Journal of

Marine Science
and Engineering

Communication
On Detection of Anomalous VHF Propagation over the Adriatic
Sea Utilising a Software-Defined Automatic Identification
System Receiver
Sanjin Valčić 1,2, * and David Brčić 1

1 Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; david.brcic@pfri.uniri.hr

2 Centre for Marine Technologies, Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
* Correspondence: sanjin.valcic@pfri.uniri.hr

Abstract: This paper represents observations on detection of Very High Frequency (VHF) anomalous
propagation over the area of the Adriatic Sea. During the research campaign, a Software Defined
Radio (SDR) Automatic Identification System (AIS) receiver was employed for collection of AIS data
packets at a fixed location in the Northern Adriatic. Data were collected during the 24-h period
(25 February 2023 15:32 LT to 26 February 2023 15:32 LT), providing information from 115 AIS targets,
or 159 965 AIS packets with 54.3% Packet Error Rate (PER), respectively. Subsequent analysis and
post-processing of successfully demodulated signals and decoded packets was presented further.
In certain instances, the SDR AIS receiver detected, received and decoded data packets from AIS
targets distant several orders of magnitude larger than the VHF nominal ranges. To determine the
magnitude of line-of-sight and over-the-horizon radio waves propagation, the great circle distances
between the SDR AIS receiver antenna and AIS packets’ decoded positions were calculated, revealing
hundreds of Nautical Miles (NM). Possible reasons for these occurrences, including tropospheric
scattering, diffraction, ionospheric sporadic E layer and refraction were discussed and evaluated, in
accordance, among others, with the previous research. By exclusion criteria and neglection of possible
causes, it was concluded that the enhanced, over-the-horizon propagation of AIS signals occurred as
a result of refraction effects, namely trapping/ducting, subrefraction and superrefraction. Data from
nine World Meteorological Organization (WMO) radiosondes surrounding the greater reception area
Citation: Valčić, S.; Brčić, D. On
were collected for the same observation periods. Atmospheric profiles were created using Advanced
Detection of Anomalous VHF
Refractive Effects Prediction System (AREPS) program, and analysed for each individual station
Propagation over the Adriatic Sea
measurement. The results confirmed anomalous, over-the-horizon enhanced propagation and their
Utilising a Software-Defined
Automatic Identification System
probable origins, i.e., the occurrence of refractive conditions in the atmosphere over the Adriatic Sea
Receiver. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, area. These findings provide a solid foundation for further research in the area of propagation of
1170. https://doi.org/10.3390/ VHF signals and their anomalous features caused by the atmospheric phenomenon effects.
jmse11061170
Keywords: very high frequency; automatic identification system; software defined radio; anomalous
Academic Editor: Mihalis Golias
propagation; over-the-horizon propagation
Received: 11 May 2023
Revised: 29 May 2023
Accepted: 30 May 2023
Published: 2 June 2023 1. Introduction
The maritime Automatic Identification System, is a digital communication system that
serves for the automatic exchange of data between different AIS stations, using the Time
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) schemes on two 25 kHz maritime VHF communication
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. channels (161.975 MHz and 162.025 MHz). Its technical characteristics are defined and
This article is an open access article recommended by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) [1]. On each channel,
distributed under the terms and data is transmitted synchronously in packets within 2250 time slots of one-time frame (60 s)
conditions of the Creative Commons at a rate of 9600 bits per second (bps). Stations and devices that use AIS technology are
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// shipborne Classes A and B, base stations, Aids to Navigation (AtoN), Search and Rescue
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ (SAR) aircraft stations (airborne mobile equipment) and SAR devices: AIS-SART, EPIRB-
4.0/). AIS, MOB-AIS. The maritime AIS has been a very well-researched topic since the era before

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11061170 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 2 of 17

