Chain Surveying

UNIT 2 CHAIN SURVEYING

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Instruments
2.2.1 Chains
2.2.2 Tapes
2.2.3 Other Auxiliary Equipment
2.3 Procedures of Chain Surveying
2.3.1 Principle
2.3.2 Technical Terms
2.4 Operations Involved in Chain Surveying
2.4.1 Marking the Stations
2.4.2 Ranging
2.4.3 Measurement of Surveys Lines
2.4.4 Offset Measurements
2.5 Errors and Obstacles in Chaining
2.5.1 Errors in Chaining
2.5.2 Errors in Traversing
2.5.3 Obstacles in Chain Surveying
2.6 Recording of Measurements
2.7 Summary
2.8 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In plane surveying, we usually measure horizontal linear distances between two
points and angles between two lines. The linear measurement of distance between
two points on the earth’s surface can be carried out by several methods depending
upon the degree of accuracy and precision required.
Chain surveying is the simplest method of surveying in which only linear
measurements are made in the field. It is suitable for survey of smaller areas on
open ground to obtain measurements for plotting exact description of boundaries
of a piece of land or for taking simple details. The principle of chain surveying is
to provide a framework consisting of a number of connected triangles, as the
triangle is the only simple figure that can be plotted from the lengths of its side
measured in the field. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of
triangles and the sides of the triangle are measured in the field. To get good
results in plotting, the framework should consist of triangles which are as nearly
equilateral as possible. Preferably all the sides of a triangle should be nearly equal
having each angle nearly 60o to ensure minimum distortion due to errors in
measurements of sides and plotting.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• identify equipment and instruments used for chain surveying,
Elements of Survey • describe the principles and procedures of chain surveying like fixing
of survey stations, ranging of survey lines and setting of offsets,
• explain the errors and obstacles in chain surveying, and
• record the measurements in the field book.

2.2 INSTRUMENTS
Various methods used for linear measurements of distances between two points
on the earth’s surface can be broadly classified (based on instruments used) as :
(a) direct measurements by chain or tape,
(b) measurements by optical instruments and/or with calculation, e.g.
tachometry or triangulation, telemeter, substance bar etc. and
(c) electronic devices, e.g. Geodimeter, Distomat, EDM etc. based on
propogation, reflection and reception of radio/light waves.
The most commonly used method of measuring linear distances particularly in
field and engineering surveys is by chain or tape. This process of measuring
distances by chain is termed chain surveying.
2.2.1 Chains
The basic instrument or equipment used in chain surveying is a chain or a tape. A
survey chain is generally composed of 100 or 150 links formed by pieces of
galvanised mild steel wire of 4 mm diameter. The ends of each link are looped
and connected together by means of three circular or oval shaped wire rings to
provide flexibility to chain. The length of each link is measured as the distance
between the centres of two consecutive middle rings. The joints of links are
welded to avoid length changes due to stretching.
The ends of chain are provided with brass handles with swivel joints. This helps
in turning the chain without twisting. The end link length includes the length of
handle and is measured from the outside of the handle, which is considered as
zero point or the chain end. Tallies, which are metallic tags of different patterns,
are provided at suitably specified points in the chain to facilitate quick and easy
reading. A semi-circular grove is provided in the centre on the outer periphery of
handle of chain for fixing the mild steel arrow at the end of one chain length.
The number of links in a chain could be 100 in a 20 m chain and 150 in a 30 m
chain. The details of a metric chain are as shown in Figure 2.1.

200 200
13
113
58 Ring
16
Link Small
Link Large

75

Eye Bolt m
Ring Connecting Link Tally
Collar (Oval Shaped) (Brass Tags
at every 5 m)

Figure 2.1 : Details of Metric Chain

The chain can be used conveniently in a rugged terrain and can be subjected to Chain Surveying
rough use under adverse site conditions. It can be read easily by even
semi-literate persons. However, the length is liable to be changed due to
continued usage. Its comparatively heavy weight may cause sagging in the chain
thereby affecting the measurement accuracy.
2.2.2 Tapes
Tapes can be used for more accurate measurements of lengths. They are lighter
and easier to handle and comparatively less liable to change in length than chain.
Depending on the material, these can be of following types :
(a) Cloth or linen tape
(b) Metallic tape
(c) Steel tape or Steel band
(d) Invar tape
(e) Fiber glass tape
Cloth or linen tapes are 12 to 15 mm wide closely woven linen varnished for
moisture proofing. Commonly used lengths are 10 m, 20 m, and 30 m. Since these
are liable to shrink when wet and alter in length due to twisting or stretching,
these are rarely used for accurate measurements. The better ones are interwoven
with small brass, copper or bronze wires to provide strength and resistance to
shrinkage and stretching. These are available in range varying from 2 m to 50 m
in length.
For accurate measurements, steel tapes are used. These consist of light strip of
steel with width ranging from 6 to 10 mm, in lengths of 2 to 50 m. Alternatively,
steel bands consisting of ribbon of steel with brass swivel handle at each end are
used. The width is usually 16 mm and length of 20 or 30 m.
Steel tapes and bands can be more accurately graduated. The graduations are
etched as meters, decimeters and centimeters on one side and 0.2 m links on other
side. Band is normally divided by brass studs at every 20 cm and numbered at
every one metre. The tapes and bands are very delicate and hence not suitable for
rough usage. These also require frequent cleaning and drying to avoid rusting. It
is also difficult to read as compared to chain.
Invar tapes of alloy of Nickel (36%) and steel can be used for higher accuracy as
their coefficient of thermal expansion is very low. However, it is costly and more
delicate in use. In recent times, fibreglass tapes are extensively used in the field
survey because of its low thermal expansion, cheapness, strength, ruggedness and
durability. These are available in ranges varying from 5 m to 30 m in length.
2.2.3 Other Auxiliary Equipment
In addition to chain or tape, several other auxiliary equipment are required in a
chain surveying exercise. These are listed in subsequent paragraphs.
Arrows
Arrows or chain pins, as these are called sometime, are made of stout steel
wire 4 mm in diameter, 400 to 450 mm long and black enameled. These are
used to mark the end of each chain length as shown in Figure 2.2(a).
Wooden Pegs
These are made of stout timber generally 25 to 30 mm square or circular
size and 150 mm long as shown in Figure 2.2(b). Wooden pegs are
normally used to mark station position on ground on a quasi-permanent
state. These are tapered at one end so that they can be driven in the ground
Elements of Survey with a hammer. These are kept at about 40 mm (minimum) projecting above
the ground.
Flag

