ 3.
11. Prove that, every permutation can be expressed as a product of
disjoint cycles.
12. Show that disjoint cycles commute.
13. Prove that the order of a permutation of a finite set written as
product of disjoint cycles is the least common multiple of the
lengths of the cycles.
14. Prove that, every permutation in Sn, n > 1 can be written as
product of 2-cycles.
15. Prove that, the set An of even permutations in Sn is a subgroup of
n!
Sn and |An| = .
2
16. Let H be a subgroup of G, then prove that
(a) aH = H if and only if a ∈ H, for a ∈ G.
(b) For a, b in G either aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = φ.
−1
(c) For a, b in G aH = bH if and only if a b ∈ H.
(d) |aH| = |bH| for a, b in G.
17. State only Lagrange’s theorem for finite groups. Is the converse
of the Lagrange’s theorem true ? Justify.
18. State and prove orbit stabilizer theorem.
1. Find the order of the group order of each element in the group.
Z10, U(8), U(12), S3.
2. Prove that an Abelian group that contains two elements of order
2 must have a subgroup of order 4.
3. Suppose that H is a proper subgroup of Z under addition and H
contains 18, 30 and 40. Determine H.
4. Let A =
0 −1 , B =  0 1  be matrices in SL(2, ú). Find |A|,
1 0  −1 −1
|B|, |AB| .
n/k
5. If |a| = n and k divides n, prove that |a | = k.
6. Find a cyclic subgroup of order 4 in U(40).
7. Find the order of the group U(15) and order of each element in
U(15).
8. Prove that in a group, an element and its inverse have the same
order.
9. Find all the generators of U(50).
10. Find an example of a non-cyclic group, all of whose proper
subgroups are cyclic.
11. Let G = <a> and |a| = 24. List the generators for the subgroups
of order 8.
−1
12. Let G be a group and a ∈ G, then prove that <a > = <a>,
13. If a cyclic group has an element of infinite order, how many
elements of finite order does it have ?
14. For any element a in any group G, prove that <a> is a subgroup
of C(a).
15. Let n = 5, 9, 10, 14. Determine for which value of n U(n) is cyclic,
list all the generators in case cyclic.
16. List all the elements of Z40, that have order 10.
 1 n 
17. Prove that H =  n ∈ Z is a cyclic subgroup of GL(2, ú).
 0 1  
18. Let α =
1 2 3 4 5 and β = 1 2 3 4 5 , then find βα.
2 4 3 5 1 5 4 1 2 3
19. If α =
1 2 3 and β = 1 2 3 . Then show that βα = α−1β.
2 3 1 1 3 2
20. Let α =
1 2 3 4 and β = 1 2 3 4 , show that βα = α−1β.
2 3 4 1 2 1 4 3
21. Let α and β be as in example (20), find the order of α and β.
22. If α = (1, 2) (4, 5) and β = (1, 5, 3) (2, 4), find αβ as product

disjoint cycles.
23. Express α =
1 2 3 4 5 as product of disjoint cycles. Then
2 4 3 5 1
express α as product of 4. 2-cycles and as product of 6 2-cycles.
24. What is the order each of the following permutations.

(a) (1, 4, 7, 6, 2)
(b) (1, 2, 4) (3, 5, 8, 7)
(c)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 6 1 2 3 4 5
(d) (1, 5, 6, 8), (2, 7, 3, 9, 10), (4, 12).
25. Show that A8 contains an element of order 15.
26. Determine whether the following permutations are even or odd.
(a) (1, 3, 7, 6, 5)
(b) (1, 2) (1, 3, 4) (1, 5, 2)
(c)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 3 8 7 6 5 2 4
(d)
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1
27. Let α =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 . Find α−1 and |α−1| .
1 3 8 7 6 5 2 4
28. Let α = α =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 and
4 5 6 7 2 3 1
β=
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . Express α and β as :
6 3 1 5 4 2 7
(a) product of disjoint cycles.
(b) product of 2-cycles.
29. Show that, if H is a subgroup of Sn, then either every permutation
in H is an even permutation or exactly half of them are even.
30. Do the odd permutations in Sn form a group > Why ?
−1
31. Let α and β belong to Sn. Then prove that, βαβ and α are both
even or both odd.
32. Let n be positive integer. If n is an odd, is an n-cycle an odd or an
even permutation ? If n is even, is an n-cycle an odd or an even
permutation.
33. Show that a permutation with odd order must be an even
permutation.
34. Let G = {(1), (1, 3, 2) (4, 6, 5) (7, 8), (1, 3, 2) (4, 6, 5), (1, 2, 3)
(4, 5, 6), (1, 2, 3) (4, 5, 6) (7, 8), (7, 8)}
Then for each i in S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, find OrbG(i) and
StabG(i).
35. Let H = {…, −15, −10, −5, 0, 5, 10, 15, …}, find all the left cosets
of H in Z.
3
36. Suppose that a has order 15. Find all the left cosets of <a > in
<a>,
37. Let G be a group of order 50. What are possible orders of the
subgroups of G ?
38. Suppose that K is a proper subgroup of H and H is proper
subgroup G. If |K| = 42, |G| = 420, what are the possible orders of
H?
39. Suppose that |G| = 65, prove that every proper subgroup of G is
cyclic.
40. If |G| = 33. What are the possible orders of for the elements of G?
41. Let |G| = 8. Show that G must have an element of order 2.
Answers
1. |Z10| = 10, |U(8)| = 4, |U(12)| = 4, |S3| = 6.

− − − −
In Z10, | 1| = | 3| = | 7| = | 9| = 10
− − − − −
| 2| = 5, | 4| = 5, | 5| = 2, | 6| = 15, | 8| = 5
− − − − − − −
U(8) = { 1, 3, 5, 7}, | 3| = 2, | 5| = 2, | 7| = 2
− − −  − − 
U(12) = { 1, 5, 7, 11|, | 5| = 2, | 7| = 2, |11| = 2
2 2
S3 = {ε, α, α , β, αβ, α β}
2 2
|α| = |α | = 3, |β| = |αβ| = |α β| = 2
3. H = {…, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, …}
4. |A| = 4, |B| = 3, |AB| is infinite.
6. |<3>| = 4
7. |U(15)| = 8
|1| = 1, |2| = 4, |4| = 2, |8| = 4, |7| = 4, |11| = 2, |13| = 4, |14| = 2
1 1 −1 −1
8. Clearly a ε <a> ∴ <a > ⊆ <a>, by symmetry <a> ⊂ <a >
9. 3, 13, 17, 23, 27, 33, 37, 47.
10. U(8) or U(12)
3
11. The subgroup H of 8, so H = <a >
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 3 3 3 3 5
= {e, a , a , a , a a , a , a } so the generates are a (a ) , (a ) ,
3 7 3 9 15 21
(a ) , that is a , a , a , a are the generators.
13. None.
15. U(5) - cyclic with generators 2 and 3
U(9) - cyclic with generators 2 and 5
U(10) - cyclic with generators 3 and 7
U(14) is cyclic with generators 3 and 5.
16. 4, 12, 28, 36.
17. A =
1 1 and H = <A>.
0 1
18. βα =
1 2 3 4 5 .
4 2 1 3 5
21. |α| = 4, |β| = 2.

22. αβ = (1, 4) (2, 5, 3)
23. α = (1, 5) (1, 4) (1, 3) (1, 2)
= (1, 5) (1, 4) (1, 3) (1, 2) (3, 4) (4, 3)
24. (a) 5, (b) 12, (c) 12, (d) 20.
25. A8 contains all even permutations in S8. Hence, A8 contains
(1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6, 7, 8) and the product of the two.
26. (a) even, (b) odd, (c) odd, (d) odd.
27. α
−1
=
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 , |α1| = 10.
1 7 2 8 6 5 4 3
28. (a) α = (1, 4, 7), (2, 5), (3, 6)
β = (1, 6, 2, 3) (4, 5), (7)
(b) α = (1, 7), (1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)
β = (1, 3), (1, 2), (1, 6), (4, 5)
30. No, closures fails.
34. OrbG(1) = {1, 3, 2} = OrbG(2) = OrbG(3).
OrbG(4) = {4, 6, 5} = OrbG(5) = OrbG(6)
OrbG(7) = {7, 8} = OrbG(18)
StabG(7) = {(1), (1, 3, 2), (4, 5, 6), (1, 2, 3), (4, 5, 6)}
StabG(1) = StabG(20 = StabG(3) = StabG(4) = StabG(5) =
StabG(6) = {(1), (7, 8)}.
35. H, 1 + H, 2 + H, 3 + H, 4 + H.
3 3 6 9 12
36. <a > = {e, a , a , a , a }
3 4 7 10 13
a + <a > = {a, a , a , a , a }
2 3 2 5 8 11 14
a + <a > = {a , a , a , a , a }
3
These are the only three left cosets of <a > in <a>
37. 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50.
38. 84, 210.
40. 1, 3, 11, 33.
✍✍✍
Chapter 4…
Coding Theory
The American mathematician Claude E.
Shannon (1916 - 2001), who worked at the
Bell laboratories, published a paper in 1948
that described a mathematical theory of
communication and thereby founded the field
of communication and thereby founded the
field of information theory. Shortly thereafter,
Richard Hamming and his colleagues at Bell
Claude E. Shannon
laboratories laid the foundations for error
(1916 - 2001) correcting codes.
In 1949, Shannon published the paper “The Communication Theory of
Secretary Systems”, which broke new ground in the field of cryptology.
The field was dormant until 1975, when two researchers at Stanford
University discovered public key cryptology, which resulted in a burst of
activity in this area. In 1976 three researchers at M.I.T. discovered public
key cryptosystem, known as the RSA (Rivest, Shamir, and Adelman)
system, which was widely used.
4.1 Introduction
In today’s modern world lot information (data) is transformed front
one place (device) to another place (device). This transformation of data is
called transmission of the data and the channel used is called
transmission channel. The transmission of data may be a simple task of a
computer terminal interacting with mainframe computer 200 metre away
via a satellite that is orbiting in space 30,000 km from the earth or from
telephone call or a letter to another part of the country. The basic
problem in transmission of data is that of receiving the data as sent and
not receiving a distorted piece of data. The distortion (error) may be
caused by a umber of factors like whether equipment used, human error,
thermal noise or any sort of noise.
4.1
Groups & Coding Theory 4.2 Coding Theory
In this chapter, we study some technique which presents the

distortion of the data or helps to connect the distorted received data. The
coding theory develops technique for introducing redundant information
in transmitted data that helps in detecting and sometimes in connecting
errors. Another entirely different problem that arises frequently in
transmission of data is that of modifying the data being sent so that only
the intended recipient is able to reconstitute the original data
Cryptology is the discipline that studies techniques called
cryptosystems for the secure transmission of data. In this chapter, we will
see a brief introduction to this important topic or public key cryptology.
Before we go to the mainframe of coding theory, we see that the
prerequisites - the groups, subgroups, normal subgroups, cyclic groups,
cosets of a subgroup, quotient groups and the product groups.
The proofs of the theorems throughout this chapter are not
expected, so we will try to understand the statement properly of the
theorem may be through illustrations and examples.
4.2 Coding of Binary Information and Error

