BHARAT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Mangalpally, Ibrahimpatnam-501510.
Department of Electronics & Communication
Engineering
II Year B.Tech II Sem ECE

LINEAR IC APPLICATIONS
Short Answer Questions& Answers

Unit I: Integrated Circuits

1. Define an Integrated circuit.

An integrated circuit (IC) is a miniature ,low cost electronic circuit consisting of active and passive
components fabricated together on a single crystal of silicon.The active components are transistors and
diodes and passive components are resistors and capacitors.

2. Mention the advantages of integrated circuits.

 Miniaturization and hence increased equipment density.
 Cost reduction due to batch processing.
 Increased system reliability due to the elimination of soldered joints.
 Improved functional performance.
 Matched devices.
 Increased operating speeds.
 Reduction in power consumption.

3. Define an operational amplifier.

An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled, high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential
amplifier. By properly selecting the external components, it can be used to perform a variety of
mathematical operations.

4. Mention the characteristics of an ideal op-amp.

* Open loop voltage gain is infinity.
*Input impedance is infinity.
*Output impedance is zero.
*Bandwidth is infinity.
*Zero offset.

5. What happens when the common terminal of V+ and V- sources is not grounded?
If the common point of the two supplies is not grounded, twice the supply voltage will get applied and
it may damage the op-amp.

6. Define input offset voltage.

A small voltage applied to the input terminals to make the output voltage as zero when the two input
terminals are grounded is called input offset voltage.
7. Define input offset current. State the reasons for the offset currents at the input of the op-amp.
The difference between the bias currents at the input terminals of the op-amp is called as input offset
current. The input terminals conduct a small value of dc current to bias the input transistors. Since the
input transistors cannot be made identical,there exists a difference in bias currents.

8. Define CMRR of an op-amp.

The relative sensitivity of an op-amp to a difference signal as compared to a common mode signal is
called the common mode rejection ratio. It is expressed in decibels.
CMRR= Ad/Ac

9. Define slew rate.

The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a step input
voltage. An ideal slew rate is infinite which means that op-amp’s output voltage should change
instantaneously in response to input step voltage.

10. What are the popular IC packages available?

 Metal can package.
 Dual-in-line package.
 Ceramic flat package.

Unit II: OP-AMP & Applications

1. Define Virtual ground property of an OP-AMP.

A virtual ground is a ground which acts like a ground. It may not have physical connection to ground.
This property of an ideal op-amp indicates that the inverting and non-inverting terminals of op-amp are
at the same potentials. The non-inverting input is grounded for the inverting amplifier circuit. This
means that the inverting input of the op-amp is also at ground potential.

2. Why open loop op-amp configurations is not used in linear applications?

a. The open loop gain of the op-amp is very high. Therefore only the smaller signals having low
frequency may be amplified accurately without distortion.
b. Open loop Voltage gain of the op-amp is not a constant voltage gain varies with changes in
temperature and power supply as well as mass production techniques. This makes op-amp unsuitable
for many linear applications
c. Bandwidth of most open loop op-amps is negligibly small or almost zero therefore op-amp is
impractical in ac applications.

3. Mention some of the linear applications of op – amps :

Adder, subtractor, voltage –to- current converter, current –to- voltage converters, instrumentation
amplifier, analog computation, power amplifier, etc are some of the linear op-amp circuits.

4. Mention some of the non – linear applications of op-amps:-

Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit, log amplifier, anti –log amplifier,
multiplier are some of the non – linear op-amp circuits.

5. What are the areas of application of non-linear op- amp circuits?

 industrial instrumentation
 Communication
 Signal processing
6. What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier?
In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of physical quantities is usually
done with the help of transducers. The output of transducer has to be amplified So that it can drive the
indicator or display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation amplifier.

7. List the features of instrumentation amplifier.

 high gain accuracy
 high CMRR
 high gain stability with low temperature co-efficient
 low dc offset
 low output impedance

8. What are the applications of V-I converter?

 Low voltage dc and ac voltmeter
 LED
 Zener diode tester

9. What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit?

 At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break into oscillations.
 The input impedance decreases with increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive to
high frequency noise.

10. Write down the condition for good differentiation.

For good differentiation, the time period of the input signal must be greater than or equal to R f Cf
T > R f Cf
where, Rf is the feedback resistance and Cf is the input capacitance

11. What is a comparator?

A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op-amp with a
known reference voltage at the other input. It is an open loop op - amp with output + Vsat .

12. What are the applications of comparator?

 Zero crossing detector
 Window detector
 Time marker generator
 Phase detector

13. What is a Schmitt trigger?

Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. It converts sinusoidal input into a square wave output. The
output of Schmitt trigger swings between upper and lower threshold voltages, which are the reference
voltages of the input waveform.