mm 25 to 30 mm 3m
50

Plan 200 mm White Band

400 to 450 ± 5 mm
4 mm dia black 200 mm Black Band
Enameled Wire

150 mm

Shoe 150 mm

(a) Arrow (b) Wooden Peg (c) Ranging Rod

c d

A B
Upper Prism Lower Prism
a b

Eye
(d) Plumb Bob (e) Line Ranger

Figure 2.2 : Auxiliary Equipment

Ranging Rods
These are octagonal or circular in plan normally 25 to 30 mm diameter
straight timber or tubular steel rods, 3 m in length and provided with an iron
shoe at lower end as shown in Figure 2.2(c). These are painted in black and
white alternate bands and normally have a flag at the top for easy
recognition and identification from a distance. If the ranging roads are
graduated in meters and one tenth of a meter, they are called offset rods and
are used for measurement of short offsets.
Plumb Bob
It is usually heavy spherical or conical ball, as shown in Figure 2.2(d), of
metal and is used to transfer points on ground by suspending it with the
help of a strong thread. It is used in measuring distances on sloping ground
by stepping. Compass, Dumpy levels and Theodolites are also positioned
over the station point accurately with the help of plumb bobs.
Line Ranger
A line ranger consists of either two plane mirrors or two right angled
isosceles prisms placed one above the other as depicted in Figure 2.2(e).
The diagonals of both the prisms are silvered so as to reflect the incident
rays. Line rangers are provided with a handle to hold the instrument. A line
ranger can also be used to draw offset on a chain line.
 Chain Surveying
2.3 PROCEDURES OF CHAIN SURVEYING
2.3.1 Principle
The principle of chain surveying is derived from principle of triangulation. The
whole area to be surveyed is divided into framework of triangles of suitable sizes.
Network of triangles is selected as these are simple geometrical figures which can
be easily plotted with the measurements of its sides only. It is advisable to use
well conditioned triangles whose sides are as nearly equal as possible with angles
between 30o to 120o. This shaping of triangles result in higher accuracy. The
triangulation of area avoids the need of measuring angles hence can be surveyed
and plotted easily by measuring distances by changing alone.
The chain survey is preferred when the ground is nearly flat and open (avoiding
crowded areas with many details, or areas which are heavily wooded or
undulating) and also when the area to be surveyed is smaller.
2.3.2 Technical Terms
Survey Stations
These are important point fixed on ground indicating the starting point and
the end point of the survey line. These are also the basic control points of
the survey. There can be two types of survey stations.
Main Station
Main stations are control points at the ends of the chain lines
commanding the boundaries of survey.
Subsidiary or Tie Station
These are stations selected on the main survey lines for running
auxiliary lines drawn to locate, measure and plot interior details.
(Figure 2.3).
A B

H L

M
F
C

N
E D

Main Survey Stations : A, B, C, D, E Subsidiary Stations : F, G, H, L

Main Diagonal (Base Line) : BE Main Survey Lines : AB, BC, CD, DE, EA
Subsidiary or Tie Lines : AF, GC Check Lines : HL, MN