Detection
The basic unit of information, called a message, is a finite sequence
of characters from a finite alphabet. We shall use as our alphabets the set
B = {0, 1}, our basic unit of information, called a word, is a sequence of m
0’s and 1’s. Expressing words a sequence of 0’s and 1’s is called a binary
form.
We know that the set B is a group under the binary operation +
m
(modulo 2). Also, we know that, B = B × B × … × B (m-factors) is a group
under the operation ⊕ defined by
(x1, x2, …, xm) ⊕ (y1, y2, …, ym) = (x1 ⊕ y1, x2 ⊕ y2, …, xn ⊕ ym).
− m
0 = (0, 0, …, 0) is identity in B and every element is its own inverse.
m
An element of B will be written as (b1, b2, …, bn) or more simply as
m m m
b1 b2 … bm. Also note that the order of B , |B | = 2 .
In coding theory, the basic process of sending a word from one point
m
to another point over a transmission channel. A element x ∈ B is sent
m
through the transmission channel and is received as an element x1 ∈ B .
In actual practice, the transmission may suffer disturbances, which are
generally called noise, due whether, electrical problems and so on, that
may cause at 0 to be received as 1 or vice versa. Thus, because of noise,
we get a situation where word received is different from the word that
was sent, that is, x ≠ x1. If an error occurs then x1 could be any element of
m
B . This situation is shown in the following Fig. 4.1.
Word Word
m m
xÎB xt Î B
transmitted received
Fig. 4.1
The basic task in the transmission of information is to reduce the
likelihood of receiving a word that differs from the word that was sent.
This is enhanced by encoding functions.
Encoding function : Choose an integer n > m and a one-to-one
m n
function e : B → B . This function e is called an (m, n) encoding
m
function and we view it as a means of representing every word in B as a
n m
word in B . If b ∈ B , then e(b) is called the code word representing b.
The additional 0’s and 1’s can provide the means to detect or correct
errors. The following Fig. 4.2 depicts, what we defined.
m Word
Word b Î B Encoded Word transmission m
e
n xt Î B
to be sent x = e(b) Î B channel
received
Fig. 4.2
n
Note : If transmission channel is noiseless, then x1 = x for all x ∈ B . In
m
this case, x = e(b) is received for each b ∈ B , since e is known function, b
can be identified.
We say that a code word x = e(b) has been transmitted with k or
fewer errors if x and x1 differ in at least 1 but not more than k positions.
m n
We say that the (m, n) encoding function e : B → B detects k or
fewer errors if whenever x = e(b) is transmitted with k or fewer errors,
then x1 is not a code word, that is, x1 ≠ x = e(b).
n
For x ∈ B , the number of 1’s in x is called the weight of x and is
denoted by |x|.
6
Example 4.1 : Find the weight of each of the following words in 3 .
(a) x = 011000, (b) x = 010101, (c) x = 111000, (d) x = 000000,
(e) x = 111110.
Solution : (a) |x| = 2, (b) |x| = 3, (c) |x| = 3, (d) |x| = 0 and (e) |x| = 5.
m m + 1
Example 4.2 : The encoding function e : B → B is called the
m
parity (m, m + 1) check code, where for b = b1 b2 … bm ∈ B define.
e(b) = b1b2 … bm bm+1, with
0 if |b| is even
bm+1 = 
1 if |b| is odd
Observe that bm+1 is zero if and only if the number of 1’s in b is an
even number. From this it follows that the every code word e(b) has even
weight. A single error in transmission of a code word will change the
received word to word of odd weight and therefore can be detected. In
similar way, we see that any odd number of errors can be detected.
For a concrete illustration of this encoding function, let m = 2. Then
e(00) = 000
e(01) = 011
Code words
e(10) = 101
e(11) = 110
Suppose, that b = 11. Then x = e(b) = 110. If the transmission channel
transmits x as x1 = 111, then |x1| = 3 and we know that an odd number of
error has occurred.
Note : For the above encoding function, if the received word has even
weight, then we cannot conclude that the code word was transmitted
correctly.
n
Hamming distance : Let x and y be the words in B . The Hamming
distance δ(x, y) between x and y is the weight |x ⊕ y| of x ⊕ y. Thus, the
distance between x = x1, x2, …, xm and y = y1, y2, …, ym is the number of
values of i such that x ≠ y, that is the number of positions in which x and y
differ.
Example 4.3 : Find the distance between x and y.
(a) x = 10110101, y = 11100110
(b) x = 11100011, y = 11001011
Solution : (a) x ⊕ y = (1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1) ⊕ (1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0)

= (0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1)
= 01010011
∴ δ(x, y) = |x ⊕ y| = 4
(b) Here, x ⊕ y = 00101000
∴ δ(x, y) = |x ⊕ y| = 2
Theorem 1 Properties of the distance function : Let x, y, z be

m
elements in B . Then :
(a) δ(x, y) = δ(y, x) (b) δ(x, y) ≥ 0, (c) δ(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y
(d) δ(x, y) ≤ δ(x, z) + δ(z, y).
m n
Minimum distance : Let e : B → B be an encoding function. The
minimum distance of e is the minimum of the distance between all
distinct pairs of code words, that is,
m
Minimum distance of e = min {δ(e(x), e(y)) |x, y ∈ B }
Example 4.4 : Consider the following (2, 6) encoding function e, find
the minimum distance of e.
e(00) = 000000
e(10) = 100111
Code words
e(01) = 111000
e(11) = 110011
Then δ(e(00), e(10)) = |e(00) ⊕ e(10)| = |100111| = 4
δ(e(00), e(01)) = |111000| = 3
δ(e(00), e(11)) = |110011| = 4
δ(e(10), e(01)) = |e(10) ⊕ e(01)| = |011111| = 5
Similarly, δ(e(10), e(11)) = 2
δ(e(01), e(11)) = 3
Thus, minimum of all the above distances is 2. here we required to
compute 6 distances.
Note : If there are good number of code words it is hard to calculate the
minimum distance of the encoding function. In group codes, it is easy to
calculate this minimum distance.
m n
Theorem 2 Let e : B → B be an (m, n) encoding function. Then e can
detect k or fewer errors if and only if its minimum distance is at least
k + 1.
3 6
Example 4.5 : Consider the (3, 6) encoding function e : B → B
define by
e(000) = 000000
e(001) = 110101
e(010) = 110000
e(100) = 011010
Code words
e(011) = 111000
e(101) = 101111
e(110) = 001110
e(111) = 111111
How many errors will e detect ?
Solution : Now in this case, there are 56 distinct pairs of code
words, so we need to calculate 56 distances in all. But looking at the
theorem 6 (a), the distance is a symmetric function. So, we need to find
only 28 distances. one can compute some of these 28 distances and see
that these are : 4, 2, 3, 3, 5, 3, 6, 2, 5, 3, 3, 5, 2, 3, 1. Since, we come across
the minimum distance of one of the pairs is 1,
3
so min {(δ(e(x), (e(y)) | x, y ∈ B } = 1.
Therefore, no error can be detected by this encoding function.
Example 4.6 : Consider the encoding function given in example 4.22.
As we have seen that the minimum distance of e is 2. Therefore, in this
case, e can detect k or fewer errors if k + 1 ≤ 2, that is k ≤ 1.
Therefore, e can detect one or no error.
GROUP CODES :
n
We know that, is an abelian group, here we consider
n
encoding functions that make use of this property of B .
m n
An (m, n) encoding function e : B → B is called a group code, if
m m
e(B ) = {e(b) | b ∈ B } = Range of e
n
is a subgroup of B .
Note :
n
(i) From definition of subgroup, we know that N is a subgroup of B
n
if (a) the identity of B is N, (b) for any x, y in N, x ⊕ y ∈ N and
(c) for any x ∈ N its inverse is in N. The property, (c) need not be
n
verified, since every element of B is inverse of itself.
n n
(ii) As B is Abelian, every subgroup of B is a normal subgroup.
(iii) By Lagrange’s theorem of finite groups, the possible number of
n n n
subgroups of B is the number divisors of |B | = 2 .
2 6
Example 4.7 : Consider (2, 6) encoding function e : B → B defined
by e(00) = 000000
e(10) = 110111
Code words
e(01) = 011100
e(11) = 101011
Show that this encoding function is a group code.
Solution : We must show that the set of all code words
N = {000000, 110111, 011100, 101011}
6 6
is a subgroup of B . Clearly the identity of B is in N. If we verify all the
possibilities for any x, y, in N, x ⊕ y in N follows. Hence, N is a subgroup
6
of B , hence e is a group code.
2 6
Example 4.8 : Consider the encoding function e : B → B defined by
e(00) = 000000, e(10) = 111100, e(01) = 001100 and e(11) = 100001.
Show that e is not a group code.
6
Solution : Though the identity of B is in N, N is not a subgroup
6
of B . As can be seen that x = 111100 and y = 001100 are in N but
x ⊕ y = 110000 is not in N. Hence, this encoding function is not a group
code.
m n
Theorem 3 Let e : B → B be a group code. Then the minimum
distance of e is the minimum weight of a non-zero code word.
2 6
Example 4.9 : Consider the (2, 6) encoding function e : B → B
defined as in example 4.28. then by actual computations the minimum
distance between the distances of the district pairs of the code is 3 and
on the other hand the minimum weight among the weights of non-zero
code words of e is 3. Thus, the theorem 8 is verified.
Boolean matrix : An m × n Boolean matrix is a matrix whose all

entries are either 0 or 1.
0 0 1
 
For example, 1 0 0 is 3 × 3 Boolean matrix.
 
0 1 0
10 1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1

1 1 0 0 1 1is a 4 × 6 Boolean matrix.
0 0 1 1 0 0
Example 4.10 : Let A and B 3 × 4 Boolean matrices, where
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
  
A = 0 1 1 0 and B = 1 1 1 0

   
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
then
  
A⊕B = 0 1 1 0 ⊕ 1 1 1 0

   
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 + 0 0 + 0 1 + 1 1 + 1

= 0+1 1+1 1+1 0+0

 
0 + 1 0 + 1 0 + 0 1 + 0
1 0 0 0

= 1 0 0 0

 
1 1 0 1
Thus, if A = [aij] and B = [bij] are m × n Boolean matrices, the addition
of A and B is defined as mod 2 sum A ⊕ B as m × n Boolean matrix
C = [cij], where,
cij = aij + bij, 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n (+ is addition in B).
Let D = [dij]m × f ad E = [cij]p × n be Boolean matrices. Then
D * E = F = [fij]m × n where fij = dij ⋅ eij + di2 ⋅ e2j + … + dip ⋅ epi
(1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n)
is Boolean product of D and E.
1 1 0 
1 0
 1 1 = 
0 1
Example : Consider,
0 1 1 *   1 0
0 1
Theorem 4 Let D and E be m × p Boolean matrices and let F be a p × n

Boolean matrix. Then (D ⊕ E) * F = (D * F) ⊕ (E * F). That is distributive
property holds for ⊕ and *.
Theorem 5 Let m and n be non-negative integers with m < n, r = n − m
n r
and let H be a n × r Boolean matrix. Then the function fH : B → B defined
by
n
fH(x) = x * H, x ∈ B
n r
is a homomorphism from group B to the group B , where x = x1, x2, …, xn
n
in B is considered as 1 × n row matrix and * is a matrix multiplication.
n
Proof : Let x, y ∈ B , then
fH (x ⊕ y) = (x ⊕ y) + H
= (x * H) ⊕ (y * H)
= fH(x) ⊕ fH(y)
n r
∴ fH is a homomorphism from B to B .
Now we see the technique of finding an encoding function which is
group code in the following.
Corollary 1 : Let m, n, r, H and fH be as in theorem 10. Then
n −
N = [x ∈ B | x * H = 0]
n
is a normal subgroup of B .
− r
Clearly have N = ker (fH), where 0 is the identity in B .
n r
Proof : Consider fH : B → B defined by
n
fH(x) = x * H, x ∈ B
n r
Then by previous theorem fH is a homomorphism from B to B .
n −
Consider, ker (fH) = {x ∈ B | fH(x) = 0}
− r
where, 0 is the identity element of B .
n −
∴ ker (fH) = {x ∈ B | x * H = 0} = N
We know kernel of homomorphism is always a normal subgroup of
domain.
n
∴ N is a normal subgroup of B .
Parity check matrix : Let m and n be non-negative integers with

m < n, let r = n − m. An n × r Boolean matrix
h 
h11 h12 … h1r
! 
21 h22 … h2r
! !
h hm2 … hmr