14. What is a multivibrator?

Multivibrators are a group of regenerative circuits that are used extensively in timing applications. It is
a wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or asymmetric square output. It has two states either
stable or quasi- stable depending on the type of multivibrator.

15. What do you mean by monostable multivibrator?

Monostable multivibrator is one which generates a single pulse of specified duration in response
to each external trigger signal. It has only one stable state. Application of a trigger causes a change to
the quasi-stable state.An external trigger signal generated due to charging and discharging of the
capacitor produces the transition to the original stable state.
16. What is an astable multivibrator?
Astable multivibrator is a free running oscillator having two quasi-stable states. Thus, there is an
oscillation between these two states and no external signal are required to produce the change in state.

17. What are the advantages of IC voltage regulators?

 low cost
 high reliability
 reduction in size
 excellent performance

18. Give some examples of monolithic IC voltage regulators.

 78XX series fixed output, positive voltage regulators
 79XX series fixed output, negative voltage regulators
 723 general purpose regulator.

19. Define line regulation.

Line regulation is defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a change in the input
voltage. It is expressed in millivolts or as a percentage of the output voltage.

20. Define load regulation.

Load regulation is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in load current. It is expressed
in millivolts or as a percentage of the output voltage.

Unit III: Active Filters & Oscillators

1. What is a filter?
Filter is a frequency selective circuit that passes signal of specified band of frequencies and attenuates
the signals of frequencies outside the band

2. What are the demerits of passive filters?

Passive filters works well for high frequencies. But at audio frequencies, the inductors become
problematic, as they become large, heavy and expensive. For low frequency applications, more number
of turns of wire must be used which in turn adds to the series resistance degrading inductor’s
performance i.e., low Q, resulting in high power dissipation.

3. What are active filters?

Active filters used op- amp as the active element and resistors and capacitors as passive elements.
 By enclosing a capacitor in the feed back loop , inductor less active filters can be obtained.
 Op-amp used in non– inverting configuration offers high input impedance and low output
impedance, thus improving the load drive capacity.

4. What are the advantages of active filters over the passive filters?
Active filters use amplifying elements, especially op amps, with resistors and capacitors in their
feedback loops, to synthesize the desired filter characteristics. Active filters can have high input
impedance, low output impedance, and virtually any arbitrary gain. They are also usually easier to
design than passive filters. Possibly their most important attribute is that they lack inductors, thereby
reducing the problems associated with those components.

5. Mention some commonly used active filters:

 Low pass filter
 High pass filter
 Band pass filter
 Band reject filter

6. What are the requirements for producing sustained oscillations in feedback circuits?
For sustained oscillations, magnitude of the loop gain should be equal to unity and the total phase shift
around the loop must be zero at the desired frequency of oscillation.
Avβ =1Ð 0o

7. Mention any two audio frequency oscillators.

 RC phase shift oscillator
 Wein bridge oscillator

8. What is a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)?

Voltage controlled oscillator is a free running multivibrator operating at a set frequency called the free
running frequency. This frequency can be shifted to either side by applying a dc control voltage and the
frequency deviation is proportional to the dc control voltage.

9. On what parameters does the free running frequency of VCO depend on?
 External timing resistor, RT
 External timing capacitor, CT
 The dc control voltage Vc.
10. Give the expression for the VCO free running frequency.
fo = 0.25 / RT CT
where RT , CT are externally connected resistor and capacitor respectively.

Unit IV: Timers & Phase Locked Loops

1.Mention some applications of 555 timer:

 Oscillator
 pulse generator
 ramp and square wave generator
 mono-shot multivibrator
 burglar alarm
 traffic light control.

2. List the applications of 555 timer in monostable mode of operation:

 missing pulse detector
 Linear ramp generator
 Frequency divider
 Pulse width modulation.

3. List the applications of 555 timer in astable mode of operation:

 FSK generator
 Pulse-position modulator

4. List the basic building blocks of PLL:

 Phase detector/comparator
 Low pass filter
 Error amplifier
 Voltage controlled oscillator
5. Mention some areas where PLL is widely used:
 Radar synchronization
 Satellite communication systems
 Air borne navigational systems
 FM communication systems
 Computers.

6. What are the three stages through which PLL operates?

 Free running
 Capture
 Locked/ tracking

7. Define lock-in range of a PLL.

The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock with the incoming signal is called the
lock-in range or tracking range. It is expressed as a percentage of the VCO free running frequency.

