International Islamic University Chittagong (IIUC)

Department of Computer & Communication Engineering

(CCE)

General Viva

Course Code: CCE-4832

Session: Autumn 2022

Course Instructor:
Prof. Engr. Md. Razu Ahmed
Professor & Chairman Dept. of CCE, IIUC

Prepared By:
Emtiaj Ali Emon (E193003)
Armanul Hoque(E193012)
Kazi Tanvirul Islam Sakib(E193017)

Semester: 8th
Dept. of CCE, IIUC

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 Contents
Sl. Subject Page
No.
1 PHYSICS-II 3

2 Digital Logic Design 7

3 CELLULAR MOBILE COMMUNICATION 15

4 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 18

5 OPERATING SYSTEMS 26

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 PHYSICS-II
Course Code : CCE-1201

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Charge Electric charge can be defined as a fundamental property of subatomic particles that gives rise
to the phenomenon of experiencing force in the presence of electric and magnetic fields. These fields
exert influence on charged particles, resulting in observable effects.

Field An electric field is defined mathematically as a vector field that can be associated with each point
in space, the force per unit charge exerted on a positive test charge at rest at that point.
The formula of the electric field is given as, E = F /Q , Where,
E is the electric field, F is the force, Q is the charge.
The direction of the field is taken as the direction of the force which is exerted on the positive charge.
The electric field is radially outwards from the positive charge and radially towards the negative point
charge
Conductor In simple terms, an electrical conductor is defined as materials that allow electricity to flow
through them easily. This property of conductors that allow them to conduct electricity is known
as conductivity.
Insulators are materials that hinder the free flow of electrons from one particle of the element to another.
If we transfer some amount of charge to such an element at any point, the charge remains at the initial
location and does not get distributed across the surface. The most common process of charging of such
elements is charging by rubbing
Culomb’s Law the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies is directly proportional
to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. It
acts along the line joining the two charges considered to be point charges.
Here, Fe is the electric force, q1 and q2 are electric charges, k is the Coulomb’s constant
8.988×109 N⋅m2/C2 and r is the distance of separation.
Gauss’s Law The net flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the net charge in the
volume enclosed by the closed surface.
Φ = → E.d → A = qnet/ε0
In simple words, the Gauss theorem relates the ‘flow’ of electric field lines (flux) to the charges within
the enclosed surface. If no charges are enclosed by a surface, then the net electric flux remains zero.
This means that the number of electric field lines entering the surface equals the field lines leaving the
surface.
PotentialElectric potential energy is defined as the total potential energy a unit charge will possess if
located at any point in outer space
Dipole An electric dipole is defined as a couple of opposite charges “q” and “–q” separated by a distance
“d”. By default, the direction of electric dipoles in space is always from negative charge “-q” to positive
charge “q”. The midpoint “q” and “–q” is called the centre of the dipole. The simplest example of an
electric dipole is a pair of electric charges of two opposite signs and equal magnitude separated by
distance.
Magnetic Field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the
force of magnetism acts.
Ampere's law states that “The magnetic field created by an electric current is proportional to the size
of that electric current with a constant of proportionality equal to the permeability of free space.”

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Biot savart law states that “ magnetic field due to a current-carrying conductor at a distance point is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the conductor and point, and the magnetic
field is directly proportional to the length of the conductor, current flowing in the conductor”.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, also known as Faraday’s law, is the basic law of
electromagnetism which helps us predict how a magnetic field would interact with an electric circuit to
produce an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.
Energy density in the magnetic field The energy of a capacitor is stored in the electric field between
its plates. Similarly, an inductor has the capability to store energy, but in its magnetic field. This
energy can be found
by integrating the magnetic energy density
Lenz’s law states that “The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which
opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.”
The negative sign in the formula represents this effect. Thus, the negative sign indicates that the direction
of the induced emf and the change in the direction of magnetic fields have opposite signs.
Current is defined as the flow of charged particles. The flow of charge in a conductor through any
cross-section is called the current density of a conductor.
Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric current and potential difference. The current that
flows through most conductors is directly proportional to the voltage applied to it. In the equation, the
constant of proportionality,
R, is called Resistance and has units of ohms, with the symbol Ω. The same formula can be rewritten
in order to calculate the current and resistance respectively as follows. I=V/R
Potential difference is the difference in the amount of energy that charge carriers have between two
points in a circuit Potential Difference formula: V = I x R
A resistor-capacitor circuit (RC CIrcuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of passive components like
resistors and capacitors, driven by the current source or the voltage source.
The key difference between crystalline and noncrystalline solids is that crystalline solids have an
evenly distributed three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules whereas non-crystalline
solids do not have a consistent arrangement of particles.
Single crystal, any solid object in which an orderly three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms, ions,
or molecules is repeated throughout the entire volume and Polycrystalline materials are solids that
consist of many small crystals (the “grains”). The grains are separated by grain boundaries and
normally have random crystallographic orientations. The size of the grains may vary from nanometers
to millimeters.
A unit cell is the smallest portion of a crystal lattice that shows the three-dimensional pattern
of the entire crystal. Take the full unit cell energy and subtract off the energy of each lone atom in your
unit cell.
CE = ∑CiEi where Ci is number of expected chemical bonds and Ei is the energy of corresponding
bonds
The first postulate of special relativity is the idea that the laws of physics are the same and can be stated
in their simplest form in all inertial frames of reference.