H =  
m1
1 0 … 0
 0 1 … 0 
! 
n − m = r rows
! !
 0 0 … 1 
Whose last r rows from the r × r identity matrix, is called a parity
check matrix.
m n
We use H to define an encoding function eH : B → B as follows :
m
If b = b1 b2 … bn ∈ B , let
x = eH(b) = b1b1 … bm x1 x2 … xn
where, x1 = b1h11 + b2 h21 + … + bm hm1
x2 = b1h12 + b2h12 + … + bmhm2 … (1)
! !
xr = b1 h1r + b1 h2r + … + bm hmr
n −
Theorem 6 Let x = y1 y2 … ym x1 x2 … xr ∈ B . Then x + H = 0 if and
m
only if x = eH(b) for some b ∈ B , where H is the parity check matrix.
−
Proof : Suppose x + H = 0
y1 ⋅ h1i + y2 ⋅ h2i + … + ym ⋅ hmi + xi = 0 for i = 1, 2, …, r
∴ xi = yi h1i + y2 ⋅ h2i + … + ym ⋅ ymi for i = 1, 2, …, r
Let bi = yi for i = 1, 2, …, m
then xi = b1 h1i + b2 h2i + … + bm ymi, 1≤i≤r
∴ x = eH(b)
Conversely : Suppose x = eH(b)

∴ xi = bi h1i + b2 ⋅ h2i + … + bm ymi, 1≤i≤r
∴ b1 ⋅ h1i + b2 ⋅ h2i + … + bm ⋅ hmi + x2 = 0 1≤i≤r
−
∴ x*H=0
m m n
Corollary 2 : eH(B ) = {eH(b) | b ∈ B ) is a subgroup of B .
From above discussion, it is clear that,
m
eH(B ) = ker (fH)
m n
Hence, eH(B ) is a subgroup of B , thus, eH is a group code.
10 0 1

Example 4.11 : Let m = 2,

n = 5 and H = 1
1
0
1
0

0 1 0 
0 0 1 
2 5
Determine (2, 5) the group code eH : B → B .
2
Solution : We have, B = {00, 10, 01, 11}
Then e(00) = 00 x1 x2 x3 by definition of eH.
Now using equations (1) with b1 = 0, b2 = 0, h11 = 1, h12 = 0, h13 = 1,
h21 = 1, h21 = 0, h22 = 1, h23 = 1, it is clear that, x1 = 0, x2 = 0 and x3 = 0.
∴ eH(00) = 00000
Next, eH(10) = 10 x1 x2 x3 with b1 = 1, b2 = 0,
x1 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 0 = 1,
x2 = 1 ⋅ 0 + 0 ⋅ 1 = 0,
x3 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 1 = 1.
So, we find that x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 1.
eH(10) = 10101 ⋅ e(01) = 01011
Similarly, we can find, and eH(11) = 11110
2 5
Thus, eH = B → B is defined by
eH(00) = 00000
eH(10) = 10101
code words
eH(01) = 01011
and eH(11) = 11110
2
It can be seen that eH(B ) = {00000, 10101, 01011, 11110} is a
5
subgroup of B , hence eH is a group code.
00
1 1

Example 4.12 : Let H =
1
1 1
0 0
 be a parity check matrix.
0
1 0 
0
0 1 
2 5
Determine (2, 5) group code eH : B → B .
2
Solution : We have, B = {00, 10, 01, 11}
Then, we have eH(00) = 00 x1 x2 x3 by definition of eH. Using equation
(1), with b1 = 0, b2 = 0, clearly we obtain x1 = 0, x2 = 0 and x3 = 0.
eH(00) = 00000
Next to compute eH(10), we have
eH(10) = 10 x1 x2 x3, by definition of eH
Using equation (1) with b1 = 1, b2 = 0, h11 = 0, h12 = 1, h13 = 0,
h21 = 0, h22 = 1 and h23 = 1, we get
x1 = 1 ⋅ 0 + 0 ⋅ 1 = 0
x2 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 1 = 1
x3 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 1 = 1
Thus, eH(10) = 10011
Similarly, we compute eH(01) and eH(11), where we get,
eH(01) = 01011
and eH(11) = 11000
2
Thus, eH(B ) = {00000, 10011, 01011, 11000}
5
is a subgroup of B and hence eH is a group code.
Exercise 4.1
1. Find the weight of the given words.

(a) 0101, (b) 1110, (c) 1011, (d) 101011, (e) 011111.
2. Consider the (4, 5) parity check code. For each of the received
word, determine whether an error will be detected.
(a) 101011, (b) 11011, (c) 00010, (d) 10111, (e) 00011.
3. If (6, 7) is the parity check code, do the exercise (2), for the
following received words
(a) 1010111, (b) 1011110, (c) 1010101, (d) 1101111.
4. Find the distance between x and y.

(a) x = 1100110, y = 0111001
(b) x = 1110011, y = 0110110
5. Find the distance between x and y.
(a) x = 11010100, y = 00111100
(b) x = 00011100, y = 11000111.
6. Find the minimum distance of (2, 6) encoding function e.
e(00) = 000000, e(10) = 111011, e(01) = 011110, e(11) = 110010
7. Find the minimum distance of the (3, 8) encoding function e
e(000) = 00000000, e(001) = 10111000, e(010) = 00101101,
e(100) = 10100100, e(011) = 10010101, e(101) = 10001001,
e(110) = 00011100, e(111) = 00110001.
How many errors will e detect ?
3 6
8. Consider the (3, 6) encoding function e : B → B defined by
e(000) = 000000, e(001) = 001100, e(010) = 010011,
e(100) = 100101, e(011) = 011111, e(101) = 101001,
e(110) = 110110 and e(111) = 111010.
(a) Show that e is a group code.
(b) Find the minimum distance e.
(c) How many error will e detect ?
10 1 0

9.

Let m = 2, n = 5 and H = 1
1
0
1
0 .

0 1 0 
0 0 1 
2 5
Determine the group code eH : B → B .
11 0 1

10. Let m = 2,

n = 5 and H = 1
1
0
0
0 .

0 1 0 
0 0 1 
2 5
Determine the (2, 5) group code eH : B → B . How many error
will eH detect ?
Answers 4.1
1. (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 5.

2. In case of (m, m + 1) parity check code, every code has even
weight. Hence, (a) No, (b) Yes, (c) No, (d) Yes, (e) Yes.
3. (a) No, (b) No, (c) Yes, (d) Yes.
4. (a) 6, (b) 3
5. (a) 4, (b) 6
6. 2
7. 3, this code will detect two or fewer errors.
8. (b) 2, (c) e will detect one error.
9. eH(00) = 00000, eH(10) = 10110, eH(01) = 01011 and
eH(11) = 11101.
10. eH(00) = 00000, eH(10) = 10101, eH(01) = 01110 and
eH(11) = 11011.
Since, minimum distance of eH is 3, so eH will detect two or fewer
errors.
4.3 Decoding and Error Correction

m n m n
Given an (m, n) encoding function e : B → B , for b ∈ B , x = e(b) ∈ B
n
is a code word and after transmission it is received as the word x1 ∈ B ,
now our problem is to identify the word b that was the original message.
Identifying b from e and xt is a way of decoding.
n m
An onto function d : B → B is called an (n, m) decoding function
m
associated with e if d(xt) = b' ∈ B is such that when transmission
channel has no nose, then b' = b, that is, d composite e (doe) is the
m
identity function 1Bm on B .
Note : The decoding function decodes properly received words correctly,
but the decoding of improperly received words may or may not be
correct.
m m + 1
Example 4.13 : Consider the encoding function e : B → B , a
m
parity (m, m + 1) check code, where for b = b1 b2 … bm ∈ B , e(b) = b1 b2
m +1 m
… bm bm + 1, then the decoding function d : B → B is defined as for
m+1
y = y1 y2 … yn ∈ B , d(y) = y1 y2 … ym and in particular if m = 5, then
d(011010) = 01101 and d(110011) = 11001.
Let e be an (m, n) encoding function and let d be an (n, m) decoding

function associated with e. We say that the pair (e, d) corrects k or
fewer errors if whenever x = e(b) is transmitted correctly or with k or
fewer errors and xt is received, then d(xt) = b. Thus, xt is decoded as the
correct message b.
For decoding purpose, one of the technique used is maximum
likelihood technique, we describe this as below.
m n
Given an (m, n) encoding function e : B → B , for determining
m m m
decoding function d for given e, since B has 2 elements, there are 2
n m
code words in B . We first list the code 2 code words in a fixed order.
(1) (2) (2n)
x , x , …, x
(i) m
If the received word is xt. we compute δ(x , xt) for 1 ≤ i ≤ 2 and
(i)
choose the first code word, say it is x , such that
(i) (i)
min {δ(x , xt)} = δ(x , xt)
m
1≤i≤2
(i)
That is, x is a code word that is closet to xt and the first in the list. If
(i)
x = e(b), we line the maximum likelihood decoding function d
associated with e by;
d(x) = b
Observe that d depends on the particular order in which the code
m
words in e(B ) are listed in a different order, we may obtain a different
maximum likelihood decoding function d associated with e.
Theorem 7 Suppose that e is an (m, n) encoding function and d is a

maximum likelihood decoding function associated with e. Then (e, d) can
correct k or fewer errors if and only if the minimum distance of e is at
least 2k + 1.
3 8
Example 4.14 : Let the (3, 8) encoding function e : B ← B be
defined by
e(000) = 00000000, e(001) = 10111000, e(010) = 00101101,
e(100) = 10100100, e(011) = 10010101, e(101) = 10001001,
e(110) = 00011100, e(111) = 00110001.
Let d be an (8, 3) maximum likelihood decoding function associated
with e. How many errors can (e, d) correct ?
Solution : It can be calculated that the minimum distance of e = 3.
If (e, d) corrects k or fewer errors, by above theorem (11), we must have,
3 ≥ 2k + 1, hence k ≤ 1. Thus, (e, d) can correct one error.
Theorem 8 If H is a finite subgroup of a group G, then every left coset

of H in G has exactly as many elements as H.
Proof : Let a ∈ G, consider a coset aH of H in G.
Let f : H → aH defined by f(h) = ah.
We show that, f is one-one and onto function.
First, we show f is one-one function.
Let h1, h2 ∈ H and f(h1) = f(h2) i.e. ah1 = ah2.
−1
Premultiply both sides, by a , then we get
−1 −1
a ah1 = a ah2 ∴ h1 = h2.
∴ f is one-one function.
Now to prove, f is onto, let ah ∈ aH, where h ∈ H.
∴ f(h) = ah
∴ h is a preimage of aH under function f.
∴ f is an onto function.
In the next discussion, we discuss the decoding function of an
encoding function which is group code.
m n
Let e : B → B be an encoding function that is a group code. Thus,
n n m
the set N of all code words in B is a subgroup of B whose order is 2 ,
(1) (2) (2n)
say N = {x , x , …, x }.
Suppose, that the code word x = e(b) is transmitted and that the
word xt is received. Then the left coset N by xt is
(1) (2) (2m)
xt ⊕ N = {xt ⊕ x , xt ⊕ x , …, xt ⊕ x }
= {ε1, ε2, …, ε2m} say
(i) (i)
where, εi = xt ⊕ x . The distance from xt to the word x is just |ε|, the
(i)
weight of ε. Thus, if εj is a coset member with smallest weight, then x
must be a code word that is closest to xt. In this case,
(i) − (i) (i) − n
x = 0 ⊕ x = (xt ⊕ xt) ⊕ x , since xt ⊕ xt = 0 in B , so next we have,
(i) (i)
x = xt ⊕ (xt ⊕ x ) = xt ⊕ xεj.
An element εy having the smallest weight is called a coset leader.
Note that a coset leader need not be unique.
m n
If e : B → B is a group code, we now describe the following
procedure for obtaining a maximum likelihood decoding function
associated with e.
m n
Step 1 : Determine all the left coset of N = e(B ) in B .
Step 2 : For each coset, find a coset leader (a word of least weight).
Step 3 : If the word x, is received, determine the coset of N to which
n
xt belongs. Since N is normal subgroup of B , it follows from group theory
n n
that the cosets of N form a partition of B , so each element of B belongs
n
n 2 r
to one and only one coset of N in B . Moreover,there are m = 2 distinct
2
n
cosets of N in B .
We illustrate the above procedure by an example so that, it will
helpful to understand it.
Step 4 : Let ε be a coset leader for the coset determined in step 3.
Compute x = xt ⊕ ε. if x = e(b), we let d(xt) = b. That is, we decode xt as b.

