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Protective relay

In electrical engineering, a protective relay is a relay device designed

to trip a circuit breaker when a fault is detected.[1]: 4 The first protective
relays were electromagnetic devices, relying on coils operating on
moving parts to provide detection of abnormal operating conditions
such as over-current, overvoltage, reverse power flow, over-frequency,
and under-frequency.[2]

Electromechanical protective relays at a hydroelectric generating plant. The

relays are in round glass cases. The rectangular devices are test connection
blocks, used for testing and isolation of instrument transformer circuits.
Microprocessor-based digital protection relays now emulate the original
devices, as well as providing types of protection and supervision
impractical with electromechanical relays. Electromechanical relays
provide only rudimentary indication of the location and origin of a
fault.[3] In many cases a single microprocessor relay provides functions
that would take two or more electromechanical devices. By combining
several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost
and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays.[4] However, due to
their very long life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels"[5]
are still protecting transmission lines and electrical apparatus all over
the world. Important transmission lines and generators have cubicles
dedicated to protection, with many individual electromechanical
devices, or one or two microprocessor relays.

The theory and application of these protective devices is an important

part of the education of a power engineer who specializes in power
system protection. The need to act quickly to protect circuits and
equipment often requires protective relays to respond and trip a breaker
within a few thousandths of a second. In some instances these
clearance times are prescribed in legislation or operating rules.[6] A
maintenance or testing program is used to determine the performance
and availability of protection systems.[7]

Based on the end application and applicable legislation, various

standards such as ANSI C37.90, IEC255-4, IEC60255-3, and IAC govern
the response time of the relay to the fault conditions that may occur.[8]

Operation principles

Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic

attraction, or magnetic induction.[9]: 14 Unlike switching type
electromechanical relays with fixed and usually ill-defined operating
voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have well-
established, selectable, and adjustable time and current (or other
operating parameter) operating characteristics. Protection relays may
 use arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole,[9]: 25 magnets, operating
and restraint coils, solenoid-type operators, telephone-relay contacts,
and phase-shifting networks.

Protective relays can also be classified by the type of measurement

they make.[10]: 92 A protective relay may respond to the magnitude of a
quantity such as voltage or current. Induction relays can respond to the
product of two quantities in two field coils, which could for example
represent the power in a circuit.

"It is not practical to make a relay that develops a torque equal to the
quotient of two a.c. quantities. This, however is not important; the only
significant condition for a relay is its setting and the setting can be
made to correspond to a ratio regardless of the component values over
a wide range."[10]: 92

Several operating coils can be used to provide "bias" to the relay,

allowing the sensitivity of response in one circuit to be controlled by
another. Various combinations of "operate torque" and "restraint
torque" can be produced in the relay.

By use of a permanent magnet in the magnetic circuit, a relay can be

made to respond to current in one direction differently from in another.
Such polarized relays are used on direct-current circuits to detect, for
example, reverse current into a generator. These relays can be made
bistable, maintaining a contact closed with no coil current and requiring
reverse current to reset. For AC circuits, the principle is extended with a
polarizing winding connected to a reference voltage source.

Lightweight contacts make for sensitive relays that operate quickly, but
small contacts can't carry or break heavy currents. Often the measuring
relay will trigger auxiliary telephone-type armature relays.

In a large installation of electromechanical relays, it would be difficult to

determine which device originated the signal that tripped the circuit.
This information is useful to operating personnel to determine the likely
cause of the fault and to prevent its re-occurrence. Relays may be fitted
:
 with a "target" or "flag" unit, which is released when the relay operates,
to display a distinctive colored signal when the relay has tripped.[11]

Types according to construction

Electromechanical …

Electromechanical relays can be classified into several different types

as follows:

attracted armature induction mechanical

moving coil motor operated thermal

"Armature"-type relays have a pivoted lever supported on a hinge[12] or

knife-edge pivot, which carries a moving contact. These relays may
work on either alternating or direct current, but for alternating current, a
shading coil on the pole[9]: 14 is used to maintain contact force
throughout the alternating current cycle. Because the air gap between
the fixed coil and the moving armature becomes much smaller when the
relay has operated, the current required to maintain the relay closed is
much smaller than the current to first operate it. The "returning
ratio"[13] or "differential" is the measure of how much the current must
be reduced to reset the relay.

A variant application of the attraction principle is the plunger-type or

solenoid operator. A reed relay is another example of the attraction
principle.