its official introduction on ships and other stations. The authors in [2] analyzed possible
problems in Self Organizing Time Division Multiple Access (SOTDMA) schemes, such
as those used by the AIS, and emphasized how the so-called hidden users can cause the
interference on the shared channel. Furthermore, the authors in [3] analyzed the technical
characteristics and functionality of the system, providing an overview of its future potential
applications, such as Vessel Traffic Service (VTS). A similar research and analysis were
carried out in [4], in which the advantages and disadvantages of using the AIS in the
United States’ Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) system were evaluated. The research
conducted in [5] analysed the possibility of using the collected AIS data to avoid collisions
in areas of heavy maritime traffic, while the authors in [6] pointed out the inconsistency
of AIS data in the decision-making process during the collision avoidance. In [7,8], the
methodologies for the extraction of traffic routes and the detection of their deviations based
on raw AIS data were presented. Moreover, the authors in [9,10] made an exhaustive review
of the literature in order to present the purposes for which AIS and its data are used, except
for the safety of navigation. On the other hand, the authors in [11] analyzed the application
of AIS to improve existing ship classification methods in synthetic aperture radar images.
The research presented in this paper focuses mainly on the reception of the VHF
radio waves and processing of AIS data. In order to receive AIS data, i.e., data packets,
it is necessary to have a suitable receiver with a demodulator and decoder. There are
many commercial AIS receivers that cost from several hundred to several thousand US
dollars. However, with the development of the Software Defined Radio (SDR), it is possible
to produce and assemble low-cost AIS receivers. Namely, the SDR is a programmable
radio system (tuner) for transmitting and/or receiving signals, in which processes such as
modulation/demodulation or encoding/decoding are performed by the software [12,13].
Thus, the authors in [14] described the configuration of an AIS receiver based on a modular
design using a receiver RX1 Radiometrix, a modem DV-MEGA and a microcontroller
Arduino UNO R3. The author in [15] presented the design of the SDR AIS receiver for a
satellite, while the authors in [16] created and tested a prototype of the SDR AIS, using
ADALM-Pluto SDR and Matlab program. However, the aforementioned testing was based
on the AIS signal strength, not demodulated and decoded AIS data. The authors in [17]
had a similar approach and presented the concept of a software defined radio with a
flexible RF front end, where the evaluation of the AIS receiver was made exclusively on
its performance. Moreover, the authors in [18] have also assembled an SDR AIS receiver
and only tested it based on the spectral analysis and comparison with a commercial AIS
transceiver. In [19], the authors used the HackRF One SDR and the GNU Radio project
and successfully tested the transmission and reception of AIS data packets and messages.
Furthermore, the authors in [20] used the RTL-SDR based AIS receiver and their software
written completely in C to demodulate the received AIS signals.
Regardless of which AIS receiver is used (hardware- or software-defined), the ter-
restrial range of AIS signal reception is limited by the spatial propagation of VHF radio
waves, i.e., by the line-of-sight or the radio horizon in the standard atmosphere conditions.
However, given the variable nature of Earth’s atmosphere, it is not rare that AIS/VHF
signals can be received and detected at great distances, i.e., over-the-horizon. Thus, the
authors in [21] used experimental measurements to analyze the strength of the received
VHF signals at distances greater than 200 miles. Furthermore, the authors in [22] analyzed
big AIS data collected during 3 days by the United States Coast Guard (USCG). Based on
the collected data, they detected 6677 signals from ships that were more than 1000 km
away from coastal stations. In [23], the authors analyzed the received AIS signal from the
over-the-horizon ship in the Yellow Sea area. The author in [24] modelled the impact of
North Sea weather conditions on the performance of AIS and coastal radar systems and
showed over-the-horizon propagation. By reviewing the aforementioned and additional
literature on over-the-horizon AIS/VHF radio signal propagation, it can be stated that
the conditions for such propagation could be radio waves’ diffraction by the (sea) sur-
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 over-the-horizon propagation. By reviewing the aforementioned and additional literature 3 of 17
on over-the-horizon AIS/VHF radio signal propagation, it can be stated that the conditions
for such propagation could be radio waves’ diffraction by the (sea) surface, tropospheric
scattering, ionospheric sporadic E layer and refraction (subrefraction, superrefraction,
face, tropospheric scattering, ionospheric sporadic E layer and refraction (subrefraction,
ducting) [22,25–27].
superrefraction, ducting) [22,25–27].
Prompted by all of the above, as well as by the fact that the comprehensive literature
Prompted by all of the above, as well as by the fact that the comprehensive literature
review did not reveal the use of SDR AIS receivers for the detection of anomalous propa-
review did not reveal the use of SDR AIS receivers for the detection of anomalous propaga-
gation of VHF radio waves, the main hypothesis of this research is formulated as follows:
tion of VHF radio waves, the main hypothesis of this research is formulated as follows: By
By using a simple SDR AIS receiver, it is possible to detect anomalous propagation condi-
using a simple SDR AIS receiver, it is possible to detect anomalous propagation conditions
tions of VHF radio waves, by analysing, evaluating and verifying the collected AIS data.
of VHF radio waves, by analysing, evaluating and verifying the collected AIS data. There-
Therefore, the main objective of the research presented in this paper was to assemble a
fore, the main objective of the research presented in this paper was to assemble a simple
simple
SDR AISSDR AIS receiver
receiver for collecting
for collecting AIS dataAIS data at
packets packets
a fixedatlocation
a fixed inlocation in the northern
the northern Adriatic
Adriatic area in order to (i) analyse its performance, and to (ii) eventually
area in order to (i) analyse its performance, and to (ii) eventually detect over-the-horizon detect over-the-
horizon
AIS AISi.e.,
signals, signals, i.e., AISAn
AIS targets. targets. An additional
additional objective
objective was was to determine
to determine and proveand prove
the cause
the cause of the detected anomalous propagation
of the detected anomalous propagation of VHF radio waves. of VHF radio waves.
Therest
The restof
ofthe
the paper
paper is is organized
organized as as follows:
follows: In
In the
the Experimental
Experimental setupsetup and
and Method-
Method-
ology section,
ology section, the
the equipment
equipment and and its
its connection
connection methods
methods for for assembling
assembling aa simple
simple SDRSDR
AIS receiver are described in detail. Additionally, it is presented how
AIS receiver are described in detail. Additionally, it is presented how the built-in Matlabthe built-in Matlab
program isisused
program usedto todemodulate
demodulateAIS AISsignals
signalsand
anddecode
decodeAIS AISdata
datapackets.
packets. In
In the
theResults
Results
Analysis and Discussion section, a detailed analysis, processing
Analysis and Discussion section, a detailed analysis, processing and verification of and verification of the
the
collected AIS data is presented. Moreover, proving the cause of the
collected AIS data is presented. Moreover, proving the cause of the detected anomalous detected anomalous
propagationof
propagation ofVHF
VHFradioradiowaves
wavesisisalso
alsodemonstrated
demonstratedand anddiscussed.
discussed.

2.
2. Experimental
Experimental Setup
Setup and
and Methodology
Methodology
The
Theequipment
equipmentused
usedto
toassemble
assemblethe
theSDR
SDRAIS
AISreceiver
receiverisisshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure1.1.

Figure1.1. SDR
Figure SDRAIS
AIS receiver.
receiver.