2 4
Example 4.15 : Consider the encoding function e : B → B , which is a
group code, defined by e(00) = 0000, e(10) = 0011, e(01) = 1101 and
e(11) = 1110. Then here N = {0000, 0011, 1101, 1110} is a normal
4
4 4 4 2
subgroup of B . Since, |B | = 2 and |N| = 4, we see that there are =4
4
4
distinct left cosets of N in B and one of these is N itself. We will
prepare table which is called decoding table whose rows are the cosets
4
of N in B . Thus, in present case there will four rows in a decoding table,
−
the first row being the elements of N itself, starting with 0 = 0000 on left
hand side.
Thus, 0000 0011 1101 1110 (First row)
4
We have to exhaust all the elements of B in four rows, to get the
4
next row we look at the elements of B , which are not listed in first row,
out of these we pick-up the one of smallest weight.
We see that there are four words of smallest weight 1, namely, 0001,
0010, 0100, 1000. Let us consider any one of these say 0001. This will be a
coset leader of the next coset (row), which is obtained by adding 0001 to
each of the elements of the first row, second row is
0001 ⊕ 0000 0001 ⊕ 0011 0001 ⊕ 1101 0001 ⊕ 1110
or 0001 0010 1100 1111 (Second row)
Since, there are two elements left of weight 1, which are not listed in
first row and second row, namely, 0100 and 1000. We choose one of
these say 0100, which is a coset leader of third coset and we obtain third
row as :
0100 ⊕ 0000 0100 ⊕ 0011 0100 ⊕ 1101 0100 ⊕ 1110
or 0100 0111 1001 1010 (Third row)

4
Now using last element 1000 of B of the smallest weight among the
4
elements of B , which are not listed in above three row, we obtain four
coset (row) as
1000 ⊕ 0000 1000 ⊕ 0011 1000 ⊕ 1101 1000 ⊕ 1110

or 1000 1011 0101 0111 (Four row)
Finally the decoding table looks as follows :
Table 4.1
0000 0011 1101 1110
0001 0010 1100 1111
0100 0111 1001 1010
1000 1011 0101 0110
Suppose now the word received is 0111, which appears in the third
row and second column of the above table. In the second column
element at the top is 0011, hence the word which was transmitted is
0011. Since we know e(10) = 0011, hence d(0111) = 10, the original
message sent.
Again, if the received words is 0110 which appears in the fourth row
and fourth column of the table (decoding) and 1110 is at the top of the
fourth column, therefore 1110 was transmitted as 0110 (received word).
But we know from given hypothesis that e(11) = 1110, hence the word
0110 is to be decoded as 11, that is d(0110) = 11.
Note : Now, if we prepare a decoding table with different choice of code
word (coset leader) available. Say the first row will remain as it is for
second row take coset leader 1000, for third row we take 0100 and for
fourth row we take coset leader as 0010, the decoding table will be as
follows.
Table 4.2
0000 0011 1101 1110
1000 1011 0101 0110
0100 0111 1001 1010
0010 0001 1111 1100
If the word received is 1100, the according to the table 4.2, the word
1110 is transmitted and is received as 1100 and as we know e(11) = 1110,
hence d(1100) = 11 … (i)
But according to the table 4.1, if 1100 is the received word, then the
transmitted word is 1101 and as e(01) = 1101, we see that
d(1100) = 01 … (ii)
Thus, it is clear that these two tables give two different decoding
4 2
functions from B onto B .
m n
Suppose that the (m, n) group code is eH : B → B , where H is a
parity check matrix. In this case, the decoding technique above can be
simplified.
Recall that with m < n, r = n − m, and H be the n × r parity check
n r
matrix as discussed in section 4.3 and the function fH : B → B defined by
n r
fH(x) = x * H is a homomorphism from the group B to the group B .
Theorem 9 If m, n, r, H and fH are defined then fH is onto.

r
Proof : Let b = b1b2 …, br be any element in B .
Let x = 00 … 0 b1b2 … br ∴ x+H=b
m 0’s
Thus, fH(x) = b, so fH is an onto function.
n r m
Remark : fH : B → B is onto homomorphism and N = eH(B ) = ker fH in
n
n B
B , then by the first fundamental theorem of homomorphism is
N
n
r B r
isomorphic to B . This isomorphism 9 : → B is given by
N
g(xN) = fH(x) = x * H
r n
The elements x * H in B is called the syndrome of x, for x ∈ B .
n
Theorem 10 Let x and y be elements in B . Then x and y lie in the same
n
coset of N in B if and only if fH(x) = fH(y) that is, if and only if they have
the same syndrome.
n
Proof : x and y lie in the same left coset of N in B if and only if
x ⊕ y = (−x) ⊕ y ∈ N. Since, N = ker (fH), therefore x ⊕ y ∈ N if and only if
− − r
fH (x ⊕ y) = 0 B, i.e. fH(x) ⊕ fH(y) = 0 B i.e. fH(x) = fH(y).
The decoding procedure given previously can be modified as follows.
Suppose that we compute the syndrome of each coset leader. If the
word xt is received, we also compute the syndrome of xt, fH(xt). By
comparing fH(xt) and the syndromes of the coset leaders, we find the
coset in which xt lies. Suppose the coset leader of this coset is ε, we now
compute x = xt ⊕ ε. If x = e(b), we then decode xt as b. Thus,we need only
the coset leaders and their syndromes in order to decode.
We state the new procedure in details.
n
Step 1 : Determine all the left cosets of N in B .
Step 2 : For each coset, find a coset leader, and compute the
syndrome of each coset leader.
Step 3 : If xt is received word, compute the syndrome of xt and find
the coset leader ε having the same syndrome.
Then xt ⊕ ε = x is a code word eH(b), d(xt) = b.
Let us illustrate this technique by an example.
2 5
Example 4.16 : Consistent the encoding function eH : B → B , where,

1 0 1


0 1 1

the parity check matrix is H = 1 0 0 , which generates a group code.

0 1 0 

0 0 1 
2
From example (4.32), we have obtained eH(B ) = N = {00000, 01011,
11110}. Use the above technique (procedure) to decode the words (a)
11101 and (b) 01110.
5
5 |B | 32
Solution : Since |B | = 32 and |N| = 4, there are = = 8 left
|N| 4
5
cosets of N in B . We use the technique to write down all the 8-left cosets
of N in table form with their coset leaders as the first elements of the
rows of the table. One can see that decoding table for this can be
computed as below.
Table 4.3
Syndrome
Coset
of coset
leader
leader
000 00000 10101 01011 11110
001 00001 10100 01010 11111
010 00010 10111 01001 11100
100 00100 10001 01111 11010
011 01000 11101 00011 10110
101 10000 00101 11011 01110
111 10010 00111 11001 01100
110 11000 01100 10011 001100
Now we calculate syndromes of all coset leaders. Let ε1 = 00000,
ε2 = 00001, ε3 = 00010, ε4 = 00100, ε5 = 01000, ε6 = 10000, ε7 = 10010
and ε8 = 1100 - the coset leaders. Then the syndrome of ε1 is given by
ε1 * H, it is easy to see that ε1 * H = 000.
Syndrome of ε2 is ε2 * H, we have
10 0 1


[00001] * 1
1
0
1

0 = 001
0 1 0
0 0 1
Syndrome of ε3 is ε3 * H = [00010] * H = 010
The first column of table 4.3 represents the syndromes of the
corresponding coset leaders which we computed above.
(a) Now the word xt = 11101 is received. The syndrome of

th
xt = xt * H = 011, which is the 5 entry in the first column of table 4.3. This
means that xt lies in the coset whose coset leader is 01000 = ε5.
So we compute, x = xt ⊕ ε5 = 11101 ⊕ 01000 = 10101
Since, x = e(10) = 10101, we decode 11101 as 10, that is d(11101) = 10
(b) The received words is xt = 01110, then its syndrome is

xt * H = [01110] * H
= 101
th
which is 6 entry in the first column of table 4.3. This means that xt lies in
the coset whose leader is 10000 = ε6. So we compute
x = xt ⊕ xb = 01110 ⊕ 10000 = 11110.
Since, e(11) = 11110, we decode 01110 as 11, that is d(01110) = 11.
Exercise 4.2
4 3
1. Let d be the (4, 3) decoding function defined by d : B → B , for
4
y = y1y2y3y4 d(y) = y1y2y3. Determine d(y) for the word y in B .
(a) y = 0110, (b) y = 1011.
2. Let d be the (9, 3) decoding function defined by
y = y1y2y3 … y9, d(y) = z1z2z3
1 if {yi, yi + 3, yi + 6} has at least two i's
where, z1 = 
0 if {yi, yi + 3, yi + 6} has less than two i's
9
Determine d(y) for the word y in B .
(a) y = 101111101 (b) y = 100111100
2 4
3. Let e : B → B be the (2, 4) encoding function defined by
e(00) = 0000, e(01) = 1011, e(10) = 0110, e(11) = 1101. Construct
4
a table of left cosets in B for N = <0000, 1011, 0110, 1101}. Place
the coset leader a the beginning of each row.
4. Let e be the encoding function defined by e(00) = 0000,
e(10) = 0110, e(01) = 1011, e(11) = 1100. Let d be the associated
maximum likelihood decoding function. Determine the number
of errors that (e, d) will correct.
2 5
5. Let e be the encoding function defined by e : B → B ,
e(00) = 00000, e(10) = 10101, e(01) = 01110, e(11) = 11011. Let d
be an associated maximum likelihood decoding function.
Determine the number of errors that (e, d) will correct.
6. Consider the group code defined in above example 5. Decode
the following words relagive to a maximum likelihood decoding
function.
(a) 11110, (b) 10011, (c) 10100.
7. Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G :
(a) Show that for g1, g2 ∈ G, either e1H = g2H or g1H ∩ g2H = φ.
(b) By using part (a) show that the left cosets of H form a
partition of G.
01 1 1

8.