"Moving coil" meters use a loop of wire turns in a stationary magnet,

similar to a galvanometer but with a contact lever instead of a pointer.
These can be made with very high sensitivity. Another type of moving
coil suspends the coil from two conductive ligaments, allowing very
long travel of the coil.

Induction disc overcurrent relay …

:
 When the input current is above the current limit, the disk rotates, the contact
moves left and reaches the fixed contact. The scale above the plate indicates
the delay-time.

"Induction" disk meters work by inducing currents in a disk that is free

to rotate; the rotary motion of the disk operates a contact. Induction
relays require alternating current; if two or more coils are used, they
must be at the same frequency otherwise no net operating force is
produced.[11] These electromagnetic relays use the induction principle
discovered by Galileo Ferraris in the late 19th century. The magnetic
system in induction disc overcurrent relays is designed to detect
overcurrents in a power system and operate with a pre-determined time
delay when certain overcurrent limits have been reached. In order to
operate, the magnetic system in the relays produces torque that acts on
a metal disc to make contact, according to the following basic
current/torque equation:[14]

Where and are the two fluxes and is the phase angle between
the fluxes

The following important conclusions can be drawn from the above

:
 equation.[15]

Two alternating fluxes with a phase shift are needed for torque
production.

Maximum torque is produced when the two alternating fluxes are 90

degrees apart.

The resultant torque is steady and not a function of time.

The relay's primary winding is supplied from the power systems current
transformer via a plug bridge,[16] which is called the plug setting
multiplier (psm). Usually seven equally spaced tappings or operating
bands determine the relays sensitivity. The primary winding is located
on the upper electromagnet. The secondary winding has connections
on the upper electromagnet that are energised from the primary
winding and connected to the lower electromagnet. Once the upper and
lower electromagnets are energised they produce eddy currents that
are induced onto the metal disc and flow through the flux paths. This
relationship of eddy currents and fluxes creates torque proportional to
the input current of the primary winding, due to the two flux paths being
out of phase by 90°.

In an overcurrent condition, a value of current will be reached that

overcomes the control spring pressure on the spindle and the braking
magnet, causing the metal disc to rotate towards the fixed contact. This
initial movement of the disc is also held off to a critical positive value of
current by small slots that are often cut into the side of the disc. The
time taken for rotation to make the contacts is not only dependent on
current but also the spindle backstop position, known as the time
multiplier (tm). The time multiplier is divided into 10 linear divisions of
the full rotation time.

Providing the relay is free from dirt, the metal disc and the spindle with
its contact will reach the fixed contact, thus sending a signal to trip and
isolate the circuit, within its designed time and current specifications.
Drop off current of the relay is much lower than its operating value, and
once reached the relay will be reset in a reverse motion by the pressure
:
 of the control spring governed by the braking magnet.

Static …

Application of electronic amplifiers to protective relays was described

as early as 1928, using vacuum tube amplifiers and continued up to
1956.[17] Devices using electron tubes were studied but never applied
as commercial products, because of the limitations of vacuum tube
amplifiers. A relatively large standby current is required to maintain the
tube filament temperature; inconvenient high voltages are required for
the circuits, and vacuum tube amplifiers had difficulty with incorrect
operation due to noise disturbances.

Static relays have no or few moving parts, and became practical with
the introduction of the transistor. Measuring elements of static relays
have been successfully and economically built up from diodes, zener
diodes, avalanche diodes, unijunction transistors, p-n-p and n-p-n
bipolar transistors, field effect transistors or their combinations.[18]: 6
Static relays offer the advantage of higher sensitivity than purely
electromechanical relays, because power to operate output contacts is
derived from a separate supply, not from the signal circuits. Static relays
eliminated or reduced contact bounce, and could provide fast
operation, long life and low maintenance.[19]