8. Define capture range of PLL.

The range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock with an input signal is called the capture
range. It is expressed as a percentage of the VCO free running frequency.

9. Define pull-in time.

The total time taken by the PLL to establish lock is called pull-in time. It depends on the initial phase
and frequency difference between the two signals as well as on the overall loop gain and loop filter
characteristics.

10. For perfect lock, what should be the phase relation between the incoming signal and VCO
output signal?
The VCO output should be 90 degrees out of phase with respect to the input signal.

Unit V: D/A & A/D Converters

1. List the broad classification of ADCs.

1. Direct type ADC.
2. Integrating type ADC.

2. List out the direct type ADCs.

1. Flash (comparator) type converter
2. Counter type converter
3. Tracking or servo converter
4. Successive approximation type converter

3. List out some integrating type converters.

1. Charge balancing ADC
2. Dual slope ADC

4. What is integrating type converter?

An ADC converter that perform conversion in an indirect manner by first changing the analog I/P
signal to a linear function of time or frequency and then to a digital code is known as integrating
type A/D converter.
5. Explain in brief the principle of operation of successive Approximation ADC.
The circuit of successive approximation ADC consists of a successive approximation register (SAR), to
find the required value of each bit by trial and error. With the arrival of START command, SAR sets
the MSB bit to 1. The output is converted into an analog signal and it is compared with input signal.
This output is low or high. This process continues until all bits are checked.

6. What are the main advantages of integrating type ADCs?

i. The integrating type of ADC’s doing not need a sample/Hold circuit at the input.
ii. It is possible to transmit frequency even in noisy environment or in an isolated form.

7. Where are the successive approximation type ADCs used?

The Successive approximation ADCs are used in applications such as data loggers & instrumentation
where conversion speed is important.

8. What is the main drawback of a dual-slop ADC?

The dual slope ADC has long conversion time. This is the main drawback of dual slope ADC.

9. State the advantages of dual slope ADC.

It provides excellent noise rejection of ac signals whose periods are integral multiples of the
integration time T.

10. Define conversion time.

It is defined as the total time required to convert an analog signal into its digital output. It depends on
the conversion technique used & the propagation delay of circuit components.
The conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is given by
TC= T(n+1)
where T = Clock period
Tc = Conversion time
N = Number of bits

11. Define resolution of a data converter.

The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produced at the output or
input of the converter.
Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment. The resolution of an ADC is defined as the
smallest change in analog input for a one bit change at the output.

12. Define accuracy of converter.

Absolute accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation between the actual converter output & the ideal converter output.
Relative accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation after gain & offset errors have been removed.
The accuracy of a converter is also specified in form of LSB increments or % of full scale voltage.

13. What is settling time?

It represents the time it takes for the output to settle within a specified band ±LSB of its final value
following a code change at the input (usually a full scale change). It depends upon the switching time of
the logic circuitry due to internal parasitic capacitance & inductances. Settling time ranges from 100ns.
10ms depending on word length and type of the circuit used.

14. Explain in brief stability of a converter.

The performance of converter changes with temperature age & power supply variation . So all the
relevant parameters such as offset, gain, linearity error & monotonicity must be specified over the full
temperature & power supply ranges to have better stability performances.

15. What is meant by linearity?

The linearity of an ADC/DAC is an important measure of its accuracy & tells us how close the
converter output is to its ideal transfer characteristics. The linearity error is usually expressed as a
fraction of LSB increment or percentage of full-scale voltage. A good converter exhibits a linearity
error of less than ± ½ LSB.

16. What is monotonic DAC?

A monotonic DAC is one whose analog output increases for an increase in digital input.

17.What are the advantages and disadvantages of R-2R ladder DAC.

Advantages:
a) Easier to build accurately as only two precision metal films are required.
b) Number of bits can be expanded by adding more sections of same R/2R values.

Disadvantage:
a) In this type of DAC, when there is a change in the input, changes the current flow in the resistor
which causes more power dissipation which creates non-linearity in DAC.

18. Define start of conversion and end of conversion.

Start of Conversion in ADC (SOC): This is the control signal for start of conversion which initiates
A/D conversion process.
End of Conversion in ADC (EOC): This is the control signal which is activated when the conversion
is completed.

19.What is a sample and hold circuit? Where it is used?

A sample and hold circuit is one which samples an input signal and holds on to its last sampled value
until the input is sampled again. This circuit is mainly used in digital interfacing, analog to digital
systems, and pulse code modulation systems.

20. Define sample period and hold period.

The time during which the voltage across the capacitor in sample and hold circuit is equal to the input
voltage is called sample period. The time period during which the voltage across the capacitor is held
constant is called hold period.

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