Let H = 1
0
0
1

0 be the parity check matrix.
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
m
Determine the coset leader for N = eH(B ).
11 00
Let H = 
1 0
9. be the parity check matrix. Determine the coset
 0 1
m
leaders for H = eH(B ). Also compute the syndrome for each
coset leader.
01 1 1

10. Let H =
1 0
0
1
0
 be a parity check matrix. Decode the
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
following words relative to a maximum likelihood decoding
function associated with eH.
(a) 10100, (b) 01101, (c) 11011.
Answers 4.2
1. (a) 011 (b) 101

2. (a) 101 (b) 100
3.
00 01 10 11
0000 1011 0110 1101
1000 0011 1110 0101
0100 1111 0010 1001
0001 1010 0111 1100
4. 0
5. 1
6. (a) 01 (b) 11 (c) 10
8. 00000, 00001, 00010, 00100, 01000, 10000, 01010 (or 10100),

00110 (or 11000)
9. 00, 01, 10, 11
10. Possible answers : (a) 00, (b) 01, (c) 10.
4.4 Public Key Cryptology

A method of sending coded message using a pair of publically
available integers, in which only the receiver will be able to decode the
message. This method is used for secured messages. This type of method
is widely called RSA (the initials of scientists, Rivest, Shamir, Adelman)
public key cryptosystems.
In the following we are stating the theorem which is an extension of

the Fermat’s Little Theorem.
Theorem 11 Suppose p and q are distinct primes and k is any integer.

Then :
(a) For any integer a with (a, pq) = 1.

k(p − 1) (q − 1)
a ≡ 1 (mode pq)
(b) For any integer a,

k(p − 1) (q − 1) + 1
a ≡ a (mod pq)
Example 4.17 : Let p = 41 and q = 19, since 35 is relatively prime to

779, that is (35, 779) = 1 and 779 = pq = 41 × 19. Next (p − 1) (q − 1) =
40 × 18 = 720.
Therefore, by theorem 15 (a), we have,
720
35 ≡ 1 (mod 779)
1445
Example 4.18 : Compute the remainder of 13 after division by
779.
Solution : Since (13, 779) = 1 and 1445 = 720 × 2 + 5
We have,
1445 720 × 2 + 5 720 2 5
13 = 13 = (13 ) ⋅ 13
5
≡ 13 (mod 779)
≡ 371293 (mod 779)
≡ 489 (mod 779)
1445
Thus, the remainder of 13 after division by 779 is 489.
The above theorem (15) and the illustrative examples are very useful
in public key cryptosystem. A system in which we can make public a
method of encoding messages to us (called a public key), but
nevertheless be sure that only we can decode these messages.
Any message can be turned into a string of integers using a variety of
methods. The one will discuss in this section is to use the letters of the
alphabet to represent a number base 26. Let A, B, C, …, Z stand for the
integers 0, 1, 2, …, 25. Then any pair of letters ψθ can be regarded as the
base 26 representation of the number 26 × ψ + θ. In this way numbers in
the range 0 to 675 can be used in place of any two letter pair and any
message, when divided into two letter pairs, can be represented by a
sequence of integers in this range.
For example, consider the message START CAR. Separate the letters
into pairs and replace each pair with number it represents in the base 26.
the pairs ST, AR, TC and AR become respectively, the integers 487, 17,
496 and 17.
We give here the method of encoding messages. Select any two
distinct primes p and q and let m = pq and n = (p − 1) (q − 1). Now
choose any integer s that is relatively prime to n. We “publish” the
integers m and s (that is, make them publicly available) and instruct any
one wishing to send us a secrete message to proceed as follows : Divide
the message into letters pairs ψθ and represent each pair as a number
x = 26ψ + θ in the range 0 to 675. Then replace each of these numbers x
s
by the unique integer y between 0 and m − 1 for which y ≡ x (mod m)
and send as the resulting number sequence. Note this number must be at
least 675.
−
Decoding : Since, s is chosen relatively prime to n, s , the remainder
−
class of s mod n, has a multiplicative inverse t in Zn. Thus for some
integer t, we have st ≡ 1 (mod n) or st − 1 = k(p − 1) (q − 1) for some
integer k, since s, n, k are known. We can find t, by using Euclidean
Algorithm.
s
Now, if we receive the integer y = x (mod m), we compute
t
y (mod m) and apply the theorem 15, since m = pq, theorem (15) (a)
guarantees that
t st 1 + k (p − 1) (q − 1)
y = x =x ≡ x (mod m)
t
Since, x does not exceed m, we have y (mod m) = x, sowe have
recovered the original integer x. Do this to all the received integers and
thus decode the message.
We illustrate all this discussion in the following example.
Example 4.19 : Let m = 779 and s = 49.

(a) Use the RSA method to encode the message NO with public key
m and s.
(b) Apply the RSA method to decode the message 507 with m and s
as given.
Solution : (a) Here m = 779 = 41 × 19, so that p = 41 and q = 19,
then n = (p − 1) (q − 1) = 40 × 18 = 720, s = 49.
Now, the message NO = 26 × N + O
= 26 × 13 + 14, N = 13, O = 14
= 352
So NO is number 352.
49
Now, we need to calculate 352 (mod 779) get the encoded message
in the form of integer.
2
We have, 352 = 123904 ≡ 43 (mod 779)
8 4
352 ≡ 43 (mod 779)
≡ 549 (mod 779)
16 2
∴ 352 ≡ 549 (mod 779)
≡ 707 (mod 779)
49 16 3
Now, 352 = (352 ) × 352
3
≡ 707 × 352 (mod 779)
≡ 672 × 352 (mod 779)
≡ 236544 (mod 779)
≡ 507 (779)
The encoded message received is 507.
(b) Here n = 720, s = 49 and s is relatively prime to 720, so we use
Euclidean Algorithm to express 1 as a linear combination of 720 and 49,
to find t.
We have, 720 = 49 × 14 + 34 … (v)
49 = 34 × 1 + 15 … (iv)
34 = 15 × 2 + 4 … (iii)
15 = 4 × 3 + 3 … (ii)
4 = 3×1+1 … (i)
Now from (i), 1 = 4−3×1
= 4 − (15 − 4 × 3) × 1 Using (ii)
= 4 × 4 − 15 × 1
= (34 − 15 × 2) × 4 − 15 × 1 Using (iii)
= 34 × 4 − 15 × 9
= 34 × 4 − (49 − 34 × 1) × 9 using (iv)
= 34 × 13 − 49 × 9
= (720 − 49 × 14) × 13 − 49 × 9 Using (v)
= 720 × 13 + 49 (− 191)
∴ t = − 191
≡ 529 (mod 779)
529
Now, we compute 507 (mod 779).
4
We have, 507 = 66074188401
≡ 441 (mod 779)
16 4
∴ 507 ≡ 441 (mod 779)
≡ 693 (mod 779)
32 2
507 ≡ 693 (mod 779)
≡ 385 (mod 779)
128 32 4 4
Next (507) = [(507) ) ≡ 385 (mod 779)
≡ 264 (mod 779)
512 4
And 507 ≡ 264 (mod 779)
≡ 16 (mod 779)
512 16
Next 507 × 507 ≡ 693 × 16 (mod 779)
≡ 182 (mod 779)
529 512 16
∴ 507 = 507 × 507 × 507
≡ 182 × 507 (mod 779)
≡ 352 (mod 779)
Thus, x = 352. Dividing by 26, we obtain (division algorithm)
x = 352 = 26 × 13 + 14
So that we can recover the original message NO (as N = 13, O = 14 is
representation).
Exercise 4.3
704
1. Verify that 12 ≡ 1 (mod 391)
1123
2. Compute the remainder, when 17 is divided by 1189.
3750
3. Compute the remainder when 23 is divided by 3869.
4. Let p = 23, q = 41. Apply the RSA method to encode the measure
BEAR and to decode the message 371, 640.
5. Let m = 779 and s = 49 be public key use RSA method to encode
the message NO.
6. The public key m = 19781, s =19 has been published. Suppose
you discover that n for this cryptosystem is 19500. Find p and q.
Answers 4.3
2. 157
3. 211
4. ACED
5. 507
6. 151, 131
Example 4.20 : Find the number of code words generated by the
following parity check matrix H. Also find the code words generated.
01 1 0

H

= 1
0
0
1
0

0 1 0 
0 0 1 
Solution : In the given matrix H the last three rows form 3 × 3
2 5
identity matrix. So we have to find encoding function e : B → B which is
a group code.
2
Now, B = {00, 01, 10, 11}
2 2
∴ e(B ) contains 4 code words. For any b1b2 ∈ B , we have e(b1b2) =
b1b2 x1x2x3 where b1, b2 are information bits and x1, x2, x3 are parity bits.
Consider the equation x*H = 0
01 1 0

[b1b2

xxx]* 1
0
0
1
0
 = 0
0 
2 2 3
1 0
0 0 1 
∴ b2 +2 x1 = 0
b1 +2 x2 = 0
b2 +2 x3 = 0
∴ x2 = b2, x2 = b1, x3 = b2 [a +2 a = 0]
There 2 information bits.
2
So we prepare a table of values containing 2 = 4 rows.
b1 b2 x1 = b2 x2 = b1 x3 = b2
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
The group code consists of 4 code words :
e(00) = 00000
e(01) = 01101
e(10) = 10010
e(11) = 11111
Example 4.21 : Write the code words generated by parity check

matrix.
1 0 1 1 0 0

H = 1 1 0 0 1 0

 
1 1 1 0 0 1
What is the minimum weight of non-zero code word ? How many
errors can be detected by this group code ?
Solution : In the given matrix H the last three columns form 3 × 3

3 6
identity matrix and H is of order 3 × 6. We have to find e : B → B which
is a group code.
 
1 1 1
 
0 1 1
t 1 0 1
Now, H =
 1 0 0

 0
0
1
0
0
1 
3
If b = b1b2b3 ∈ B then x = e(b) = b1b2b3 x1x2x3
t
Now, x * H = 0 gives
01 
1 1 1
 =0
1 1
0 1
[b b b x x x ]
10 
1 2 3 1 2 3
0 0
0 1
0
0
1 
∴ b1 +2 b3 +2 x1 = 0
b1 +2 b2 +2 x2 = 0
b1 +2 b2 +2 b3 + x3 = 0
∴ x1 = b1 +2 b3
x2 = b1 +2 b2
x3 = b1 +2 b2 +2 b3
Now, we prepare a table for values of b1, b2, b3 and x1, x2, x3
3
containing 2 = 8 rows.
b1 b2 b3 x1 = b1 +2 b3 x2 = b1 +2 b2 x3 = b1 +2 b2 +2 b3
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1
3
∴ e(B ) = {000000, 001101, 010011, 011110, 100111, 101010,
110100, 111001}
It is a group code.
The minimum weight of non-zero code word is 3.
∴ The minimum distance of group code is 3.
We know that a group code can detect k or fewer errors if and only if
the minimum distance is ≥ k + 1.
∴ 3 ≥ k+1
∴ 2 ≥ k
∴ k ≤ 2
Thus, 2 or less than 2 errors can be detected.
Example 4.22 : Determine the code words generated by the parity
check matrix.
1 0 1 1 1 0 0

H = 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

 
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
How many errors are detected by this group code ?
Solution : From a given matrix, we get
0 
1 1 1
1 0
H
t 
= 1
1 0
0
0
1

10 0 0 
0 1
0
0
1 
4 2
We have to find (4, 7) encoding function e : B → B .
i.e. to find x = e(b1b2b3b4) = b1b2b3b4 x1x2x3.
t
The matrix equation x * H = 0 gives
0 
1 1 1
1 0