Digital …

Digital protective relays were in their infancy during the late

1960s.[20][21] An experimental digital protection system was tested in
the lab and in the field in the early 1970s.[22][23] Unlike the relays
mentioned above, digital protective relays have two main parts:
hardware and software[24]: 5 . The world's first commercially available
digital protective relay was introduced to the power industry in 1984 by
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories (SEL) based in Pullman,
Washington.[3] In spite of the developments of complex algorithms for
implementing protection functions the microprocessor based-relays
:
 marketed in the 1980s did not incorporate them.[25] A microprocessor-
based digital protection relay can replace the functions of many
discrete electromechanical instruments. These relays convert voltage
and currents to digital form and process the resulting measurements
using a microprocessor. The digital relay can emulate functions of many
discrete electromechanical relays in one device,[26] simplifying
protection design and maintenance. Each digital relay can run self-test
routines to confirm its readiness and alarm if a fault is detected. Digital
relays can also provide functions such as communications (SCADA)
interface, monitoring of contact inputs, metering, waveform analysis,
and other useful features. Digital relays can, for example, store multiple
sets of protection parameters,[27] which allows the behavior of the relay
to be changed during maintenance of attached equipment. Digital relays
also can provide protection strategies impossible to implement with
electromechanical relays. This is particularly so in long-distance high
voltage or multi-terminal circuits or in lines that are series or shunt
compensated[24]: 3 They also offer benefits in self-testing and
communication to supervisory control systems.

A digital (numeric) multifunction protective relay for distribution networks. A

single such device can replace many single-function electromechanical relays,
and provides self-testing and communication functions.
:
 Numerical …

The distinction between digital and numerical protection relay rests on

points of fine technical detail, and is rarely found in areas other than
Protection[28]: Ch 7, pp 102 . Numerical relays are the product of the
advances in technology from digital relays. Generally, there are several
different types of numerical protection relays. Each type, however,
shares a similar architecture, thus enabling designers to build an entire
system solution that is based on a relatively small number of flexible
components.[8] They use high speed processors executing appropriate
algorithms[18]: 51 .[29][30] Most numerical relays are also
multifunctional[31] and have multiple setting groups each often with tens
or hundreds of settings.[32]

Relays by functions

The various protective functions available on a given relay are denoted

by standard ANSI device numbers. For example, a relay including
function 51 would be a timed overcurrent protective relay.

Overcurrent relay …

An overcurrent relay is a type of protective relay which operates when

the load current exceeds a pickup value. It is of two types:
instantaneous over current (IOC) relay and definite time overcurrent
(DTOC) relay.

The ANSI device number is 50 for an IOC relay or a DTOC relay. In a

typical application, the over current relay is connected to a current
transformer and calibrated to operate at or above a specific current
level. When the relay operates, one or more contacts will operate and
energize to trip a circuit breaker. The DTOC relay has been used
extensively in the United Kingdom but its inherent issue of operating
slower for faults closer to the source led to the development of the
:
 IDMT relay.[1]: pp 30-31

Definite time over-current relay

…
A definite time over-current (DTOC) relay is a relay that operates
after a definite period of time once the current exceeds the pickup
value. Hence, this relay has current setting range as well as time setting
range.

Instantaneous over-current relay

…
An instantaneous over-current relay is an overcurrent relay which has
no intentional time delay for operation. The contacts of the relay are
closed instantly when the current inside the relay rises beyond the
operational value. The time interval between the instant pick-up value
and the closing contacts of the relay is very low. It has low operating
time and starts operating instantly when the value of current is more
than the relay setting. This relay operates only when the impedance
between the source and the relay is less than that provided in the
section.[33]

Inverse-time over-current relay

…
An inverse-time over-current (ITOC) relay is an overcurrent relay
which operates only when the magnitude of their operating current is
inversely proportional to the magnitude of the energize quantities. The
operating time of relay decreases with the increases in the current. The
operation of the relay depends on the magnitude of the current.[33]

Inverse definite minimum time relay

…
The inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relay are protective relays
which were developed to overcome the shortcomings of the definite
time overcurrent (DTOC) relays.[1]: pp 30-31 [34]: 134

If the source impedance remains constant and the fault current changes
appreciably as we move away from the relay then it is advantageous to
use IDMT overcurrent protection[35]: 11 to achieve high speed protection
:
 over a large section of the protected circuit.[28]: 127 However, if the
source impedance is significantly larger than the feeder impedance
then the characteristic of the IDMT relay cannot be exploited and DTOC
may be utilized.[36]: 42 Secondly if the source impedance varies and
becomes weaker with less generation during light loads then this leads
to slower clearance time hence negating the purpose of the IDMT
relay.[37]: 143

IEC standard 60255-151 specifies the IDMT relay curves as shown

below. The four curves in Table 1 are derived from the now withdrawn
British Standard BS 142.[38] The other five, in Table 2, are derived from
the ANSI standard C37.112.[39]