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The second postulate of special relativity is the idea that the speed of light c is a constant, independent
of the relative motion of the source
Lorentz Transformation The relationship between two distinct coordinate frames that are moving
relative to one another at a steady velocity is known as a Lorentz transformation.
length contraction are two important concepts in special relativity that describe how objects moving
at high speeds appear to behave differently to a stationary observer.
Energy-mass Relation The equation developed by Albert Einstein, which is usually given as E =
mc2,
showing that, when the energy of a body changes by an amount E (no matter what form the energy
takes),
the mass (m) of the body will change by an amount equal to E/c2
Key Postulates of Bohr's Model:
• Electron Orbits:
• Electrons move in specific circular orbits around the nucleus.
• Each orbit has a fixed energy level.
• Energy Transitions:
• Electrons can jump between orbits by absorbing or emitting discrete packets of energy (quanta).
• When electrons move to lower orbits, they release energy as light.
• Stability:
• Electrons in their lowest energy state (ground state) do not radiate energy and remain stable.

Atomic Nucleus:The central core of an atom, composed of protons and neutrons, bound together by the
strong nuclear force.
.Binding Energy: The energy required to disassemble the nucleus into its individual nucleons.
Strong Nuclear Force: The force that binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus
Compton Effect: The phenomenon in which X-ray or gamma-ray photons are scattered by electrons,
resulting in a change in the photon's wavelength and energy. Discovered by Arthur H. Compton in 1923
X-ray Diffraction: A powerful technique to study the atomic and molecular structure of crystalline
materials using X-rays. Pioneered by William and Lawrence Bragg in the early 20th century.
Radioactivity: The spontaneous process by which unstable atomic nuclei decay, emitting radiation in
the form of particles or electromagnetic waves.
Types of Radioactive Decay:
1. Alpha Decay: Nucleus emits an alpha particle (2 protons and 2 neutrons).
2. Beta Decay: Nucleus emits a beta particle (electron) or positron (positively charged electron).
3. Gamma Decay: Nucleus releases gamma rays (high-energy photons).

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Digital Logic Design
Course Code : CCE-2411

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Digital vs Analog Systems: Digital as well as Analog Systems, both are used to transmit signals from
one place to another like audio/video. Digital systems use binary format as 0 and 1, whereas analog
systems use electronic pulses with varying magnitude to send data.
Benefits of Digital over Analog System
• There are some reasons why we use Digital representation than Analog System:
• It is economical and easy to design.
• It is very well suited for both numerical and non-numerical information processing.
• It has high noise immunity.
• It is easy to duplicate similar circuits and complex digital ICs are manufactured with the advent
of microelectronics Technology. Adjustable precision and easily controllable by Computer
Applications of digital systems:
• Digital systems use binary digits to represent, store, process, and communicate information.
• Digital systems have many advantages over analog systems, such as ease of design, accuracy,
programmability, and resistance to noise.
• Digital systems are widely used in various fields, such as telecommunications, computing,
robotics, aerospace, entertainment, and education.