The NESDR
The NESDR SMArt v5 v5 isisconnected
connectedtotoa acomputer
computer viavia
a USB
a USBinterface at the
interface one one
at the end
[28].[28].
end TheThecomputer has has
computer an Intel i5-1135g7
an Intel processor,
i5-1135g7 processor, 16 GB of RAM
16 GB of RAM and a 64-bit
and operating
a 64-bit operat-
system
ing system(Windows
(Windows 11).
11).The
TheMathWorks
MathWorksMATLABMATLAB®®R2022b,
R2022b,as as well
well as Communications
Communications
Toolbox™ and
Toolbox™ and Communications
Communications Toolbox Toolbox Support
Support Package
Package for
for RTL-SDR
RTL-SDR Radio,
Radio, are in-
stalled
stalledon
onthethespecified
specifiedoperating
operatingsystem
systemto tocontrol
controlNESDR
NESDRSMArt
SMArtv5. v5.The
Theabove
above software
software
packages
packagesare arerequired
requiredto torun
runthethebuilt-in
built-inprogram
programShip ShipTracking
TrackingUsing
UsingAIS
AISSignals
Signals[29].
[29].
On
On the
the other
other end,
end, the
the NESDR
NESDR SMArtSMArt v5 v5 isis connected
connected viavia aa male
male SMA
SMA to to SO-239
SO-239
nickel-plated
nickel-platedadapter
adaptertotoconnect
connecttotoaa40 40mmlong
longRG
RG213/U
213/U coaxial
coaxial cable,
cable, which
which is
is connected
connected
to
to a Marine VHF Glass Fiber Antenna (Scan Antenna VHF74). The mentioned antenna isis
a Marine VHF Glass Fiber Antenna (Scan Antenna VHF74). The mentioned antenna
a full half-wave dipole located at 45.3303 N, 14.436 E, 32 m AMSL and has the following
characteristics [30]:
• 1.36 m length;
• 2.6 dBi gain;
 • 1.36 m length;
• 2.6 dBi gain;
• vertically polarized;
• VSWR < 1.6:1 in the frequency range from 156 to 162.5 MHz;
• characteristic impedance of 50 ohms.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 4 of 17
In the previously mentioned built-in program, a reception time of 86,400 s (24 h) and
a centre frequency of 162 MHz were set (given that the code uses a symbol rate of 9600 Hz
and 24 samples per symbol, both AIS channels were scanned in this way). During the re-
• vertically polarized;
ception, successfully demodulated and decoded data were stored in a text file (data log)
• VSWR < 1.6:1 in the frequency range from 156 to 162.5 MHz;
and displayed on the data viewer, i.e., on the graphical user interface (GUI). After the end
• characteristic impedance of 50 ohms.
of the reception (25 February 2023/15:32–26 February 2023/15:32), the subsequent pro-
In the previously mentioned built-in program, a reception time of 86,400 s (24 h) and a
cessing and analysis of the decoded and displayed data followed.
centre frequency of 162 MHz were set (given that the code uses a symbol rate of 9600 Hz
and 24 samples per symbol, both AIS channels were scanned in this way). During the
3. Results Analysis and Discussion
reception, successfully demodulated and decoded data were stored in a text file (data log)
andDuring theon
displayed 24-h
theperiod, the SDR
data viewer, i.e.,AIS receiver
on the detected
graphical user 159,965
interfaceand decoded
(GUI). After 73,090
the
AIS packets, which resulted in 54.3% Packet Error Rate (PER). Amongst these
end of the reception (25 February 2023/15:32–26 February 2023/15:32), the subsequent73,090 suc-
cessfully decoded
processing AIS packets,
and analysis data viewer
of the decoded showed data
and displayed 115 AIS targets. The list of decoded
followed.
AIS targets within the data viewer is presented in Appendix A. Targets are displayed by
3. Results
their Analysis
decoded Maritimeand Mobile
DiscussionService Identity (MMSI) numbers, together with their de-
During the 24-h period, the
coded position (longitude and latitude)SDR AIS and
receiver
the detected 159,965
time of their lastand decoded
decoded 73,090
AIS AIS
packet.
packets, which resulted in 54.3% Packet Error Rate (PER). Amongst these 73,090
Further analysis of displayed positions showed that 4 AIS targets (#7, #79, #86 and successfully
#92) were AIS
decoded packets,
decoded withdata
anviewer showed 115 AIS
error (significantly targets. from
deviated The list of decoded
other presentedAISpositions).
targets
within the data viewer is presented in Appendix A. Targets are displayed by their decoded
Furthermore, all decoded and displayed AIS targets can be verified on the Marine Traffic
Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) numbers, together with their decoded position
Live Map [31]. By verifying the AIS target #7 (MMSI: 2383500, AIS base station), it can be
(longitude and latitude) and the time of their last decoded AIS packet.
concluded that its AIS packets were successfully decoded, but something went wrong
Further analysis of displayed positions showed that 4 AIS targets (#7, #79, #86 and
with
#92)the AIS
were target itself,
decoded with ani.e., the (significantly
error base station (Figure
deviated 2).from other presented positions).
Furthermore, all decoded and displayed AIS targets candecoded
Investigation into the data log of all successfully be verified AISonpackets showed
the Marine Trafficthat
10,100 (out[31].
Live Map of 73,090 = 13.82%)
By verifying the were received
AIS target from this
#7 (MMSI: AIS target,
2383500, AIS base meaning
station),that itsbe
it can data
packets were received on average every 9 s. This can be related to the
concluded that its AIS packets were successfully decoded, but something went wrong with nominal reporting
interval
the AISintended fori.e.,
target itself, AISthe
base
basestations
station(10 s) [11].
(Figure 2).

Figure
Figure2.2.AIS
AIStarget
target #7
#7 [31].
[31].

Investigation
Analysing into the
further, AISdata log of
packets all successfully
from the AIS target decoded AIS packets
#79 (MMSI: showed
0) were thatand
received
10,100 (out of 73,090 = 13.82%) were received from this AIS target, meaning
unsuccessfully decoded only 25 times (0.03%), meaning that 25 times Cyclic Redundancy that its data
packets
Check werecode
(CRC) received
wason averageand
detected every 9 s. Thisbut
decoded, canthe
beAIS
related to the
packet as nominal
a whole reporting
was errone-
interval intended for AIS
ous and contained no data. base stations (10 s) [11].
Analysing further, AIS packets from the AIS target #79 (MMSI: 0) were received and
unsuccessfully decoded only 25 times (0.03%), meaning that 25 times Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC) code was detected and decoded, but the AIS packet as a whole was erroneous
and contained no data.
The AIS target #86 (MMSI: 743195360) was decoded and displayed only once, and
therefore was neglected in this analysis. The same applies on the AIS target #92 (MMSI:
992365362), which was decoded and displayed only twice. Additionally, both of the above
AIS targets could not be verified, because there was no record of the existence of their
MMSI numbers. Namely, every base/coast station, ship station or the AIS AtoN which
 The AIS target #86 (MMSI: 743195360) was decoded and displayed only once, an
therefore was neglected in this analysis. The same applies on the AIS target #92 (MMS
992365362), which was decoded and displayed only twice. Additionally, both of the abov
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 AIS targets could not be verified, because there was no record of the existence 5 of 17 of thei
MMSI numbers. Namely, every base/coast station, ship station or the AIS AtoN which ha
been notified to the ITU Radiocommunication Bureau can be retrieved using ITU’s Mar
has been
time notified
mobile to the
Access ITU
and Radiocommunication
Retrieval System (MARS) Bureau
[32].can be retrieved using ITU’s
Maritime mobile Access and Retrieval System (MARS) [32].
After eliminating incorrectly decoded and displayed AIS targets, the next step was t
After eliminating
calculate incorrectly
the great circle decoded
distance and displayed
(in nautical AIS targets,
miles) between thethe next
SDR step
AIS was to antenn
receiver
calculate the great circle distance (in nautical miles) between the SDR AIS receiver antenna
and every position decoded from data packets using the following expression [33]:
and every position decoded from data packets using the following expression [33]:
𝑑 = 3440.065 cos sin 𝜑 ∙ sin 𝜑 + cos 𝜑 ∙ cos 𝜑 ∙ cos 𝜆 − 𝜆 NM (1
d = 3440.065 cos−1 [sin ϕ A · sin · B + cos ϕ A · cos ϕ B · cos(λ A − λ B )] NM (1)
where (𝜑 , 𝜆 ) and (𝜑 , 𝜆 ) are position coordinates.
whereThis
(ϕ A , was
λ A ) and
done(ϕto
B, λ B ) are position
determine coordinates. and over-the-horizon radio waves prop
the line-of-sight
This was done to determine the line-of-sight and over-the-horizon radio waves propa-
agation distances. The line-of-sight propagation distances (in nautical miles) in the cond
gation distances. The line-of-sight propagation distances (in nautical miles) in the condi-
tions of the standard atmosphere can be calculated using the following expression [34]:
tions of the standard atmosphere can be calculated using the following expression [34]:
𝐷≅ q 2.23 ℎ q𝑚 + ℎ 𝑚 NM (2
D∼ = 2.23 ht (m) + hr (m) NM (2)
where ℎ 𝑚 and ℎ 𝑚 are heights (in meters) of the transmitting and the receiving an
tenna,htrespectively.
where (m) and hr (m)Given that (in
are heights themeters)
heightofofthethetransmitting
SDR AIS receiver antenna antenna,
and the receiving is 32 m, in orde
to achieve the
respectively. line-of-sight
Given propagation
that the height of the SDR inAIS
the receiver
conditions of the
antenna standard
is 32 atmosphere
m, in order to a
achieve
distancethe
of,line-of-sight
for example, propagation
30 NM, the in height
the conditions of the standard
of the transmitting atmosphere
antenna must beat61 m.
distance
In of, for example,
addition, 30 NM, thegreat
the calculated heightcircle
of thedistances
transmitting
wereantenna must in
also used be order
61 m. to calculat
the Free Space Propagation Loss (FSPL) in dB, according to the followingcalculate
In addition, the calculated great circle distances were also used in order to expression [35
the Free Space Propagation Loss (FSPL) in dB, according to the following expression [35]:
4𝜋𝑑(𝑚)
20 log
4πd(m𝜆(𝑚)
) = 20 log 𝑑(𝑚) + 20 log 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧) − 27.56 (3
20 log10 = 20 log10 d(m) + 20 log10 f ( MHz) − 27.56 (3)
λ(m)
where 𝑑(𝑚), 𝜆(𝑚) and 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧) are distance (in meters), wavelength of the radio wave
where d(m), λand
(in meters) (m) the f ( MHz) areofdistance
and frequency (in meters),
the radio waves (inwavelength of the radio waves (in
MHz), respectively.
meters) and the frequency of the radio waves (in MHz), respectively.
After determining great circle distances, the AIS targets with greatest distances from
After determining great circle distances, the AIS targets with greatest distances from
the antenna of the SDR AIS receiver were analysed. Thus, AIS packets from the target #4
the antenna of the SDR AIS receiver were analysed. Thus, AIS packets from the target #48
(MMSI:992476138,
(MMSI: 992476138, Italian
Italian virtual
virtual AIS AtoN)
AIS AtoN) have have been received
been received and successfully
and successfully decoded decode
94 times (on average every 15 min). According to its decoded
94 times (on average every 15 min). According to its decoded position (which was theposition (which
same was th
same
in in all decoded
all decoded AIS packets),
AIS packets), thebetween
the distance distancethe
between
SDR AIS the SDR AIS
receiver receiver
antenna and antenna
this an
this target was 471 NM
target was 471 NM (Figure 3). (Figure 3).