[b b b b x x x ] 1
1 0
0
0
1
=0
10 
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
0 0
0 1
0
0
1 
∴ b1 +2 b3 +2 b4 +2 x1 = 0
b1 +2 b2 +2 x3 = 0
b1 +2 b4 +2 x3 = 0
∴ x1 = b1 +2 b3 +2 b4
x2 = b1 +2 b2
x3 = b1 +2 b4
4 s
Now, we prepare a table of 2 = 16 rows since information bits b are
4 in number.
b1 b2 b3 b4 x1 = b1 +2 b3 x2 = b1 +2 b2 x3 = b1 +2 b4
+2 b4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0
4
The group code e(B ) consists of 16 code words.
0000000, 0001101, 0010100, 0011001,
0100010, 0101111, 0110110, 0111011,
1000111, 1001010, 1010011, 1011110,
1100101, 1101000, 1110001, 1111100.
The minimum weight of the non-zero code word is 2.
∴ The minimum distance of the group code is 2.
We know that e can detect k or fewer errors if minimum distance is
≥ k + 1.
∴ 2 ≥ k+1
∴ 1 ≥ k
∴ k ≤ 1
∴ e can detect 1 or less errors. Hence, e can detect only one error.
Example 4.23 : Show that (2, 4) encoding function given by
e(00) = 0000, e(01) = 0111, e(10) = 1001, e(11) = 1110 is a group code.
How many errors will be detected by e ?
Decode the words 0011, 1100 and 1101.
Solution : Let us prepare a composition table for a w.r.t. ⊕
separation.
⊕ 0000 0111 1001 1110
0000 0000 0111 1001 1110
0111 0111 0000 1110 1001
1001 1001 1110 0000 0111
1110 1110 1001 0111 0000
From the composition table, we see that ⊕ of any two elements of
the given set is again element of the set.
4
Therefore, it is a subgroup of B .
∴ Given set is a group.
The minimum distance of
e = minimum weight of non-zero code word
= 2
If minimum distance is at least k + 1 then k or fewer errors can be
detected.
Now, k + 1 = 2. ∴ k = 1.
∴ e can detect only one error.
4
2 16
Now, we prepare a decoding table. There are 2 = = 4 cosets.
2 4
0000 0111 1001 1110 (first row)
For the next coset the coset leader is taken as 0001 that does not
appear in the first row
0001 ⊕ 0000 = 0001, 0001 ⊕ 0111 = 0110
0001 ⊕ 1001 = 1000, 0001 ⊕ 1110 = 1111
0001 0110 1000 1111 (second row)
For the next coset choose the coset leader 0010 which does not
appear in above two rows.
0010 ⊕ 0000 = 0010, 0010 ⊕ 0111 = 0101
0010 ⊕ 1001 = 1011, 0010 ⊕ 1110 = 1100
∴ 0010 0101 1011, 1100 (third row)
For the next coset choose the coset leader 0100 which does not
appear in above three rows.
0100 ⊕ 0000 = 0100, 0100 ⊕ 0111 = 0011
0100 ⊕ 1001 = 1101, 0100 ⊕ 1110 = 1010
∴ 0100 0011 1101 1010 (fourth row)
Decoding Table
0000 0111 1001 1110
0001 0110 1000 1111
0010 0101 1011 1100
0100 0011 1101 1010
Received Word Transmitted Word
0011 0111
1100 1110
1101 1001
Example 4.24 : Show that (2, 5) encoding function e(00) = 00000,
e(10) = 10101, e(01) = 01110, e(11) = 11011 is a group code.
Decode the following received words by applying minimum distance
decoding criterian.
(i) 11110 (ii) 10011 (iii) 10100.
Solution :
⊕ 00000 10101 01110 11011
00000 00000 10101 01110 11011
10101 10101 00000 11011 01110
01110 01110 11011 00000 10101
11011 11011 01110 10101 00000
From the table, we see that the ⊕ of any two elements of given four
elements is again element of that set. Therefore, the set {00000, 10101,
01110, 11011} is closed under the operation ⊕. Therefore, it is a subgroup
5
of B .
∴ Given set is a group code.
We now prepare a decoding table. Given group code has 4 elements
5 5 32
and B has 2 = 32 elements, hence there are = 8 distinct coset of G in
4
5
B and G is one of them. First row of the table is
00000 10101 01110 11011 (first row)
Consider 00001 of minimum weight 1 which does not appear in the
above row and it is a coset leader for next coset.
00001 ⊕ 00000 = 00001, 00001 ⊕ 10101 = 10100
00001 ⊕ 01110 = 01111, 00001 ⊕ 11011 = 11010
∴ 00001 10100 01111 11010 (second row)
Next consider 00010 as the next leader which does not appear in
above two rows and has weight 1 i.e. minimum.
00010 ⊕ 00000 = 00010, 00010 ⊕ 10101 = 10111,
00010 ⊕ 01110 = 01100, 00010 ⊕ 11011 = 11001
∴ 00010 10111 01100 11001 (third row)
Next leader of minimum weight 1 and not appearing in above three

rows is 00100.
00100 ⊕ 00000 = 00100, 00100 ⊕ 10101 = 10001,
00100 ⊕ 01110 = 01010, 00100 ⊕ 11011 = 11111
∴ 00100 10001 01010 11111 (fourth row)
Next available leader is 01000, which does not appear in above four
rows.
01000 ⊕ 00000 = 01000, 01000 ⊕ 10101 = 11101,
01000 ⊕ 01110 = 00110, 01000 ⊕ 11011 = 10011
∴ 01000 11101 00110 10011 (fifth row)

Next available element of leadership is 10000 and it is not in above

five rows.
10000 ⊕ 00000 = 10000, 10000 ⊕ 10101 = 00101,
10000 ⊕ 01110 = 11110, 10000 ⊕ 11011 = 01011
∴ 10000 00101 11110 01011 (sixth row)
Now next minimum weight is 2. Consider 0001 as coset leader which
does not appear in above six rows.
00011 ⊕ 00000 = 00011, 00011 ⊕ 10101 = 10110,
00011 ⊕ 01110 = 01101, 00011 ⊕ 11011 = 11000
∴ 00011 00010 01101 11000 (seventh row)
Next minimum weight is 2 and 01001 does not appear in above
seven rows, it acts as a coset leader.
01001 ⊕ 00000 = 01001, 01001 ⊕ 10101 = 11100
01001 ⊕ 01110 = 00111, 01001 ⊕ 11011 = 10010
∴ 01001 11100 00111 10010 (eight row)
Decoding Table
00000 10101 01110 11011
00001 10100 01111 11010
00010 10111 01100 11001
00100 10001 01010 11111
01000 11101 00110 10011
10000 00101 11110 01011
00011 10110 01101 11000
01001 11100 00111 10010
Received Word Word Sent
11110 01110
10011 11011
10100 10101
01 1

1

Example 4.25 : A parity check matrix is H = 1
0
0

1
0 .
0 1 
0
0 0 
1
Decode the word (i) 01110, (ii) 11100.
Solution : In the given matrix the last 3 rows form 3 × 3 identity
2 5
matrix. So we have to find the encoding function e : B → B .
2
For b1b2 ∈ B , we have e(b1b2) = b1b2 x1x2x3
01 1 1

[b1b2

xxx]* 1
0
0
1
0
 = 0 gives
0 
1 2 3
1 0
0 0 1 
b1 +2 x1 = 0
b1 +2 x2 = 0
b1 +2 b2 +2 x3 = 0
∴ x1 = b2
x2 = b1
x3 = b1 +2 b2
Consider the following table.
b1 b2 x1 x2 x3
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
∴ e(00) = 00000
e(01) = 01101
e(10) = 10011
e(11) = 11110
This forms a group code and N = {00000, 01101, 10011, 11110} is a
5
normal subgroup of B .
6
2 32
Now, we find = = 8 cosets such that the coset leaders are in
2 4
increasing order of their weights.
The cosets are as follows :
00000 01101 10011 11110
00001 01100 10010 11111
00010 01111 10001 11100
00100 01001 10111 10110
01000 00101 11011 10110
10000 11101 00011 01110
11000 10101 01011 00110
10100 11001 00111 01010
The coset leaders are listed in the first column above.
Now we find syndromes of coset leaders
Clearly syndrome of 00000 is 000.
01 1 1


Syndrome of 00001 is [00001] * 1
0
0
1
0
= 001
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
01 1
1
1

Syndrome of 00010 is [00010] * 1
0
0

0 = 010
0 1 0
0 0 1
01 1
1
1

Syndrome of 00100 is [00100] * 1
0
0

0 = 100
0 1 0
0 0 1
01 1
1
1

Syndrome of 01000 is [01000] * 1
0
0

0 = 101
0 1 0
0 0 1
01 1 1


Syndrome of 10000 is [10000] * 1
0
0
1
0
= 011
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
01 1 1


Syndrome of 11000 is [11000] * 1
0
0
1
0
= 110
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
01 1 1


Syndrome of 10100 is [10100] * 1
0
0
1
0
= 111
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
Coset Leader Syndrome
00000 000
00001 001
00010 010
00100 100
01000 101
10000 011
11000 110
10100 111
(i) Received word is xt = 01110. Syndrome of xt = 01110 is
01 1 1


[01110] * 1
0
0
1
0
 = 011
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
From the table of coset leaders and syndromes the coset leader
corresponding to 011 is 10000.
This means xt = 01110 lies in the coset whose leader is 10000.
∴ x = xt +2 10000 = 01110 +2 10000 = 11110
Finally, we know e(11) = 11110.

∴ 01110 is decoded as 11.
(ii) Received word is xt = 11100. Syndrome of xt = 11100 is
01 1 1


[11100] * 1
0
0
1
0
 = 010
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
From the table of coset leader and syndromes the coset leader
corresponding to 010 is 00010.
This means xt = 11100 lies in the coset whose leader is 00010.
∴ x = xt +2 00010 = 11100 +2 00010 = 11110.
Finally, we know e(11) = 11110.
Hence, 11100 is decoded as 11.
Example 4.26 : Consider (6, 7) parity check code. For each of the
received word, determine whether an error will be detected.
(a) 1101010, (b) 1010011, (c) 0011111, (d) 1001101.
6 7
Solution : The parity check code e : B → B is defined as
6
e(b) = b1b2 … b6b7, where, b = b1b2 … bθ ∈ B .
0 if |b| is even
and b7 = 
1 if |b| is odd
where, |b| = number of 1’s in b and it is called as its weight.
Observe that 7 is zero iff the number of 1’s in b is an even number.
∴ We conclude that every code word e(b) has even weight.
∴ A single error in the transmission of a code word will the received
word to a word of odd weight and therefore can be detected.
In general in the same way any odd number of errors can be
detected.
(a) e(b) = 1101010
has it weight equal to 4 which is even.
∴ No error will be detected by e in this case.
(b) e(b) = 1010011
has weight equal to 4 which is even.
∴ No error will be detected by e.
(c) e(b) = 0011111

has its weight equal to 5, which is odd.
∴ Error will be detected by e.
(d) e(b) = 1001101
has its weight equal to 4 which is even.
∴ No error will be detected by e.
Example 4.27 : Consider the (2, 6) encoding function e.
e(00) = 000000, e(10) = 101010, e(01) = 011110, e(11) = 111000.
(a) Find the minimum distance of a.
(b) How many errors will e detect ?
Solution : We know distance between any two code is defined as
δ(x, y) = |x ⊕ y| = number of positions in which x and y differ = weight
of x ⊕ y.
Consider ⊕ composition table.
⊕ 000000 101010 011110 111000
000000 000000 101010 011110 111000
101010 101010 000000 110100 010010
011110 011110 110100 000000 100110
111000 111000 010010 100110 000000
Consider table for δ(x, y).
δ(x, y) 000000 101010 011110 111000
000000 0 3 4 3
101010 3 0 3 2
011110 4 3 0 3
111000 3 2 3 0
min δ(x, y) = 2
x≠y
m n
Now we know, (m, n) encoding function e : B → B can defect k or
fewer errors, iff its minimum distance is atleast k + 1.
Here, min δ(x, y) = 2
x≠y
∴ Given encoding function can detect only one error.
2 5
Example 4.28 : Show that the (2, 5) encoding function e : B → B
defined by :
e(00) = 00000, e(10) = 10101, e(01) = 01110, e(11) = 11011.
Also find the minimum distance of the group code.
m n
Solution : We know that, (m,n) encoding function e : B → B is a
group code iff
m m n
range (e) = e(B ) = {e(b) | b ∈ B } is subgroup of .
Now consider composition table for range (e).
⊕ 00000 10101 01110 11011
00000 00000 10101 01110 11011
10101 10101 00000 11011 01110
01110 01110 11011 00000 10101
11011 11011 01110 10101 00000
5
From composition table, we see that range (e) is subgroup of 
2 5
Hence, e : B → B is group code.
m n
We know that, of e : B → B is a group code then the minimum
distance is minimum of weights of non-zero code word.
Now consider weights of non-zero code words.
| 10101 | = 3
| 01110 | = 3
| 11011 | = 4
∴ The minimum distance of given encoding function is 3, which is
minimum of weight of above non-zero code words.
10 1 0


