Gondwanan Glacial Events and their Influence on Petroleum Systems in Arabia*

By
Andy Bell and Pieter Spaak1
1

Search and Discovery Article #30047 (2007)

Posted January 29, 2007

*Adapted from extended abstract prepared for 2006 AAPG International Conference and Exhibition; November 5-8, 2006; Perth,
Australia

1
Shell International Exploration and Production BV, Kesslerpark 1, 2280AB Rijswijk, The Netherlands (andy.bell@shell.com)

Introduction

Throughout the period from the Late Proterozoic to the end of the Palaeozoic, the Arabian Peninsula was part of
Gondwana and lay at moderate to high latitudes in the southern hemisphere. Several glacial episodes are
identified during this time across Gondwana, and four distinct glacial events are recorded in the sedimentary
record of the Arabian Peninsula (Figure 1). Three of these glacial events can be clearly linked to petroleum
systems, not only in the deposition of reservoirs, but also in the deposition of source rock facies.

Figure 1: Stratigraphic synopsis across Arabia showing glacial events.

 Precambrian Glacial Sediments
The oldest two glaciations are known only from Oman where Infracambrian basins are preserved, and glacial
sediments are known both from outcrop (Le Guerroué et al., 2005) and the subsurface. The oldest of these
glaciations is Sturtian in age and is unequivocally exposed in the Oman Mountains, where it has been dated by
U-Pb radiometric dating of volcanically derived zircons (723+16/-10 Ma; Brasier et al., 2000). Glacial
sediments are also exposed in the area of Murbat, 70 km east of the city of Salalah in south Oman. Diamictites
have been penetrated on many occasions in the subsurface of Oman, and there is evidence that these are in part
derived form the Marinoan glaciations. An unpublished U-Pb age in diamictites from the subsurface has been
measured at 635 Ma. It is likely that the Fiq Formation of the Oman Mountains, as well as many of the glacial
sections penetrated in the subsurface, are related to this younger, Marinoan glaciation. Many wells show that
this sequence is terminated by a cap carbonate, which in turn is overlain by organic rich shales.

In the outcrops of Murbat, the top few metres of the glacial diamictite unit show sedimentary features consistent
with reworking, including clast-supported conglomerates and cross-bedded sandstones. Conformably overlying
the diamictites is a 2-m-thick dolomite unit with domal stromatolites at the top. The stromatolites are abruptly
overlain by several metres of laminated, fissile shales. Although this shale has no measured TOC, possibly
through surface oxidation, the lamination is consistent with organic-rich shales that are found to overlie the cap
carbonates in the subsurface. Hydrocarbon fluid inclusions are also seen in the cap carbonate at this location.

In the subsurface there are no commercial hydrocarbons reservoired in the glacial sediments; however, the
organic-rich shales above the cap carbonate have been shown to be of source-rock quality. They are believed to
be the source for low-gravity oils and oil stains found in Infracambrian-aged turbiditic sediments above the
glacial sediments in central Oman. Although, by far not the most prolific of the Infracambrian source rocks of
Oman, they have made contributions to some Oman fields.

The Ashgillian Glaciation (Figure 2)

In the Arabian Peninsula there is widespread evidence of the latest Ordovician Hirnantian Glaciation. In
McClure (1978) the evidence from outcrop sections can be seen, while McGillivray and Husseini (1992) show
evidence of glacially scoured channels in the subsurface. This glacial event is described from many locations in
North Africa. The South Pole was positioned at this time in the west of North Africa in present-day Mauritania.
The position of channels and tunnel valleys at the surface and from the subsurface in Arabia suggest that the
glaciated area was to the west in the region of the Nubian and Arabian shield and that sediment transport was
toward the present-day east and northeast. The abrupt end to glaciation in the Ordovician is marked by an
extensive marine flood that deposited organic-rich “hot shale” across large parts of the Arabian Plate.