Figure3.3.AIS
Figure AIS target
target #48#48
[31].[31].

This was considered as an over-the-horizon propagation. Otherwise, its antenna

height must have been at 42,260 m! The FSPL from this target to the SDR AIS receiver
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 6 of 17

antenna was 135.44 dB. At the website of the NESDR SMArt v5 manufacturer there is no
information on noise figure nor the receiver sensitivity, so these parameters are omitted
in analysing the received power [28]. In the calculations of this research, the following
was assumed:
AIS AtoNs transmit packets with 12.5 W power (the maximum power of any AIS
station), which is 41 dBm;
There are no losses nor gains in both the transmitter (AtoN) and the receiver (antenna,
coaxial cable and connectors/adapters, SDR and computer).
Thus, according to Friis transmission equation [36]:

Pr [dBm] = Pt [dBm] − FSPL (4)

(where Pr [dBm] and Pt [dBm] are the received and transmitted power expressed in dBm),
the received power from this target, which is the furthest detected at the SDR AIS re-
ceiver, was −94.44 dBm. According to [11], the typical AIS receiver should have the
sensitivity around 20% PER @ −107 dBm, making this calculated value of the received
power acceptable, since the SDR AIS receiver had 54.3% PER (bearing in mind that it is a
low-cost device).
However, it must be emphasized that virtual AtoN messages, such as this target, are
sent via AIS base stations, not necessarily limited only to local areas. Moreover, the same
virtual AtoN message can be regularly broadcasted from several AIS base stations in order
to ensure its redundancy [37].
The same observations apply for other Italian virtual AtoNs (MMSI: 992476xxx and
002470010) listed in Table 1.

Table 1. List of Italian virtual AtoNs (verified on [31]).

Number of Decoded Distance from the SDR Required Antenna Free Space
Target # MMSI
AIS Packets AIS Receiver Antenna Height for Line-of-Sight Propagation Loss
48 992476138 94 471.0 NM 42,260 m 135.44 dB
54 992476140 79 436.9 NM 36,200 m 134.79 dB
64 992476139 89 435.3 NM 35,927 m 134.76 dB
18 992476141 98 341.3 NM 21,725 m 132.65 dB
22 992476132 104 273.6 NM 13,697 m 130.73 dB
32 992476130 105 269.5 NM 13,270 m 130.59 dB
60 992476127 106 241.0 NM 10,489 m 129.62 dB
51 002470010 100 226.7 NM 9216 m 129.09 dB
33 992476128 110 206.9 NM 7590 m 128.30 dB
31 992476133 116 172.4 NM 5134 m 126.71 dB
38 992476134 97 110.0 NM 1907 m 122.81 dB
65 992476135 106 104.5 NM 1698 m 122.37 dB
8 992476136 123 89.7 NM 1195 m 121.04 dB
50 992476137 123 34.1 NM 93 m 112.64 dB

Investigating [31], the nearest Italian AIS base station is Trieste (with elevation height
of 50 m), which is 32 NM away from our antenna (Figure 4). It can be concluded that it is
just a little bit over-the-horizon propagation (line-of-sight distance is 28.4 NM), therefore
all Italian virtual AIS AtoNs could have been transmitted from this base station.
Furthermore, interesting observation can be made analysing AIS target #85 (MMSI:
992471104, Italian synthetic AtoN), from which only 2 AIS packets were received and
successfully decoded. These packets were received on 25 February at 19:03 h and 19:40 h.
As it can be seen from the Figure 5, this target is distant 190.1 NM from the receiver antenna.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 7 of 17

Figure 4. AIS base station Trieste [31].

Furthermore, interesting observation can be made analysing AIS target #85

992471104, Italian synthetic AtoN), from which only 2 AIS packets were received
cessfully decoded. These packets were received on 25 February at 19:03 h and 19
it can4. be
Figure
Figure AISseen
4. AIS from
basebase the Figure
station
station TriesteTrieste
[31]. 5, this target is distant 190.1 NM from the receiver
[31].