Figure 2.3 : Layout of Chain Survey

Elements of Survey The survey stations are suitably selected with care so that at least main survey
stations are mutually visible and survey lines run through as flat ground as
possible and are as close to the boundaries as possible. The main survey lines
should form well conditioned triangles. These should be as few as possible and
suitably selected so as to avoid obstacles in chaining and ranging.
Survey Lines
The lines joining survey stations are the survey lines. The survey lines
between main stations are thus called main survey lines or chain lines. The
longest of the main survey line is normally called Base Line (Line BE in
Figure 2.3) running primarily through the middle of the area to be surveyed.
The framework of triangles shall have one or two base lines since the entire
survey is built around base line. It shall be measured with higher care and
accuracy.
The survey line joining the subsidiary or tie stations on main line is termed
Tie Line. These are run to account for interior details on the area, e.g.
buildings etc.
Apart from main and tie lines, other survey lines are also selected for cross
checking the accuracy of survey measurements. Such lines are known as
check lines or proof lines. It is preferable to have at least one check line in
each triangle of the framework.
Offsets
The details on ground such as fences, buildings and towers, etc. are to be
located with reference to main chain lines by means of lateral
measurements. These lateral measurements with reference to the chain line
are referred to as offsets. The two types of offsets are exhibited in
Figure 2.4. These are perpendicular offset PP1 and the oblique offset PQ.
Perpendicular offsets are the lateral distances taken at right angles (normal)
to the chain line. If the inclination of offset line to chain line is anything
other than 90o, the offsets are termed oblique offsets.
The offsets have two important characteristics, by which they are identified,
measured, recorded and referred to :
(a) Chainage on chain line at which offset is measured, i.e.
chainage of point P1 on chain line in Figure 2.4.
(b) Distance of offset point of interest from point P1 on chain line,
i.e. distance PP1 in Figure 2.4.
A

Perpendicular Offset

P1
P
90º

Oblique Offset
Q

Figure 2.4 : Offsets

Traverse Chain Surveying

A traverse is a framework of survey lines obtained by connecting a series of

survey lines in which the length and direction of survey lines are measured
with the help of tape and angle measuring instrument. In chain traversing,
the whole work is done with the chain and tape. No angle measuring
instruments is used and the directions of the lines are fixed entirely by
linear measurements.
A traverse is termed a closed traverse if a complete circuit of survey line is
provided. The interconnected main survey lines forms a closed polygon
(Figure 2.5(a)) so that the originating station and end station are one and the
same. This type of traverse is designed for locating the boundaries of the
area of interest, e.g. lake, wooded land or plot of land to construct
buildings, dams, reservoirs, industrial structures etc.
If the inter-connected main survey lines do not form a closed polygon and
normally extend in one general direction then the traverse is called an open
traverse (Figure 2.5(b)). End station in an open traverse will never coincide
with the originating station. The open traverse survey is conducted to
decide the alignment of highway, railway track, pipeline or transmission
lines etc.
B

A C
E
F
B

A
D

F D

(a) Closed Traverse (b) Open Traverse

Figure 2.5 : Traverse
Ranging
In general, the length of the survey line is many times the chain length.
Hence, along the survey lines intermediate points are required to be located
to ensure that the survey lines are located and measured in a straight line.
The distance can be directly measured by chain and or tape only if its length
is more than that of a survey line. In all other cases, intermediate points
help in pulling the chain/tape along the proper survey line on the required
straight line. This process of locating intermediate points along a straight
line is called ranging.
If the end survey stations on the survey line are inter-visible, direct ranging
by eyes or line rangers is possible. In case of optical obstructions occurring
between end stations, indirect ranging or reciprocal ranging is adopted.
Elements of Survey
2.4 OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN CHAIN
SURVEYING
Various operations involved in the process of chain surveying are as follows :
(a) Marking the stations
(b) Ranging
(c) Measurement of survey lines
(d) Offset measurements.

2.4.1 Marking the Stations

The first step in chain survey is to decide and locate stations so that they are
distinctly visible and are quasi-permanently fixed during the surveying process.
The position of stations are located on map such that the base survey line and
other main survey lines are so aligned that the positions of all salient ground
features, either natural or man made, can be located and measured. The position
of stations is fixed with reference to some permanent ground features so that they
can be unambiguously and accurately located on ground at anytime in future also,
if the station pegs are removed/misplaced (Figure 2.6).
Corner of
Building
Large Tree

Electric Pole

Corner of a Culvert

Figure 2.6 : Station Location

It can be noted that the distance of station A must be measured from atleast three
permanent ground features, e.g. large tree, electric pole, building or culvert etc.
existing in the vicinity of the station. The location sketch of the station as given in
Figure 2.6 is very helpful in retracing the station position in future.
The survey stations are marked temporarily on ground by fixing the ranging rod
at their location. A wooden peg is driven in the ground such that it is projecting at
least 40 mm above the ground to provide some permanency. A cross can be
painted or etched on ground if some hard surface like road, pavement or rock is
encountered at station location. For permanent marking, a stone or concrete block
can be embedded in ground.
Intermediate stations along the main survey lines of large lengths are generally
located by the process of ranging.
 Chain Surveying
2.4.2 Ranging
Ranging is essential step in chain surveying to ensure that measurements are
made in a straight path along the survey line. If the end stations are inter-visible,
direct ranging can be resorted.
Ranging by Vision
Direct ranging by vision alone is done by stretching the tape or chain
approximately along the survey line AB as in Figure 2.7. At least two
persons are involved in chaining and ranging. One surveyor called follower
is stationed behind starting station A at the end of chain, while the other one
called leader is situated at the distance of equal to or less than the chain
length from A, holding the other ranging rod at an arms length from the
body (position L in Figure 2.7). Follower, situated behind A directs leader to
align ranging rod L along line AB. If the distance AL is large, sign language
can be used in giving and following the directions. When L is perfectly
aligned to exactly lie along sight line AB, the intermediate station L is fixed
by driving the ranging rod or wooden peg in ground at correct position.