Example 4.29 : Consider H = 1
1 1

0 0 . Determine the group code
0 1 0 
0 0 1 
2 5
eH : B → B , where h is called as parity check matrix of eH.
2 2 5
Solution : We have, B = {00, 10, 01, 11}. Here eH : B → B is a
function.
Now, we have group code eH is computed as below ;
e(00) = 00 x1 x2 x3
where x1 x2 x3 given by;
 1

1 1 0

x

0 1 1
x  = [0 0 0 0 0] 1 0 0 
 2
x3 
0 1 0 

0 0 1 
∴ x1 = x2 = x3 = 0
∴ eH(00) = 00000
Now, eH(10) = 10 x1 x2 x3
where, x1, x2, x3 satisfy.
 1

1 1 0

x

0 1 1
x  = [1 0 0 0 0] 1 0 0 
 2
x3 
0 1 0 

0 0 1 
∴ x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 0
∴ eH(10) = 10110
Similarly, eH(01) = 01011, eH(11) = 11101
Alternative :
5 − 3
Range (eH) = {x ∈ B | x ⋅ H = 0 in B }
10 1

0
0
= {x1x2x3x4x5

| [x x x x x ] 1
1
0

1
0 = 0
0   
1 2 3 4 4
1 0 0
0 0 
1
= {00000, 10110, 01011, 11101}
Example 4.30 : Find group code eH corresponding to parity check
 
1 1 0
 
1 0 1
0 1 1
matrix H = and find maximum likelihood decoding function

1 0 1


0 1 0
0 0 1 
d. How many errors (eH, d) correct ?
3 6
Solution : Now we find eH : B → B .
Let eH(000) = 000 x1 x2 x3
where x1, x2, x3 given by
t
x1
x  = [0 0 0 0 0 0] ⋅ H
 2
x3
∴ x1 = x2 = x3 = 0
∴ eH(000) = 0000000
Now, let eH(100) = 100 x1 x2 x3
where, x1, x2, x3 given by,
x1
x  = [1 0 0 0 0 0] ⋅ H
 2
x3
∴ x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 0.
∴ eH(100) = 100110
Similarly, eH(010) = 010101
eH(001) = 001011
eH(011) = 011110
eH(101) = 101101
eH(110) = 110011
eh(111) = 111000
∴ Range (e) = N = {000000, 001011, 010101, 011110, 100110,
101101, 110011, 111000} is group code.
6
Consider coset leader of cosets of N in B and their syndromes in
following table :
Coset leader x Syndrome x ⋅ H
000000 000
000001 001
000010 010
001000 011
000100 100
010000 101
100000 110
0001100 111
Now, we define decoding procedure to find d as below.

Suppose that we receive word 001110.
Consider syndrome of xt = 001110, which is xt ⋅ H - 101. Now, 101 is
sixth entry in second column of syndrome in above table.
xt is in the coset whose leader is ε = 010000, which is sixth entry
(corresponding to syndrome 101) in first column of above table.
∴ Now, consider x = xt ⊕ ε = 001110 ⊕ 010000 = 011110.
Since, e(011) = 011110
∴ We decode 001110 as 011.
We know that, if e is an (m, n) encoding function and d is maximum
likelihood decoding function associated with e. Then (e, d) can correct k
or fewer errors, iff minimum distance of e is atleast 2k + 1.
Now, e is group code.
Minimum of eight of non-zero
∴ Minimum distance of e =
code word in e i.e. in N
=3
∴ {e, d} can correct only one error. (‡ 2k + 1 = 3 ⇒ k = 1)
Example 4.31 : Let p = 23, q = 41 be two primes.
Let s = 41. Find t such that st = 1 (mod n).
Apply RSA method to encode massage BEAR.
Also apply RSA method to decode the massage 371, 640
Solution : Let m = pq
∴ m = 23 × 41 = 943
and n = (p − 1) (q − 1)
∴ n = (22) × (40)
∴ n = 880
Now, we find t such that,
st ≡ 1 (mod n)
Given that : s = 41
Using Euctedean algorithm, we compute
880 = 41 × 21 + 19
41 = 19 × 2 + 3
19 = 3 × 6 + 1 ∴ (s, n) = 1
Also, 1 = 19 − 3 × 6
= 19 − (41 − 19 × 2) × 6
= 19 × 13 + (− 6) × 41
= (− 6) × 41 + (880 − 41 × 21) 13
= (− 279) × 41 + 880 × 13
∴ 1 ≡ (− 279) × 41 (mod 880)
∴ t = − 279 ≡ 601 (mod 880)
Now, to encode massage BEAR with pair of letters, i.e. we have to
encode BE and AR. The pairs BE and AR are represented as integers as
below :
BE ~ 1 × 26 + 4 = 26 + 4 = 30
AR ~ 0 × 26 + 17 = 17 with base as 26.
5 5
Now, we want to compute, 30 ≡ x (mod m) and 17 ≡ y (mod m)
So, we get encoded massage x, y.
We have, s = 41
2
(30) ≡ 900 ≡ (− 43) (mod 843)
4 2
(30) ≡ (− 43) ≡ (− 37) (mod 943)
5
(30) ≡ (− 37) × (30) ≡ − 1110 ≡ − 167 (mod 943)
10 2
(30) ≡ (− 167) ≡ 27889 ≡ (− 401) (mod 943)
40 4
(30) ≡ (− 401) ≡ 160801 ≡ 491 (mod 943)
41
(30) ≡ 491 × 30 ≡ 585 (mod 943)
∴ x = 585 is encoded massage of 30.
4
Now, (17) ≡ 537 mod (943)
5
(17) ≡ (− 301) (mod 943)
20 4
(17) ≡ (− 301) (mod 943)
20 4
(17) ≡ (− 301) (mod 943)
≡ (73) (73) (mod 943)
≡ (− 329) (mod 943)
40 2
(17) ≡ (− 329) (mod 943)
40
(17) ≡ (− 204) (mod 943)
41
(17) ≡ (− 204 × 17) (mod 943)
≡ (− 3468) (mod 943) ≡ (304) (mod 943)
∴ y = 304 is encoded message of 17.
Now, x = 585 = 26 × 22 + 13
= WN
y = 304 = 26 × 11 + 18 = LS in terms of alphabets.
Now, we decode the message 371, 640 with pairs of letters.
We have, inverse of s is t.
We have to find u and v such that

t
371 ≡ u (mod n)
5
640 ≡ v (mod n)
601
i.e. 371 ≡ u mod (880)
601
640 ≡ v mod (880)
where u, v is decoded messages of 371 and 640.
2
Consider, (371) ≡ 361 (mod 880)
4 2
(371) ≡ (361) ≡ (81) (mod 880)
Continue we get,
601
(371) ≡ 03 (mod 880)
∴ u = 03 = 26 × 0 + 3 = AC with base 26
601
Similarly, (640) ≡ 107 (mod 880)
∴ v = 107 = 4 × 26 + 3 = ED with base 26
∴ Decoded message is ACED.
Example 4.32 : The public key m = 779, s = 49 has been published.
Suppose you discover n for this cryptosystem is 720. Find p and q.
Solution : We know, m = pq
n = (p − 1) (q − 1)
= pq − (p + q) + 1 = m − (p + q) + 1
So, p+q = m−n+1
Consider a quadratic equation,
(x − p) (x − q) = 0
2
i.e. x − (p + q) x + pq = 0
2
i.e. x − (m −n + 1) x + m = 0
Given that : m = 779, n = 720.
2
∴ x − 60x + 779 = 0
60 ± 3600 − 4 × 779 60 ± 484
∴ x = =
2 2
60 + 22
=
2
x = 41, 19.
∴ p = 41 and q = 19.
1226
Example 4.33 : Compute the remainder when 58 is divided by 91.
Solution : We have, 91 = 13 × 7
Since, 13 + 58 and 7 + 58.
We have, (58, 13) = 1, (58, 7) = 1
∴ (68, 91) = 1
By Euler’s theorem, 58φ(91) ≡ 1 (mod 91)
But φ(91) = φ(13) φ(7) = 12 × 6 = 72
72
∴ 58 ≡ 1 (mod 91)
Now, 1226 = 72 × 17 + 2
1226 72 17 2
∴ 58 = (58 ) ⋅ (58)
17 2
≡ (1) (58) (mod 91)
2
≡ (− 33) (mod 91) ≡ 88 (mod 91)
∴ Required remainder is 88.
Example 4.34 : (m, 3m) encoding function with m = 4. For each
received words, determine whether an error will be detected.
(a) 0011 0010 0011
(b) 1101 1100 1101
(c) 0101 1101 0011.
Solution : Now given encoding function is defined as
e(b1b2b3b4) = b1b2b3b4 b1b2b3b4 b1b2b3b4
∴ e(0000) = 0000 0000 0000
e(0001) = 0001 0001 0001
e(0010) = 0010 0010 0010
e(0100) = 0100 0100 0100
e(1000) = 1000 1000 1000
e(0011) = 0011 0011 0011
e(0101) = 0101 0101 0101
e(1010) = 1010 1010 1010
e(0110) = 0110 0110 0110
e(1100) = 1100 1100 1100
e(1001) = 1001 1001 1001
e(0111) = 0111 0111 0111
e(1011) = 1011 1011 1011

e(1101) = 1101 1101 1101
e(1110) = 1110 1110 1110
e(1111) = 1111 1111 1111
are code words.
We have, e as group code, minimum weight of non-zero code word
is 3.
∴ e can detect atmost 2 errors.
(a) Received word 0011 0010 0011 is not among code words and it
is closest to code word e(0011) = 0011 0011 0011.
∴ Error is detected at underlined place 0011 0010 0011.
(b) Received word is closet to code word e(1101) = 1101 1101 1101.
∴ Error will be detect at underline place 1101 1100 1101.
(c) Received word is closet to code word e(0101) = 0101 0101 0101.
∴ Error is detected at underlined place 0101 1101 0011.
Think Over It
Given a q-ary (n, m, d) - code, where n is fixed, the size m is a