Furthermore, interesting observation can be made analysing AIS target #85

992471104, Italian synthetic AtoN), from which only 2 AIS packets were received
cessfully decoded. These packets were received on 25 February at 19:03 h and 19
it can be seen from the Figure 5, this target is distant 190.1 NM from the receiver

Figure
Figure 5. AIS
5. AIS target
target #85
#85 [31]. [31].

Since this is a synthetic and not virtual AtoN, and only 2 AIS packets were decoded,
Since this is a synthetic and not virtual AtoN, and only 2 AIS packets were
this could be the actual radio signal range. Clearly, this is over-the-horizon propagation.
The free space be
this could the actual
propagation lossradio signal
from this targetrange. Clearly,
to the SDR this is
AIS receiver over-the-horizon
antenna is 127.56 dB. prop
Theobservation
This free space canpropagation
also be appliedloss fromItalian,
on other this target
as well to the SDRsynthetic
as Croatian, AIS receiver antenna
and real
dB. This
AtoNs
Figure listed observation
in Table
5. AIS can also be applied on other Italian, as well as Croatian,
target2.#85 [31].
and real AtoNs listed in Table 2.
Since this is a synthetic and not virtual AtoN, and only 2 AIS packets were d
this could be the actual radio signal range. Clearly, this is over-the-horizon prop
The free space propagation loss from this target to the SDR AIS receiver antenna
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 8 of 17

Table 2. List of Italian and Croatian synthetic and real AtoNs (verified on [31]).

Required
Number of Decoded Distance from Free Space
MMSI Type of AtoN Antenna Height
AIS Packets PFRI Antenna Propagation Loss
for Line-of-Sight
992471104 Synthetic 2 190.1 NM 6335 m 127.56 dB
992471105 Synthetic 4 178.4 NM 5527 m 127.01 dB
992471107 Synthetic 4 136.8 NM 3101 m 124.70 dB
992471109 Synthetic 79 110.0 NM 1907 m 122.81 dB
992471113 Synthetic 73 109.6 NM 1891 m 122.78 dB
992471112 Synthetic 87 108.9 NM 1864 m 122.72 dB
992471110 Synthetic 85 107.6 NM 1814 m 122.62 dB
992471162 N/A 4 95.5 NM 1381 m 121.58 dB
992381550 Real 4 78.9 NM 884 m 119.92 dB
992381330 Real 189 73.8 NM 753 m 119.34 dB
992381560 Real 9 73.2 NM 738 m 119.27 dB
992381060 Real 124 72.6 NM 724 m 119.20 dB
992381200 Real 684 66.6 NM 586 m 118.45 dB
992381340 Real 289 60.9 NM 469 m 117.68 dB
992381010 Real 166 55.6 NM 372 m 116.88 dB
992381190 Real 2919 49.3 NM 271 m 115.84 dB
992381260 Real 2227 43.5 NM 192 m 114.75 dB
992381100 Real 816 41.4 NM 167 m 114.32 dB
992383050 N/A 253 40.2 NM 153 m 114.07 dB
992381300 Real 1044 39.3 NM 143 m 113.87 dB
992381170 Real 2 39.3 NM 143 m 113.87 dB
992381110 Real 259 38.8 NM 138 m 113.76 dB
992381480 Real 5 38.3 NM 133 m 113.65 dB
992381220 Real 337 38.2 NM 132 m 113.62 dB
992381040 Real 961 37.8 NM 128 m 113.53 dB
992381320 Real 3700 28.0 NM 48 m 110.93 dB
992381310 Real 3516 25.6 NM 34 m 110.15 dB
992381120 Real 1356 25.3 NM 32 m 110.05 dB
992381430 Real 768 21.0 NM 14 m 108.43 dB

The mobile shipborne AIS stations (both Class A and B) were omitted in this analysis,
because during the mentioned period of 24-h their AIS packets were received scarcely.
Other AIS stations (base and AtoNs) from which AIS packets were received and decoded
were within the line-of-sight range.
It remains to be answered why the over-the-horizon propagation of VHF/AIS radio
waves appeared. As already mentioned, the conditions for detected anomalous propagation
of AIS signals could be diffraction, tropospheric scattering, ionospheric sporadic E layer or
refraction (subrefraction, superrefraction, ducting) [22,25–27].
However, according to [38] the diffraction effect can be neglected, since the wavelength
of the AIS frequency is too short (app. 2 m) compared to the Earth’s radius (app. 6371 km).
Furthermore, according to the same reference, since the tropospheric scattering is primarily
related to microwaves, this effect was also neglected during the analysis. Lastly, considering
that in this research the reception of the AIS signals took place during the winter (February
2023), and ionospheric sporadic E layers occur mostly during the summer, this propagation
mechanisms can also be neglected [22].
Therefore, deducing all the above, it can be concluded that the over-the-horizon propa-
gation of AIS signals received by the SDR AIS receiver occurred due to the refraction effects.
In 2013, a scientific research conducted over the period of 15 years was published,
in which statistical characteristics of the anomalous refractive conditions along the coast
of the Adriatic Sea were determined [39]. On the basis of collected data from 4 Adriatic
aerological stations, one group of the indicators that was determined and presented are
the annual cycles of monthly percentages of occurrence of each of the possible refractive
phenomena, i.e., subrefraction, superrefraction and ducting. Analysing these indicators, it
J. Mar.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023,
Sci. Eng. 11, x
2023, 11, 1170
FOR PEER REVIEW 9 9of
of 17
17