A L2 B

L
A B

L1

Figure 2.7 : Ranging by Sight/Vision

Ranging using Line Ranger
For more accurate ranging, instruments like line rangers are used. Line
ranger consists of either two plane mirrors or two right angled isosceles
prisms, as shown in Figure 2.8(a), silvered to reflect the incident rays.

A A

B B

(b) Incorrect Alignment (c) Correct Alignment

Figure 2.8 : Ranging Using Line Ranger

Elements of Survey A handle is provided to hold the ranger in hand which also helps in
transferring correct location of L (intermediate station) on ground. The line
ranger is held at approximate position of L along line AB. Upper prism
receives light rays from ranging rod at A and reflects it towards surveyor by
diagonal ab. Similarly, the lower prism reflects the light rays from ranging
rod at B by diagonal cd. The surveyor can, thus, see the images of both the
ranging rods A and B. Simultaneously, if the instrument does not lie exactly
along survey line AB, the two images do not coincide and a parallax is
obtained as shown in Figure 2.8(b).
The observer removes this parallax by moving the line ranger sideways till
the two images, respectively, of A and B coincide indicating the correct
alignment of intermediate station L (Figure 2.8(c)). Apart from higher
accuracy, another advantage of using the line ranger is that only one
surveyor can perform the ranging operation as against two surveyors
required for vision ranging.
Reciprocal Ranging
The vision ranging and line ranger can be adopted only when the end
stations are inter-visible. However, in many real life situations, the
line of sight between two stations is obstructed by natural or man-
made objects (Figure 2.9), or they being too far apart to be clearly
visible. Under such conditions, indirect or reciprocal ranging is
resorted to. In this method, two intermediate points C1 and D1 are
selected which are not along the line of sight AB (survey line).
Stations C1 and D1 are approximately in line such that line C1 D1 is
approximately paralleled to AB. C1 is so situated that both D1 and B
are visible from it, while from D1 both A and C1 can be sighted.
The surveyors are situated at C1 and D1 originally. Surveyor at C1
directs surveyor at D1 to move such that he is aligned in direction C1
B to occupy new position at D2. Next surveyor at D2 directs the
surveyor at C1 to align along line AD2 to occupy new position C2.
This process of alignment and realignment continues till both the
surveyors occupy positions C and D which are situated along line AB
ensuring that survey line is aligned along ACDB as shown in Figure
2.9.

C
D
B
A

C D
A B
C3
D3
C2

D2

C1 D1
 Figure 2.9 : Indirect or Reciprocal Ranging Chain Surveying

2.4.3 Measurement of Survey Lines

After fixing the survey stations and ranging the survey lines by locating the
intermediate stations, the next step in chain surveying is to measure the horizontal
distances along the survey lines and the distances of features of interest from the
survey line (offsets) so that a representative and authentic survey map is
constructed.
The measurement process is started with unfolding the chain and ends up with its
folding back. To unfold a chain, both of its end handles are held in one hand and
the bundled chain is thrown along the direction of survey line with the help of
other hand. The follower surveyor at starting station with zero end and the leader
surveyor drags the other end of chain along the survey line, till the chain is fully
stretched and lies along the straight survey line. Arrows are fixed at the end of
each chain length indicating intermediate stations aligned along original main
survey line. The arrows are so fixed that they just touch the groove marks on the
chain. Each arrow represents a distance equal to chain length. Any fractional
distance at end is measured by counting the tags on chain and its links
(Figure 2.1). The total length of survey line can, thus, be easily obtained.
At the end of the measurement process, the chain is required to be folded back
and bundled before keeping it in survey store for any future use. The folding
process starts with holding the chain from middle and folding it by holding each
pair of links at a time, and bundling till both the ends are obtained.

2.4.4 Offset Measurements

As discussed earlier, the chain survey is started with measurements along base
line and extended along all the frameworks of survey lines. The laying of chain
line and making measurement of distances along the survey line were described
in earlier section. The next important part of distance measurement is locating the
important details of features in the vicinity of survey lines by means of offsets.
Offsets up to or less than 15 m from the survey lines are generally termed short
offsets while those larger than 15 m are called long offsets. In normal course of
chain surveying, perpendicular offsets are measured. Oblique offsets are recorded
only in exceptional cases when it is difficult to obtain normal offsets or else these
are absolutely essential.
Perpendicular offsets can be set either (a) manually or (b) with the help of offset
instruments like cross staff or optical square.
Manual Offsets
Manual offsets are obtained directly without the help of any instrument by
following procedures :
3-4-5 Offset
Perpendicular offset of chain line at any point A is obtained using the
following mathematical expression (32 + 42 = 52). A point B is located
on chain line at a distance of 3 m from A such that AB = 3 m. Next, an
arc is set on ground with centre at A and radius equal to 4 m. Another
arc is laid with center at B and radius equal to 5 m intersecting the
previous arc at C as shown in Figure 2.10(a). Line AC will then be
perpendicular to line AB.
Elements of Survey Arc with B
as Centre