measure of the efficiency of the code, and the distance d is an indication
of its error-correcting capability. It would be nice if both M and d could
be as large as possible.
For a given code alphabet A of size q (q > 1) and given values of n
and d, let Aq (n, d) denote the largest possible size M for which there
exists an (n, m, d) - code cover A. Thus,
Aq (n, d) = max {M : There exists an (n, m, d) - code cover A}.
Sphere-covering bound :
For an integer q > 1 and integers n, d such that 1 ≤ d ≤ n, show that
n
q
d−1 ≤ Aq (n, d).
n (q − 1)i
Σ i
i=0
Points to Remember
• Product group with examples.
n
In particular B = B × B × … B (n-factors) where R = {0, 1} a group
under addition modulo 2.
• Binary encoding functions, examples.
• Error detection, parity check code (m, m + 1).
• Weight a of word, Hamming distance between two words, minimum
distance of encoding functions with examples.
• Group codes, examples, generation of group codes by parity check
matrix.
• Decoding of encoded messages, definition and examples.
• Maximum likelihood technique for decoding.
• Decoding of group order codes using cosets, coset leaders.
• Use of parity check matrix in decoding of group codes. Syndrome of
a word.
• Public key cryptology.
2 3
1. If e : B → B is a parity (2, 3) check code, then, which of the following
is not correct.
(a) e(00) = 000 (b) e(10) = 101
(c) e(01) = 011 (d) e(11) = 11
2. If x = 110110 and y = 000101, then the distance between x and y is
……
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 3
2 6
3. Let e : B → B is the (2, 6) encoding function, given by
{000000, 011110, 101010, 111000}
Then the minimum distance of e is ……
(a) 4 (b) 2
4. If A =
1 0 1 and B = 1 1 1 be the Boolean matrices, then the
0 1 1 0 1 1
Boolean sum A ⊕ B is ……
(a)
0 1 0
(b)
1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
(c)
1 1 0
(d)
1 1 2
0 1 1 0 2 2
5. Let m and n be non-negative integers with m < n, r = n − m and let
n r
H be n × r Boolean matrix, then the function fH : B → B defined by
n
fH(x) = x * H, where x ∈ B and x + H denote the Boolean
multiplication, with x considered as a n × r now matrix. Then fH is ……
(a) group homomorphism (b) group code
(c) encoding function (d) none of these
2 5
6. Let e : B → B be a group code given by {00000, 10110, 01011,
11101}. Then the minimum distance of e is ……
(a) 0 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
Answers
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a)

6. (c)
m n
1. Parity check matrix (n × r) defines a group code : B → B , if
m + r = n.
2 5
2. The (2, 5) encoding function e : B → B defined by
e(00) = 00000, e(10) = 10101, e(01) = 01110, e(11) = 11011 is a
group code.
3. Let e be (3, 4) parity check code. If the word received is 1100,
then e will determine an error.
4. The distance between x = 101 and y = 110 is 2.
m n
5. If e : B → B is a group code, then the minimum distance of e is
the minimum weight of non-zero code word.
m n
6. An (m, n) encoding function e : B → B can detect k or fewer
errors if and only if its minimum distance is at least k + 1.
7. The Hamming distance δ(x, y) between x and y is the weight of x.
8
8. The weight of the word 01110011 is B is 5.
9. If B = {0, 1} is group under the binary operation addition modulo

n
2, then B is a group of order n.
Answers
(1) True (2) True (3) False

(4) True (5) True (6) True
[C] Numerical Problems :
10 
1 1 1
 
0 1
1 1
1. Let H = be the parity check matrix. Find the encoding
10 0 0

0 1 0
0 1
3
 6
function. eH : B → B . How many errors will it correct ?
2. Find the Hamming distance between the code words of
S = {0000, 0101, 1011, 0111}.
1 1 0 1 0 0
 
3. Given the parity check matrix, H = 0 1 1 0 1 0 . Find the
 
1 0 1 0 0 1
minimum distance of the code generated by H. How many errors
it can detect the correct.
4. Suppose the code C is given by C = {0000, 0011, 1101, 1110},
2 4
which is the range of the encoding function e : B → B . Decode
the code word 1001.
2 5
5. Find the minimum distance of an encoding function e : B → B
given as :
e(00) = 00000, e(10) = 01110, e(11) = 10011, e(11) = 11111.
11 10
Let the parity check matrix be H = 
1 0
6. .
 0 1
2 4 2
(a) Find the group code eH : B → B , N = eH(B ).
(b) Find all 4 cosets of N with coset leaders.
(c) Find the syndrome of the coset leaders.
(d) Decode the word xt = 0011.
Answers
1. {000000, 001011, 010101, 011110, 100111, 101100, 110010,

111001}.
It is a single error correcting function.
2. If x = 0000, y = 0101, z = 1011, w = 0111.
Thus, δ(x, y) = 2, δ(x, z) = 3, δ(x, w) = 3,
δ(y, z) = 3, δ(y, w) = 1, δ(z, w) = 2.
3. Minimum of the code is 3. I can correct single error. So it is single
correcting code.
4. 1001 is decoded as 1101.
5. Minimum distance is 2.
6. (a) N = {0000, 0110, 1011, 1101}
(b) Coset leader
↓
0000 0110 1011 1101
0001 0111 1010 1100
0010 0100 1001 1111
1000 1110 0011 0101
(c)
Coset leader Syndrome
0000 00
0001 01
0010 10
1000 11
(d) d(0011) = 10.
✍✍✍
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
S.Y.B.Sc. Computer Science
MTC - 231 : GROUPS AND CODING THEORY
(2020 Pattern) Semester - III : Paper - I
Time : 2 Hours Total Marks : 35
Note : 1. All questions are compulsory.
2. Figures to the right indicate full marks.
Q.1. Attempt any five of the following : [5]

(a) Write down the elements U(15) and find its order.
4
(b) Let G = <a> be a cyclic group of order 20; and H = <a > be a
subgroup of G. Find all the left cosets of H in G.
(c) Express the permutation α = (1, 2), (1, 3, 4), (1, 5, 2) as product of
disjoint cycles.
(d) Find the Hamming distance between the code words of
S = {0000, 0101, 1011, 0111}.
1 1 0 1 0 0
 
(e) Given the parity check matrix, H = 0 1 1 0 1 0 . Find the
 
1 0 1 0 0 1
minimum distance of the code generated by H.
Q.2. (A) Attempt any one of the following : [6]
(a) Let G be a group and let a belongs to G. If a has finite order n,
2 n−1 i j
then prove that <a> = {e, a, a , …, a } and a = a , if and only if
n divides i − j.
(b) Let H be a subgroup of G,then for any a and b, prove that :
(i) either aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = φ, and
−1
(ii) aH = bH if and only if if a b ∈ H.
(B) Attempt any one of the following : [4]
−1
(a) (i) If α is even permutation, then show that α is also even.
(ii) Let α =
1 2 3 4 5 6 , find α−1 and α is even or odd.
2 1 3 5 4 6
M.1
Groups & Coding Theory M.2 Model Question Paper
 a a 
(b) Let G =  a a a ∈ ú and a ≠ 0  . Show that G is group under
 
matrix multiplication.
Q.3. (A) Attempt any one of the following : [6]
(a) (i) Let G be a group and H a non-empty subset of G, then prove
−1
that H is subgroup of G if and only if ab ∈ H, for all a, b in
H.
(ii) State the condition for additive groups.
11 10
Let the parity check matrix, H = 
1 0
(b) .
 0 1
2 4 2
(i) Find the group code eH : B → B , N = eH(B ).
(ii) Find all 4 cosets of N with coset leaders.
(iii) Find the syndrome of the coset leaders.
(iv) Decode the word xt = 0011.
(B) Attempt any one of the following : [4]
(a) Prove that, the intersection of the two subgroups of a group is
again a subgroup. What about the union of two subgroups ?
Justify.
(b) Apply RSA method to encode the message “BE” where p = 23,
q = 41 and s = 41.
✍✍✍

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GR O U P S A N D

N. M. Phatangare Dr. S. G. Purane

2. Groups 2.1 – 2.20

3. Finite Groups and Subgroups 3.1 – 3.64

4. Coding Theory 4.1 − 4.54

Model Question Paper M.1 – M.2

The third axiom (above) is called the induction axiom.

will try to illustrate each definition or result by a particular numerical

2. Let a, b ∈ Z. If a | b, b ≠ 0 then a ≤ b . Since a | b, by

c ≠ 0, c ≥ 1. Note that if a is proper divisor of b, then a ≠ ± b,

hence a ≠ b , so that a < b .

3. Let a, b ∈Z and a.b = 1. Then by definition, 1 = a.b implies a | 1,

since a ≠ 0, hence a = 1. This shows a = ± 1. Thus, a.b = 1 has

4. Let a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 be in Z. If a | b and b | a, then a = ± b. For, a | b

Theorem 1 Let a, b, c, d be integers. Then

1. If a | b, then a | (bx), for any x ∈ Z.

4. Note m ≠ 0 implies that am ≠ 0, since a ≠ 0. Since a | b, we have

Theorem 2 Division Algorithm (Without Proof) : If a and b are any

b = aq + r, where 0 ≤ r < a (April 14, 16, 18)

Proof: Case (i): If a > 0:

Hence S is a non-empty subset of ù ∪ { 0 }.

Case (ii): If a < 0:

Then a > 0, so replacing 'a' by a we can apply case (i) to b and

a , therefore we have from (1) above,

b = a q' + r, 0 ≤ r< a … (2)

for q', r ∈ Z. Now a = – a, ( ... a < 0)

⇒ b = aq + r, 0 ≤ r < a , put (– q' ) = q.

and b = aq' + r', where 0 ≤ r' < a

0 = a (q – q') + (r – r'), with 0 ≤ r, r' < a … (4)

⇒ r – r' = a (q' – q), with r – r' < a

⇒ a | (r – r') | with r – r' < a .

Theorem 3 Any two non-zero integers a and b have a unique (positive)

b = aq1 + r1, where, 0 ≤ r1 < a … (1)

If r1 = 0, then a | b and (a, b) = a . If r1 ≠ 0, i.e. r1 > 0, then from (1)

So, we have; r2 = r3 q4 + r4, where, 0 ≤ r4 < r3 … (6)

1. Find g.c.d. ‘d’ of 31 and 13 and obtain pair of integers m and n

Relatively prime integers: Two integers a and b are said to be

We shall show that g is L.C.M. of a and b. Clearly g is positive and

∴ a | g. Similarly, we can show b | g. Let c be positive integer such

c = (k1 k2 d) (mq + np)

Now, let us prove the uniqueness of g. If possible, suppose g' is

(... g' is L.C.M.).

More generally, if a and b are integers and n is positive integer, we

By above example, we get (ab, m) = 1.

Example 1.6: If a, b, c are integers such that a | bc and (a, b) = 1, then

= 2947 × 31 – [3997 – 2947 × 1] × 87, by using (6)

Solution: We have, by D.A.,

1.3 Prime and Composite Numbers

Composite: A non-zero integer 'a' is called composite if 'a' has a

Theorem 5 (Euclid's Lemma): If p is prime and a, b are integers such

Now, suppose p | (a1 . a2 …ak . ak + 1)

⇒ p | (a1 . a2 … ak) or p | ak + 1, by theorem. If p | ak + 1, then i = k + 1.

If p | (a1 . a2 … ak ), then by induction hypothesis, p | ai, for at least one

Thus, p | ai for at least one i (1 ≤ i ≤ k + 1) and the result is true for

Theorem 6 (Unique Factorization Theorem): Every integer a > 1

Again p2 | (q1 · q2 … qj–1 · qj+1 … qr), p2 is prime it must divide at least

Proof: Clearly a > 1, so by previous theorem, we have

a = p1 . p2 … pk , where pi's are primes and the expression is unique.

1. Express 1757051 in canonical form.