Figure 2: Position of glaciated areas through the Palaeozoic. Left: Ashgillian latest Ordovician; Center: Frasnian Late
Devonian; Right: Late Carboniferous / Early Permian.
The deglaciation flood at the base of the Llandovery provides the ideal conditions for the deposition of source
rocks. The availability of extensive flooded shelves with restricted circulation and high productivity results in
the formation of an extensive source rock. The reducing conditions at the seabed were sufficient to produce
extensive framboidal pyrite and organic matter rich in radioactive elements. This gives the distinctive “hot”
response on gamma ray logs. This base Silurian source rock is a proven source for hydrocarbons throughout the
margin of the Gondwana continent, from Algeria in the west to Oman in the east. It is believed to be
one of the main source rocks for the North Field in Qatar as well as a source for accumulations such as Hawtah
(oil in the Unayzah) and Ghawar (gas in Khuff and Unayzah) in Saudi Arabia, as well as the Sahmah oilfield in
Oman. In these fields, the Silurian is the source for stratigraphically younger reservoirs; however, there is
evidence that the Silurian source rock can also expel downward into older formations, in particular the glacial-
related sediments that underlie the source rock. The Risha field in Jordan and the Akkas field in Iraq fall in this
category.

The Late Carboniferous Glaciation (Figure 2)

After the Silurian flooding event in Arabia and the subsequent deposition of a sequence dominated by fluvial
and marine sandstones, the plate was affected by a series of uplift events culminating in the Carboniferous-aged
Hercynian event. This resulted in the peneplanation of a large part of the Arabian Plate, combined with the
discrete re-activation and inversion of some older structural features. This unconformity surface was then
sculpted by a series of glacial valleys and the widespread deposition of glacial sediments in the Late
Carboniferous. These are described by Levell et al. (1988) from Oman and Al-Husseini (2004) from Saudi
Arabia. The sediments of the glacial Al Khlata Formation in Oman and Unayzah C in Saudi Arabia are
characterised by diamictites and interbedded shales and sandstones, representing a series of glacial and peri-
glacial environments. In places in central Saudi Arabia, deposition of Carboniferous glacial sediment
immediately above the Hercynian unconformity has resulted in the juxtaposition with Silurian shales associated
with the deglaciation after the Ordovician glaciation.

Above the glacial sediments there are laterally extensive lacustrine shales that in Oman are termed the Rahab
Member. Diamictites are essentially absent from units above these shales, and as such these may represent the
deglaciation event. Unlike the base Silurian deglaciation event, the deglaciation in the Late Carboniferous did
not result immediately in a marine flood, but instead in a rise in base level, the formation of bodies of standing
water, and extensive root-bed horizons. Above the Rahab Member, the fluvial and marine sandstones and
siltstones of the Gharif Formation (Oman) and Unayzah A (Saudi Arabia) are deposited.
The glacial and peri-glacial sandstones of the Unayzah and Al Khlata (as well as the post-glacial sands of the
Gharif Formation) are proven reservoirs for both oil and gas in Arabia. In Oman this results mainly from charge
from Infracambrian source rocks, whereas in Saudi Arabia these are charged almost exclusively from the
Silurian source rock. The Rahab shales, representing the end of glaciation, are responsible for seals in many of
these reservoirs. Hakami et al. (2005) have presented that there is potential for these lacustrine shales to be
source rocks in Saudi Arabia. Oils have been discovered with a waxy lacustrine character, and the de-glaciation
lakes are the prime candidates as the source.

Discussion

The glacial events that have affected the Arabian Plate have had a major impact on the petroleum systems in
this region. Three of these glaciations have resulted in the deposition of source rocks, all in the de-glaciation
phase immediately following the final glaciation. The oldest two of these, the Marinoan and Ordovician glacial
events, have resulted in marine source rocks associated with the original post-glacial flood, while the younger
Carboniferous glaciation has a probable lacustrine source rock associated with a rise in base level. The reason
why the Carboniferous is not associated with a marine flood source rock is not completely understood;
however, the rise in land plants causing greater soil stability and possibly more common floodplain lakes may
have played a role. In addition the fact that the Carboniferous glaciation is also associated with the first
extensional events leading to the opening of Neo-Tethys may also have been a control on sedimentation.

The younger two glacial events (Carboniferous and Ordovician) are both associated with glacial sandstone
reservoirs, while this is not true of the Marinoan. The presence of hydrocarbon fluid inclusions in the cap
carbonate of Murbat suggests that similar-style downward migration is possible, and the clast-supported and
reworked sediments at the top of the diamictite package show that reservoirs are possible. The absence of
accumulations could be a result of charge-timing issues, the effectiveness of Precambrian cap carbonates as
seals to downward migration, or, most intriguingly, the stage of exploration in that these hydrocarbons have not
yet been discovered.

References

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