C Arc with A
as Centre C
5m

4m
Arc

90º
B
Survey Line
3m A
A

(a) 3-4-5 Offset (b) Swing Offset

Figure 2.10 : Manual Offset
Swing Offset
The perpendicular distance of an important feature, e.g. building
corner, from the chain line is measured using swing offset method.
The zero end of tape is kept at point of interest (Figure 2.10(b)) and
point A (i.e. normal from C on chain line) is located by swinging the
tape with C as center. The point A is characterized by a point at which
the arc generated by swing is tangential to survey line and the
distance of C from any point on chain line is minimum.
It may be noted that usually only small offsets can be set by manual
methods.
Offset Instruments
Offsets can be accurately set up, particularly long offsets, by use of optical
instruments like cross staff or optical square etc.
Cross Staff
Two pairs of vertical slits, mounted orthogonally on a pole staff
constitute a simple instrument for setting out normal offsets as
depicted in Figure 2.11(a). Each pair of slits can form a line of sight.
The pole staff has adjustable length to keep the line of sight adjusted
to surveyor’s individual comfort.

90º
A B
C
(b)

(a) Cross Staff A B

C

(c)

Figure 2.11 : Offset by Cross Staff

 The normal to survey line AB at chain point C can be drawn by first Chain Surveying
adjusting the cross staff stationed at C such that one pair of vertical
slits is aligned along line AB. A ranging rod D is then placed
approximately at right angle to line AB from C and is moved sideways
till it is sighted along the other pair of slits in line with slit’s hairline.
In such a position, line CD will be perpendicular to chain line AB as
shown in Figure 2.11(b).
If perpendicular is sought to be drawn on chain line AB from a fixed
location D, characterising some special ground feature, the cross staff
is set at a point C on survey line AB such that CD is approximately
perpendicular to AB. One line of sight formed by one pair of vertical
slits is then aligned along line AB. The cross staff is then moved side
ways along line AB keeping one pair of slit aligned along AB and the
other line of sight (i.e. second pair of vertical slits) brings D to
coincide with its hairlines. This locates the position of C on the line
AB such that CD is perpendicular to AB.
Optical Square
It may be noted that at least two surveyor’s are required to set normal
offsets while using cross staff. This disadvantage can be overcome if
optical square is used for this purpose as only single surveyor can
perform this task.
The optical square, as shown in Figure 2.12(a), is constructed on the
basis of simple law of optics that the angle between the first incident
ray and the final reflected ray is twice that of the angle between a pair
of plane mirrors. Hence, in optical square two mirrors M1 and M2 are
mounted on a frame such that the included angle between them is 45o.
The incident ray from object D is reflected from mirror M1 in line M1
M2 to mirror M2 and finally along AM2 by mirror M2. Since included
angle between mirrors M1 and M2 is 45o, the angle between rays DM1
and AM2 will be 2 × 45 = 90o.
Mirror M1 (Fixed)

45º
M1
Mirror M2 (Can be Rotated
M2 by Mill Head Screw at Top)
E
A 90º C G Survey Line AB B

Figure 2.12(a) : Optical Square

In order to set the offset at point C on survey line AB, the optical
square is held horizontally over the station C with the help of a plumb
bob, and line of sight is aligned along line AB by observing ranging
rod at B through opening at G. Next the ranging rod at D is observed
through mirrors. The image of rod D is made to coincide with the
Elements of Survey image of rod B by moving ranging rods sideways (Figure 2.12(b)).
When the two images coincide, then the line CD becomes
perpendicular to line AB.
If location D is fixed, denoting some important ground fixture, e.g. an
electrical pole and offset is required from it on survey line. The
surveyor aligns the instrument along AB and then moves sideways
along line AB, till, once again, the ranging rod at B and image of D
coincide locating the position of C on ground such that CD is
perpendicular to AB. The position of C is transferred on ground with
the help of the plumb bob, hanging from the centre of instrument.
Ranging Rod at B

Image of Ranging Rod at D Image of Ranging Rod at D

Parallex Exists Parallex Removed

Figure 2.12(b) : Offsetting by Optical Square

The continuous use of optical square over a period of time and the
rough handling of instruments may cause the included angle between
the mirrors M1 and M2 to change from original 45o. This will induce
errors in setting the offsets. If the angle becomes, say, 40o, the offset
will be at 80o in place of 90o with the survey line, while if included
angle becomes 50o, the offset angle becomes 100o. The instrument
can be tested for accuracy and adjusted very easily by procedure
described in following paragraph.
Observe the ranging rod at A with optical square stationed at some
intermediate point C and aligned along line AB (Figure 2.12(c)). Mark
the point a as perpendicular offset at C. Next, observe the ranging rod
at B, while keeping instrument stationed at C and aligned along AB,
and mark the offset point b. If the optical square is accurately
adjusted, points a and b will be coinciding. If this is not so, the
instrument requires adjustment. The distance ab is bisected at D. Then
CD will be true offset. Keep the ranging rod at D. And rotate mirror
M2, till image of A and B, i.e. point a or b coincides with D as
depicted in Figure 2.11(a). The process is repeated till both the
observations, by optical square, give a single offset position D in
place of a and b.
C
A B