While it is more common to use IDMT relays for current protection it is

possible to utilize IDMT mode of operation for voltage protection[40]: 3 . It
is possible to program customised curves in some protective
relays[41]: pp Ch2-9 and other manufacturers[42]: 18 have special curves
specific to their relays. Some numerical relays can be used to provide
inverse time overvoltage protection[43]: 6 or negative sequence
overcurrent protection.[44]: 915

Table 1. Curves derived from BS 142

Relay Characteristic IEC Equation

Standard Inverse (SI)

Very Inverse

Extremely Inverse (EI)

Long time standard earth fault

:
 Table 2. Curves derives from ANSI standard (North American IDMT
relay characteristics)[28]: 126
Relay Characteristic IEEE Equation

IEEE Moderately Inverse

IEE Very Inverse (VI)

Extremely Inverse (EI)

US CO8 inverse

US CO2 Short Time inverse

Ir = is the ratio of the fault current to the relay setting current or a Plug
Setting Multiplier.[45]: pp 73 "Plug" is a reference from the
electromechanical relay era and were available in discrete[1]: pp 37 steps.
TD is the Time Dial setting.

The above equations result in a "family" of curves as a result of using

different time multiplier setting (TMS) settings. It is evident from the
relay characteristic equations that a larger TMS will result in a slower
clearance time for a given PMS (Ir) value.

Distance relay …

Distance relays, also known as impedance relay, differ in principle

from other forms of protection in that their performance is not governed
by the magnitude of the current or voltage in the protected circuit but
rather on the ratio of these two quantities. Distance relays are actually
double actuating quantity relays with one coil energized by voltage and
:
 other coil by current. The current element produces a positive or pick
up torque while the voltage element produces a negative or reset
torque. The relay operates only when the V/I ratio falls below a
predetermined value (or set value). During a fault on the transmission
line the fault current increases and the voltage at the fault point
decreases. The V/I [46] ratio is measured at the location of CTs and PTs.
The voltage at the PT location depends on the distance between the PT
and the fault. If the measured voltage is lesser, that means the fault is
nearer and vice versa. Hence the protection called Distance relay. The
load flowing through the line appears as an impedance to the relay and
sufficiently large loads (as impedance is inversely proportional to the
load) can lead to a trip of the relay even in the absence of a fault.[47]: 467

Current differential protection scheme …

A differential scheme acts on the difference between current entering a

protected zone (which may be a bus bar, generator, transformer or
other apparatus) and the current leaving that zone. A fault outside the
zone gives the same fault current at the entry and exit of the zone, but
faults within the zone show up as a difference in current.

"The differential protection is 100% selective and therefore only

:
 responds to faults within its protected zone. The boundary of the
protected zone is uniquely defined by the location of the current
transformers. Time grading with other protection systems is therefore
not required, allowing for tripping without additional delay. Differential
protection is therefore suited as fast main protection for all important
plant items."[48]: 15

Differential protection can be used to provide protection for zones with

multiple terminals[49][50] and can be used to protect lines,[51]
generators, motors, transformers, and other electrical plant.

Current transformers in a differential scheme must be chosen to have

near-identical response to high overcurrents. If a "through fault" results
in one set of current transformers saturating before another, the zone
differential protection will see a false "operate" current and may false
trip.

GFCI (ground fault circuit interrupter) circuit breakers combine

overcurrent protection and differential protection (non-adjustable) in
standard, commonly available modules.

Directional relay …

A directional relay uses an additional polarizing source of voltage or

current to determine the direction of a fault. Directional elements
respond to the phase shift between a polarizing quantity and an operate
quantity.[52] The fault can be located upstream or downstream of the
relay's location, allowing appropriate protective devices to be operated
inside or outside of the zone of protection.

Synchronism check …

A synchronism checking relay provides a contact closure when the

frequency and phase of two sources are similar to within some
tolerance margin. A "synch check" relay is often applied where two
:
 power systems are interconnected, such as at a switchyard connecting
two power grids, or at a generator circuit breaker to ensure the
generator is synchronized to the system before connecting it.

Power source

The relays can also be classified on the type of power source that they
use to work.

A dual powered protection relay powered by the current obtained from the line
by a CT. The striker is also shown

Self-powered relays operate on energy derived from the protected

circuit, through the current transformers used to measure line
current, for example. This eliminates the cost and reliability question
of a separate supply.

Auxiliary powered relays rely on a battery or external ac supply. Some

relays can use either AC or DC. The auxiliary supply must be highly
reliable during a system fault.

Dual powered relays can be also auxiliary powered, so all batteries,

chargers and other external elements are made redundant and used
as a backup.
:
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