was evident
In 2013,that the largest
a scientific number
research of anomalous
conducted propagation
over the period of conditions occurred
15 years was during
published, in
summer months. However, the appearance of the phenomenon of superrefraction
which statistical characteristics of the anomalous refractive conditions along the coast shows
of
an increasing
the Adriatic Seatrend
wereprecisely
determined at the end
[39]. Onofthe
February
basis ofand at thedata
collected beginning
from 4 of March.aer-
Adriatic In
addition, from one of the stations, the percentage of occurrence of superrefraction at the
ological stations, one group of the indicators that was determined and presented are the
end of February and at the beginning of March has almost the same values as during the
annual cycles of monthly percentages of occurrence of each of the possible refractive phe-
summer months.
nomena, i.e., subrefraction, superrefraction and ducting. Analysing these indicators, it
Following the above methodology, with the aim of proving refractive anomalous
was evident that the largest number of anomalous propagation conditions occurred dur-
propagation, available data recorded by radiosondes from 9 stations located in Croatia (2)
ing summer months. However, the appearance of the phenomenon of superrefraction
and Italy (7) were collected and used in this paper (Table 3). Each station records data up to
shows an increasing trend precisely at the end of February and at the beginning of March.
twice a day (00:00 h and 12:00 h). These datasets were collected in the FAA604 (WMO/GTS)
In addition, from one of the stations, the percentage of occurrence of superrefraction at
format from the database of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
the end of February and at the beginning of March has almost the same values as during
Earth System Research Laboratories (ESRL) and University of Wyoming for the period
the summer months.
from 25 February 2023 at 00:00 UTC to 27 February 2023 at 00:00 UTC [40,41].
Following the above methodology, with the aim of proving refractive anomalous
propagation,
Table 3. List ofavailable data with
WMO stations recorded by radiosondes from 9 stations located in Croatia (2)
radiosondes.
and Italy (7) were collected and used in this paper (Table 3). Each station records data up
toStation
twice a day (00:00 h and WMO Number
12:00 Location
h). These datasets were collected Elevation
in the FAA604
(WMO/GTS) format from the14240
Zagreb/Maksimir database of the National ◦
45.82Oceanic ◦ EAtmospheric
and
N, 016.03 123 m Admin-
Zadar (NOAA) Earth System 14430 44.09 ◦ N, 015.35◦ E 84 mof Wyoming
istration Research Laboratories (ESRL) and University
◦ ◦E
for the period from 25 February 2023 at 00:00 UTC to◦ N,
Udine/Rivolto 16045 45.97 27 013.05
February 52 at
2023 m 00:00 UTC
Novara/Cameri 16064 45.52 N, 008.67◦ E 178 m
[40,41]. ◦ ◦
Cuneo—Levaldigi 16113 44.53 N, 007.62 E 386 m
San Pietro Capofiume 16144 44.65◦ N, 011.62◦ E 38 m
Table 3. List
Pratica of WMO stations with
di Mare radiosondes.
16245 41.65◦ N, 012.43◦ E 12 m
Lecce 16332 40.22◦ N, 018.15◦ E 6m
Station WMO Number Location◦ Elevation
Trapani/Birgi 16429 37.92 N, 012.50◦ E 14 m
Zagreb/Maksimir 14240 45.82° N, 016.03° E 123 m
Zadar 14430 44.09° N, 015.35° E 84 m
The downloaded radiosonde datasets were used as an input in the Advanced Refrac-
Udine/Rivolto 16045 45.97° N, 013.05° E 52 m
tive Effects Prediction System (AREPS) program, to create an atmospheric profile [42]. The
Novara/Cameri 16064 45.52° N, 008.67° E 178 m
obtained profiles of the atmosphere with refraction phenomena for each measurement of
Cuneo—Levaldigi 16113 44.53° N, 007.62° E 386 m
each individual station/radiosonde are shown in the Figures 6–13.
San Pietro Capofiume 16144 44.65° N, 011.62° E
From Figure 6, it can be seen that at three stations (Zagreb/Maksimir, 38 m Zadar and
Pratica
Udine/Rivolto) the phenomenon of superrefraction was detected at heights m
di Mare 16245 41.65° N, 012.43° E 12 above 2 km. In
Lecce
addition, at approximately 3.4 16332 40.22° N, 018.15°
km above the Zagreb/Maksimir E (left),
station 6 ma phenomenon
Trapani/Birgi 16429
of subrefraction was also detected. 37.92° N, 012.50° E 14 m
Furthermore, from Figure 7, it is evident that at the Udine/Rivolto and Novara/Cameri
Thesubrefraction
stations downloaded radiosonde
was detecteddatasets wereabove
at heights used as an input
5 km, whileinthe
thenext
Advanced Refrac-
measurement
tive
fromEffects Prediction System
the Novara/Cameri (AREPS)
station program,superrefraction
also detected to create an atmospheric profile [42].
at three different The
heights
obtained profiles
(right). With of themeasurement,
a further atmosphere with refraction phenomena
superrefraction was again for each measurement
detected at around 4 km of
aboveindividual
each the stationstation/radiosonde
Novara/Cameri (Figure 8 left).
are shown in the Figures 6–13.

Figure 6. Zagreb/Maksimir, 25.2.2023,12:00

Zagreb/Maksimir, 25.2.2023, 12:00UTC
UTC(left),
(left), Zadar,
Zadar, 25.2.2023,
25.2.2023, 00:00
00:00 UTC
UTC (centre), and
Udine/Rivolto,
Udine/Rivolto,25.2.2023,
25.2.2023,12:00
12:00UTC
UTC(right).
(right).

From Figure 6, it can be seen that at three stations (Zagreb/Maksimir, Zadar and
Udine/Rivolto) the phenomenon of superrefraction was detected at heights above 2 km.
 enon of subrefraction was also detected.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 10 of 17

In addition, at approximately 3.4 km above the Zagreb/Maksimir station (left), a phenom-
enon of subrefraction was also detected.

Figure 7. Udine/Rivolto, 26.2.2023, 12:00 UTC (left), Novara/Cameri, 25.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (centre),
and Novara/Cameri, 26.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (right).

Furthermore, from Figure 7, it is evident that at the Udine/Rivolto and No-

vara/Cameri
Figure stations subrefraction
7. Udine/Rivolto, 26.2.2023, 12:00was
UTCdetected at heights above
(left), Novara/Cameri, 5 km,
25.2.2023, while
00:00 UTC the next
(centre),
and Novara/Cameri,
measurement from26.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (right).
the Novara/Cameri station also detected superrefraction at three dif-
ferent heights (right). With a further measurement, superrefraction was again detected at
Furthermore,
around 4 km abovefrom FigureNovara/Cameri
the station 7, it is evident that8 at
(Figure the Udine/Rivolto and No-
left).
vara/Cameri stations subrefraction was detected at heights above 5 km, while the next
measurement from the Novara/Cameri station also detected superrefraction at three dif-
ferent
Figureheights
Figure 7. (right). With
7. Udine/Rivolto,
Udine/Rivolto, a further
26.2.2023,
26.2.2023, 12:00measurement, superrefraction
Novara/Cameri,
UTC (left), Novara/Cameri, was again
25.2.2023,
25.2.2023, 00:00 detected
00:00 UTC at
(centre),
around
and 4 km above 26.2.2023,
Novara/Cameri,
and Novara/Cameri, the station
26.2.2023, Novara/Cameri
00:00
00:00 UTC (right). (Figure 8 left).
UTC (right).

Furthermore, from Figure 7, it is evident that at the Udine/Rivolto and No-

vara/Cameri stations subrefraction was detected at heights above 5 km, while the next
measurement from the Novara/Cameri station also detected superrefraction at three dif-
ferent heights (right). With a further measurement, superrefraction was again detected at
around 4 km above the station Novara/Cameri (Figure 8 left).

Figure 8. Novara/Cameri, 26.2.2023, 12:00 UTC (left), Cuneo—Levaldigi, 25.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (cen-
tre), and Cuneo—Levaldigi, 26.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (right).