a D b

Figure 2.12(c) : Testing the Optical Square

2.5 ERRORS AND OBSTACLES IN CHAINING
2.5.1 Errors in Chaining
Any field surveying including chain surveying is fraught with many errors
including observational errors, affecting the accuracies of measurements and
mapping. It is essential to identify, rectify and adjust these errors before the
results of surveying can be used for any engineering applications. The errors can
be broadly classified as
(a) Instrumental errors, and
(b) Observational errors.
Instrumental errors are caused by imperfections in instruments, wear and tear of
instruments due to continuous use and their rough handling. Instruments are thus
required to be tested for accuracy, adjusted and calibrated at frequent intervals to
ensure that the results of surveying exercises are well within the prescribed limits
of accuracy and tolerances.
Observational errors are introduced because of involvement of human factor in
surveying process. It should be accepted that whenever a human element is
involved, the process result will be influenced by the attitude, efficiency and
perception of individual human being in a subjective manner. These can be
avoided by proper training of surveyors, prescribing adequate and suitable
precautions to be undertaken in each observational and measurement process, and
specifying proper and detailed method statements for performing each operation
of the process.
Both these types of errors, i.e. instrumental and observational, can be further
classified into :
(a) gross errors,
(b) systematic errors, and
(c) accidental or random errors.
Gross Errors
Gross errors or mistakes are blunders that occur due to inexperience or
carelessness on the part of the surveyor. In chain surveying, these could be
due to
• displacement or loss of pegs or arrows, provided to identify and
fix the location of various types of stations and other places of
interest,
Elements of Survey • reading the chain or tape in a wrong manner or using an
instrument in an incorrect way, and
• wrong recoding of measurements in the record book, e.g. field
book.
There is no room for gross errors or blunders in the surveying processes. If
gross errors are detected, the entire surveying process and measurements
are required to be repeated afresh, resulting in substantial loss of time and
resources. Such errors can be avoided by proper training and testing of
surveyors, adopting standard procedures, even to the minute details and
carrying out the survey work with utmost care.
Systematic Errors
Systematic errors follow some specific pattern according to some
mathematical or physical law. The error could be cumulative, i.e. occurring
in the same direction and tends to accumulate affecting the accuracy of
measurements to a great extent. In the context of chain surveying, these
could be due to :
(a) erroneous length of chain or tape (+ve or –ve),
(b) erroneous ranging,
(c) links in chain not straight (local bends) due to rough handling or
twisting of metallic tapes, etc.,
(d) non-horizontally of chain/tape over rough ground terrain,
(e) sag in chain or tape, when it is stretched across a depression in
ground,
(f) variation in temperature and/or dampness, and
(g) variation in pull applied during measurement.
These errors could be identified and adjusted and can be modelled. Suitable
corrections can be applied to the measurements for obtaining greater
accuracy. Following are some of the important corrections applied to
measurements using chain or tape :
Correction for Erroneous Length of Chain/Tape
The chain surveying depends only on linear measurement of distances. For
traversing only the errors in distance measurements are of importance and
significance. Measuring devise either chain or tape can either be longer or
shorter than the designated length. The measured distance will be smaller
than the actual if the length of chain is longer than the designated length. It
will be larger than the actual if the chain is shorter than the designated
length. The actual measured distance can be corrected by the following
formula :
L′
True or Correct Distance = × Measured Distance
L
where, L′ = Actual incorrect length of chain, and
L = Designated length of chain.
Correction for Temperature
Correction for temperature is applied if the temperature in the field is
more than the temperature at which the tape/chain was standardised.
This correction (Ct) is given by the following formula :
 Ct = α (Tm − T0 ) L Chain Surveying

where, α = Coefficient of thermal expansion,

Tm = Mean temperature in the field during measurement,
T0 = Standard temperature for the tape, and
L = Measured distance.
Correction for Pull
Correction for pull or tension is applied when during measurement the
applied pull is more than the pull at which the tape was standardised. As far
as possible the pull applied during the field observation should be equal to
the standardised pull so that the correction becomes zero. However, if
different pull is necessary, this correction (CP) is given by :
P − P0
Cp = L
AE
where, P = Pull applied during measurements (kg or N),
P0 = Standard pull,
L = Measured length,
A = Cross-sectional area of the tape (cm2 or mm2), and
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (kg/cm2 or N/mm2).
Correction for Sag
Correction for sag is applied when the tape is stretched on supports between
two points, it takes the form of a horizontal catenary. The horizontal
distance will be less than the distance along the curve. The difference
between horizontal distance and the measured length along catenary is
called sag correction and it is always negative. This correction (Cs) is given
by :
l ( wl ) 2
Cs =
24 P 2
where, l = The length of the tape (in m) suspended between the
supports,
P = Pull applied in kg or N, and
w = Weight of the tape in kg or N per m run.
Random or Accidental Errors
Random or Accidental errors can occur due to lack of perfection of human
eye and or human behaviour. Even the best and efficient surveyor can have
fatigue effect after working for long duration in strenuous environment
causing observational errors. The random errors cannot be eliminated
entirely, whatever precautions are undertaken. These may, however, occur
in either direction and hence, tend to compensate and, thus, are not serious
in nature. These normally follow the law of chance and, thus, can be
analysed with the help of probability theory. Using suitable probability
distribution functions, these errors can then be adjusted, distributed among
various measurements and accounted for. Each surveying method or
process can be assigned a reliability factor (or risk factor) for accuracy
depending on the analysis of probability behaviour.

Example 2.1
Elements of Survey

A 30 m chain was found to be 3 cm too long after chaining 1800 m. The

same chain was observed to be 5 cm too long after chaining the total
distance of 3600 m. Assuming that the chain was correct at the
commencement of work, find the true length of the total distance chained.
Solution
(a) During chaining from 0 m to 1800 m :
Initial length of chain at commencement of work = 30.0 m
Final length of chain at end of chaining up to 1800 = 30.03 m
Average true length of chain during this exercise
30.03 + 30.00
= = 30.015 m
2
L′
True distance of measured distance 1800 m = × 1800
L
30.015
= × 1800 = 1800.90 m . . . (i)
30.00
(b) During measurements from 1800 to 3600 m :
Initial length of chain = 30.03 m
Final length of chain = 30.05 m
Average true length of chain during this measurement
30.03 + 30.05
= = 30.04 m
2
Measured distance = 3600 – 1800 = 1800 m
30.04
True measured distance = × 1800 = 1802.40 m . . . (ii)
30.00
Total true distance chained = 1800.90 + 1802.40 = 3603.30 m.

Example 2.2

A chain was calibrated to be of exact length 30.00 m at 20oC. When this

chain was used for chain surveying in field, the temperature was recorded to
be 45oC. If the coefficient of linear expansion of steel used in chain is
8 × 10– 6 per oC, find the true total distance chained if measured distance on
ground is 6000 m.
Solution
True length of chain at 20oC = 30.00 m
True length of chain at 45oC would be L = L0 (1 + α t)
= 30.00 [1 + (8 × 10-6) × (45 – 20)]
= 30.00 × (1 + 0.0002) = 30.06 m
30.06
True measure distance × 6000 = 6012 m.
30.00

Example 2.3
32
 Chain Surveying

A survey line AB was measured by a chain of 30 m length and was found to

be 2340 m. The same line AB when measured by a 20 m chain, the length
was recorded as 2350 m. While calibrating the 30 m chain was found to be
2 cm too short. What was the error in 20 m chain?
Solution
Actual length of 30 m chain = 30.0 – 0.02 = 29.98 m
L′
True length of AB = × Measured Length
L
29.98
= × 2340
30.0
= 2338.44 m
When AB was measured by 20 m chain.
L′
True length = × Measured Length
L
L′
2338.44 = × 2350
20
2338.44 × 20
L′ = = 19.902 m
2350
≈ 19.90 m
Hence, the incorrect actual length of 20 m chain is 19.90 m, i.e. 10 cm too
short.

Example 2.4

A sloping ground with a gradient of 1 in 10 was surveyed with a 30 m

chain. The chain was checked at commencement of work, at mid station C
of survey line AB and at the end of survey and was found to be 2 cm, 6 cm
and 10 cm too long respectively. If the measured length of survey line
AB = 6000 m, find the true length of AB.
Solution
Actual length of 30 m chain at A = 30.02 m
Actual length of 30 m chain at C = 30.06 m
Average length of chain during measurement from A to C
30.02 + 30.06
= = 30.04 m
2
Actual length of AC measured along slope
30.04
= × 3000 = 3004 m
30.0
Actual chain length at C = 30.06 m
Actual chain length at B = 30.10 m
Average length of chain during measurement from C to B 33
Elements of Survey 30.06 + 30.10
= = 30.08 m
2
Actual length of CB measured along slope
30.08
= × 3000 = 3008 m
30.0
Actual length of line AB along slope = 3004 + 3008 = 6012 m
A slope of ground is 1 in 10, i.e. 1 m vertical in 10 m horizontal, e.g.
EF = 1 m and DE = 10 m. F

Then DF along slope = 102 + 12 = 101 101 = 10.05

1

= 10.0499
D E
 10.05 10

Thus, when sloping length is 10.05 m, horizontal length is 10.00 m. Hence,

true horizontal distance between AB would be
10.00
= × 6012 m = 5985.07 m .
10.05

Example 2.5

A survey map is required to be drawn to a scale of 1/10000. A 30 m chain

was used which was found to be accurate at commencement of work while
20 cm too long at the closure. The area of plot surveyed was found to be
80 cm2 on map. Calculate the actual area of plot in hectares.
Solution
Length of chain at commencement = 30.00 m
Length of chain at closure = 30.20 m
30.00 + 30.20
Length of chain during survey = = 30.10 m
2
Area of plot surveyed as measured on map = 80 cm2
Area of plot surveyed as measured on ground = 80 × 104 × 104 cm2
= 80 × 104 m2 = 80 ha.
2
⎛ 30.10 ⎞
True plot area on ground = ⎜ ⎟ × 80 = 80.5344 ha.
⎝ 30.00 ⎠