From Figure 8, it is also visible that at the station Cuneo—Levaldigi, during two dif-
ferent
Figure measurements,
Figure 8.
8.Novara/Cameri, all
Novara/Cameri, refractive
26.2.2023, phenomena—subrefraction
12:00
26.2.2023, UTC (left),
12:00 UTC Cuneo—Levaldigi, (centre), trapping/ducting
25.2.2023,
(left), Cuneo—Levaldigi, 00:00 UTC 00:00
25.2.2023, (cen-
tre),
UTCand
and Cuneo—Levaldigi,
superrefraction
(centre), 26.2.2023,
(right) 00:00
at heights
and Cuneo—Levaldigi, UTC00:00
above
26.2.2023, 2(right).
km, were
UTC detected.
(right).

From Figure 8, it is also visible that at the station Cuneo—Levaldigi, during two dif-
ferent measurements, all refractive phenomena—subrefraction (centre), trapping/ducting
and superrefraction (right) at heights above 2 km, were detected.
Figure 8. Novara/Cameri, 26.2.2023, 12:00 UTC (left), Cuneo—Levaldigi, 25.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (cen-
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEERtre), and Cuneo—Levaldigi, 26.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (right).
REVIEW 11 of 17

From Figure 8, it is also visible that at the station Cuneo—Levaldigi, during two dif-
ferent measurements, all refractive phenomena—subrefraction (centre), trapping/ducting
Analyzing Figure 9 left, it is evident that at the San Pietro Capofiume station, trap-
and superrefraction (right) at heights above 2 km, were detected.
ping/ducting and subrefraction effects were also detected at heights above 3 km. It can
also be observed (centre and right) that during the first measurement above the Pratica di
Mare
Figurestation,
9. San superrefraction
SanPietro
PietroCapofiume,
Capofiume, was detected
25.2.2023, 12:00
25.2.2023, atUTC
12:00about 3.3
(left),
UTC km,Pratica
and
Pratica
(left), di during
Mare, the25.2.2023,
second
25.2.2023,
di Mare, meas-
00:00 UTC
00:00
(centre),
urement and Pratica di Mare,
trapping/ducting
UTC (centre), 25.2.2023, 12:00 UTC
and superrefraction
and Pratica di Mare, (right).
were
25.2.2023, 12:00 UTC detected at heights above 1 km.
(right).

Figure 9. San Pietro Capofiume, 25.2.2023, 12:00 UTC (left), Pratica di Mare, 25.2.2023, 00:00 UTC
(centre), and Pratica di Mare, 25.2.2023, 12:00 UTC (right).

Figure 9. San Pietro Capofiume, 25.2.2023, 12:00 UTC (left), Pratica di Mare, 25.2.2023, 00:00 UTC
(centre), and Pratica di Mare, 25.2.2023, 12:00 UTC (right).

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Pratica
Pratica di
diMare,
Mare, 26.2.2023,
26.2.2023, 00:00
00:00 UTC
UTC (left),
(left),Pratica
Pratica di
diMare,
Mare, 26.2.2023,
26.2.2023, 12:00
12:00 UTC
UTC (centre),
(centre),
Pratica di Mare, 27.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (right).
Pratica di Mare, 27.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (right).

Figure 10 shows three different measurements above the Pratica di Mare station. The
first measurement (left) revealed superrefraction at a height around 750 m. Furthermore,
the second measurement (centre) revealed trapping/ducting at two heights (about 1 km
and about 3 km), as well as subrefraction (about 3.2 and 3.5 km), while during the third
measurement (right), subrefraction was observed at a height above 3 km.
 Pratica di Mare, 27.2.2023, 00:00 UTC (right).

Figure 10 shows three different measurements above the Pratica di Mare station. The
first measurement (left) revealed superrefraction at a height around 750 m. Furthermore,
the second measurement (centre) revealed trapping/ducting at two heights (about 1 km
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 11 of 17
and about 3 km), as well as subrefraction (about 3.2 and 3.5 km), while during the third
measurement (right), subrefraction was observed at a height above 3 km.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25.2.2023, 00:00
00:00 UTC
UTC (left), Lecce, 25.2.2023,
25.2.2023, 12:00
12:00 UTC
UTC (centre),
(centre), Lecce, 12 of 17
Lecce, 26.2.2023,
26.2.2023,
Figure 11. Lecce, 25.2.2023,
00:00 UTC (right).

Moreover, in Figure 11, three different measurements above the Lecce station are
shown. From the first measurement (left), all refractive phenomena were observed—trap-
ping/ducting at a height of 200 m and above, superrefraction at a height slightly below 5
km and subrefraction at a height above 5 km. The same observation can be seen from the
Figure 12. Lecce, 26.2.2023,
next measurement 12:00but
(centre), UTCat(left),
much Trapani/Birgi, 25.2.2023,
lower altitudes 00:00 UTC
(between 200 (centre), and Tra-
m and 1200 m).
pani/Birgi,
From the 25.2.2023, 12:00 UTC (right).
third measurement (right), the phenomenon of trapping/ducting was observed
at heights above 500 m.
Figure 12 shows one measurement from the Lecce station (left), and two measure-
ments from the Trapani/Birgi station (centre and right). From the first measurement the
superrefraction was detected at two different heights (above 500 m and above 1500 m),
while the subrefraction was also detected at a height above 4 km. From the second and
Figure
third 12. Lecce,
Lecce,26.2.2023,
measurements, 26.2.2023,12:00
12:00UTC
UTC(left),
the superrefraction Trapani/Birgi,
(left),
was detected25.2.2023,
Trapani/Birgi, 00:00
at 25.2.2023,
heights UTC4UTC
00:00
above (centre),
andand
km (centre), Tra-
and
above
pani/Birgi, 25.2.2023,
Trapani/Birgi, 12:00
25.2.2023,
500 m, respectively. UTC
12:00 (right).
UTC (right).

Figure 12 shows one measurement from the Lecce station (left), and two measure-
ments from the Trapani/Birgi station (centre and right). From the first measurement the
superrefraction was detected at two different heights (above 500 m and above 1500 m),
while the subrefraction was also detected at a height above 4 km. From the second and
third measurements, the superrefraction was detected at heights above 4 km and above
500 m, respectively.

Figure13.
Figure Trapani/Birgi,26.2.2023,
13.Trapani/Birgi, 26.2.2023,00:00
00:00UTC
UTC(left),
(left),and
andTrapani/Birgi,
Trapani/Birgi,26.2.2023,
26.2.2023,12:00
12:00UTC
UTC(right).
(right).