Example 2.6

A 20 m steel tape was standardised on flat ground, at a temperature of 20oC

and at a pull of 15 kg. The tape was used in catenary at a temperature of
30oC and the pull applied was 10 kg. The cross-sectional area of the tape is
0.02 cm2, and its total weight is 400 gm. The Young’s modulus of elasticity
(E) and coefficient of thermal expansion (α) is 2.1 × 106 kg/cm2 and
11 × 10− 6 per oC respectively. Find the correct horizontal distance.
Solution
 Correction for temperature Ct = α (Tm − T0 ) L Chain Surveying

= 11 × 10− 6 (30 − 20) × 20

= 0.00220 m
P − P0
Correction for pull Cp = L
AE
(10 − 15) × 20
=
0.02 × 2.1 × 106

= − 0.00238 m

l ( wl ) 2
Correction for sag Cs =
24 p 2

20 (0.4) 2
= = 0.00133
24 (10) 2

Because correction for sag is always negative so it will be subtracted.

Therefore, total correction per tape length would be :
0.00220 – 0.00238 – 0.00133 = – 0.00151 m
Correct horizontal distance = 20 – 0.00151 = 19.99849 m.
2.5.2 Errors in Traversing
In a closed traverse, errors of traversing may creep in due to any or all of the
errors described above. The closed traverse is obtained by a circuiting network of
survey lines (Figure 2.5(a)) running between main stations located at salient
positions all along the periphery of the plot to be surveyed. If all the lengths of
the sides of the polygon are measured accurately, the traverse polygon should
close, e.g. the starting station and end station should coincide. However, because
of errors introduced in the measurements, there will be difference between the
computed value and geometric values and the originating station will not coincide
with end station. This is called as closing error. The closing error can be
distributed evenly or according to the magnitude of each length.
Since angles are also measured in most of the traverse surveying like chain and
compass survey, a better way of adjusting the closing error is by adjusting the
interior angles of traverse polygon. This aspect is described in Unit 3 in detail.
2.5.3 Obstacles in Chain Surveying
Due to various specific characteristics of ground features, some obstacles are
encountered during chain surveying which require special consideration. These
could be :
(a) obstacles in ranging,
(b) obstacles in chaining (measuring horizontal distance), and
(c) obstacles in recording details.
Obstacles in Ranging
Elements of Survey Topography of land can create difficulties in ranging, i.e. ground
undulations hindering clear visibility between main stations, e.g. existence
of a hillock in the line of sight. These problems of obstacles in ranging can
be solved by establishing mutually visible intermediate stations by
reciprocal ranging as explained in Section 2.4.2.
If the two ends of a survey line A and B are not visible from intermediate
point on it, then reciprocal ranging cannot solve the problem. In such cases,
a random line AB1 is drawn in any convenient direction but as close to point
B as possible (Figure 2.13). The point B1 is chosen such that it is visible
B

from B and BB1 is perpendicular to the random line. Measure BB1, select
points C1 and D1 on the random line and erect perpendicular C1C and D1D
on it. The value of C1C and D1D can be calculated as
⎛ AC ⎞ ⎛ AD1 ⎞
C1C = ⎜ 1 ⎟ × BB1 and D1 D = ⎜ ⎟ × BB1
⎝ AB1 ⎠ ⎝ AB1 ⎠
After getting points C and D, join CD and prolong it.

A B
B1
D1
C1 90º
90º

A 90º

C D B

Figure 2.13 : Ranging when Ends not Inter-visible

Obstacles in Chaining
Horizontality of distance measurements can be maintained easily on a
comparatively level ground. Ground undulations tend to introduce errors in
measurements as the natural tendency of chain and/or tape will be to follow
ground level. The distances so measured will be larger than the actual
horizontal distances between two stations. Larger the ground slope, larger
will be the error introduced. To overcome this obstruction, chain is
stretched horizontally between two stations, as tightly as possible as shown
in Figure 2.14(a). The stretched chain will form a catenary. By measuring
the sag at mid point, horizontal distance AB can be mathematically related
to length of chain S and the sag δ.
Sag δ
l
A1 B1

A B

Figure 2.14(a) : Distance Measurement on Undulating Ground

A better method will be to divide the entire chain into several smaller
segments, particularly when the ground slope is larger, the sags between the
 segments will be negligibly small and the segment of the chain/tape will Chain Surveying
require much smaller physical effort in stretching (Figure 2.14(b)). Hence,
n
the total length L between A (A0) and B (An) will be L = ∑ δ li
i =1
δl 5

δl4

An(B)

δl3

A4
δl2

A3
δl1

A2

A1

A(A0)

Figure 2.14(b) : Ground with Large Slope

Obstacles in Recording Details
When the outline of the object representing important ground feature
changes frequently, it is difficult to measure and plot the details of the
object. If the object is straight, it is only necessary to measure offset
distances at two ends and draw a straight line between the ends. If however
the object is having irregular boundaries as shown in Figures 2.15(a) and
(b), it is necessary to set offset at much less intervals, particularly at points
where the object boundary changes direction.
Curved Boundary of Object

1 2 4 ... n

Figure 2.15(a) : Object with Curved Boundary

i=n
c–1 c c+ 1
A B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 2.15(b) : Curved Road/Railways or Nallah