From Figure
During 8, it is also visible
both measurements overthat
the at the station Cuneo—Levaldigi,
Trapani/Birgi station (Figure 13), during
the same two dif-
phe-
ferent measurements, all refractive phenomena—subrefraction
nomena were observed—trapping/ducting and subrefraction, but at different heights. (centre), trapping/ducting
and Assuperrefraction
can be seen in (right) at heights
the previous above each
Figures, 2 km,station/radiosonde
were detected. recorded the occur-
rence of refractive conditions in the atmosphere duringSan
Analyzing Figure 9 left, it is evident that at the thePietro Capofiume
observed station,
period within trap-
which
ping/ducting and subrefraction effects were also detected at heights
the AIS signals were received. A summary of the detected refractive phenomena from the above 3 km. It can also
be observed
Figure 13. (centre and26.2.2023,
Trapani/Birgi, right) that
00:00during
UTC the first
(left), and measurement
Trapani/Birgi, above the12:00
26.2.2023, Pratica
UTC di(right).
Mare
atmospheric profiles created by the AREPS program is shown in Table 4.
station, superrefraction was detected at about 3.3 km, and during the second measurement
trapping/ducting
Table During
4. Summary and superrefraction
bothofmeasurements
the detected over the
refractive were detected
Trapani/Birgi
phenomena by at
theheights
station above
AREPS (Figure 113),
program. km.the same phe-
nomena were observed—trapping/ducting and subrefraction, but at different station.
Figure 10 shows three different measurements above the Pratica di Mare heights.The
first measurement
As can be seen(left) inDaterevealed
the previous Refraction Type
superrefraction at a height around 750 m. Furthermore,
and TimeFigures, each station/radiosonde recorded the occur-
theStation
rencesecond measurement
of refractive conditions (centre) revealed trapping/ducting at twoSub-
heightswithin
(aboutwhich
1 km
(UTC) atmosphere
in the during the observed
Super-Refraction
period
Ducting
andAIS
the about 3 km),
signals as well
were as subrefraction
received. A summary (about 3.2 and 3.5
of the detected km),Refraction
while
refractive during the
phenomena from third
the
measurement (right),
atmospheric profiles
Zagreb subrefraction
created
25 February by the
2023, was observed
AREPS program X
12:00 at a height above 3 km.
is shown in TableX4.
ZadarMoreover,25inFebruaryFigure 11, three
2023, different measurements
00:00 X above the Lecce station are
shown. From
Table 4. Summary the first measurement (left), all refractive phenomena were observed—
25 of the detected
February 2023,refractive
12:00 phenomena byXthe AREPS program.
Udine
26 February 2023, 12:00 RefractionXType
Date and Time
Station 25 February 2023, 00:00 X
Sub-
(UTC) Super-Refraction Ducting
Novara 26 February 2023, 00:00 X Refraction
Zagreb 26
25February
February2023, 2023,12:00
12:00 XX X
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 12 of 17

trapping/ducting at a height of 200 m and above, superrefraction at a height slightly below

5 km and subrefraction at a height above 5 km. The same observation can be seen from
the next measurement (centre), but at much lower altitudes (between 200 m and 1200 m).
From the third measurement (right), the phenomenon of trapping/ducting was observed
at heights above 500 m.
Figure 12 shows one measurement from the Lecce station (left), and two measure-
ments from the Trapani/Birgi station (centre and right). From the first measurement the
superrefraction was detected at two different heights (above 500 m and above 1500 m),
while the subrefraction was also detected at a height above 4 km. From the second and
third measurements, the superrefraction was detected at heights above 4 km and above
500 m, respectively.
During both measurements over the Trapani/Birgi station (Figure 13), the same phe-
nomena were observed—trapping/ducting and subrefraction, but at different heights.
As can be seen in the previous Figures, each station/radiosonde recorded the occur-
rence of refractive conditions in the atmosphere during the observed period within which
the AIS signals were received. A summary of the detected refractive phenomena from the
atmospheric profiles created by the AREPS program is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Summary of the detected refractive phenomena by the AREPS program.

Refraction Type
Station Date and Time (UTC)
Super-Refraction Sub-Refraction Ducting
Zagreb 25 February 2023, 12:00 X X
Zadar 25 February 2023, 00:00 X
25 February 2023, 12:00 X
Udine
26 February 2023, 12:00 X
25 February 2023, 00:00 X
Novara 26 February 2023, 00:00 X
26 February 2023, 12:00 X
25 February 2023, 00:00 X
Cuneo
26 February 2023, 00:00 X X
San Pietro 25 February 2023, 12:00 X X
25 February 2023, 00:00 X
25 February 2023, 12:00 X X
Pratica di Mare 26 February 2023, 00:00 X
26 February 2023, 12:00 X X
27 February 2023, 00:00 X
25 February 2023, 00:00 X X
25 February 2023, 12:00 X X X
Lecce
26 February 2023, 00:00 X
26 February 2023, 12:00 X X
25 February 2023, 00:00 X
25 February 2023, 12:00 X
Trapani
26 February 2023, 00:00 X X
26 February 2023, 12:00 X X

To summarize, the presented results and findings provide a solid foundation for
further research in the area of propagation of VHF radio waves and their anomalous
features caused by the atmospheric effects. This paper presents a novel approach, i.e.,
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 13 of 17

the usage of a low-cost SDR AIS receiver specifically for this purpose—the detection of
anomalous propagation conditions in the atmosphere above the Adriatic Sea region. Given
that the most common form of maritime communication between navigators is a VHF
radio station, this research, as well as future research on the same topic, can provide a
further understanding towards VHF radio waves’ propagation patterns and regularities
in this region and beyond. In addition, if a new potential maritime system, being the
VHF Data Exchange System (VDES) is used through the concept of e-navigation, these
and future findings can be very useful from the point of view of automatic data exchange
between (autonomous) vessels and terrestrial networks, as well as of remote monitoring of
(autonomous) vessels.
The research results are applicable both in terms of the SDR assessment and prediction
of VHF anomalous propagation caused by the refractive effects. These preliminary results
will be the basis for the future research during different (seasons) and longer time periods,
as well as at different locations.

Author Contributions: Both authors contributed to the manuscript equally. S.V.: Data collection and
written; D.B.: Data collection and written. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Mladen Viher, for generously providing access
to the AREPS program, as well as detailed instructions for its use. This work has also been partially
supported by MarineTraffic, which authorises the reproduction of live map images for the digital and
printed
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEWformats of academic publications. 14 of 17
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix
AppendixAA

Figure A1. Cont.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 14 of 17

Figure A1. Decoded AIS targets #1 to #38.

Figure A1. Decoded
FigureA1. Decoded AIS targets #1 to #38.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17

Figure A2. Decoded AIS targets #39 to #76.

Figure A2. Decoded AIS targets #39 to #76.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1170 15 of 17

Figure A2. Decoded AIS targets #39 to #76.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 17

Figure A3. Decoded AIS targets #77 to #115.

Figure A3. Decoded AIS targets #77 to #115.

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