• Some examples of applications of digital systems are digital watches, rocket science, quantum
computing, automatic doors, and traffic lights.
Digital waveform A digital waveform is a type of signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete
values, usually binary digits (0s and 1s). A digital waveform can have different shapes, such as square,
rectangular, triangular, or sawtooth, depending on the pattern of the binary values. A digital waveform
can also have different characteristics, such as frequency, duty cycle, amplitude, and rising and falling
time.
Data Transfer: Data transfer is the process of moving data from one device or system to another. Data
transfer can be done for various purposes, such as backup, synchronization, sharing, or migration. Data
transfer can be done through different methods, such as online services, external devices, or network
connections. Some of the factors that affect data transfer are the size and type of the data, the speed and
reliability of the connection, and the security and privacy of the data.
What are NOR, NAND, AND, OR and INVERT ?
NOR, NAND, AND, OR, and INVERT are logic gates that perform different Boolean functions. They
can be used to implement various logic circuits with different levels of complexity.
Diode logic gates They are logic gates that use diodes and resistors to perform Boolean functions. They
can only implement OR and AND gates, because they cannot provide logical inversion (NOT) or voltage
level restoration.
Representation Of Number in different bases Representation of number in different bases is the
process of writing a number using different symbols or digits depending on the base or radix of the
number system. For example, the decimal number system (base 10) uses 10 symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9. The binary number system (base 2) uses only two symbols: 0 and 1. The hexadecimal number
system (base 16) uses 16 symbols: 0, 1, …, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F

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Boolean Algebra
• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system used for manipulating binary variables, which can
have only two values: true (1) and false (0).
• It is named after the mathematician George Boole and is widely applied in digital logic design
and computer science.
Switching Functions: Switching functions are expressions in Boolean algebra representing logical
operations. They are used to describe the behavior of digital circuits. These functions combine binary
variables using logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT.
Truth Tables: Truth tables are tabular representations of switching functions that list all possible input
combinations and their corresponding output values. They provide a systematic way to show the
behavior of a switching function for all possible input scenarios
The two main canonical forms are Sum-of-Products (SOP) and Product-of-Sums (POS). SOP
represents the function as a sum of ANDed terms, while POS represents it as a product of ORed terms.
Switching Circuits
1. Switching circuits are physical or digital circuits designed to implement specific switching
functions.
2. These circuits consist of logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) interconnected to perform logical
operations based on the Boolean algebraic expressions.
3. Switching circuits are the physical realization of Boolean functions in electronic devices and
play a fundamental role in digital electronics.
Simplification of Switching Functions Switching functions in digital logic represent the behavior of a
circuit in terms of binary variables and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT). Simplifying these functions
involves reducing the number of terms or gates needed to implement a given logic function while
maintaining the same functionality.Simplification is essential for optimizing circuit size, power
consumption, and speed.
Karnaugh maps are graphical tools used for simplifying Boolean functions. They are particularly
useful for functions with a small number of variables (typically up to 6). The K-map is a grid-like
representation where each cell corresponds to a unique combination of input values. The goal is to group
adjacent cells containing '1' to create simplified product terms.
Design Procedure
The design procedure for combinational logic circuits starts with the problem specification and
comprises the following steps:
1. Determine required number of inputs and outputs from the specifications.
2. Derive the truth table for each of the outputs on their relationships to the input.
3. Simplify the boolean expression for each output. Use Karnaugh Maps or Boolean algebra.
4. Draw a logic diagram that represents the simplified Boolean expression. Verify the design by
analysing or simulating the circuit.
Adder An adder is a digital logic circuit in electronics that is extensively used for the addition of
numbers.

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There are 2 Types of adder
1. Half- Adder
2. Full- Adder
Half Adder : So, coming to the scenario of half adder, it adds two binary digits where the input bits are
termed as augend and addend and the result will be two outputs one is the sum and the other is carry.
To perform the sum operation, XOR is applied to both the inputs, and AND gate is applied to both inputs
to produce carry.
0+0 = 0
0+1 = 1 Sum= A XOR B
1+0 = 1 Carry = A AND B
1+1 = 10
Full Adder The difference between a half-adder and a full-adder is that the full-adder has three inputs
and two outputs, whereas half adder has only two inputs and two outputs. The first two inputs are A and
B and the third input is an input carry as C-IN. When a full-adder logic is designed, you string eight of
them together to create a byte-wide adder and cascade the carry bit from one adder to the next.
Sum = (A XOR B) XOR C
Carry = C AND (A XOR B) + A AND B
Code ConverterA code converter is a logic circuit that changes data presented in one type of binary
code to another type of binary code, such as BCD to binary, BCD to 7-segment, binary to BCD, BCD
to XS3, binary to Gray code, and Gray code to binary.
Parity Check It is a logic circuit that checks for possible errors in the transmission. This circuit can be
an even parity checker or odd parity checker depending on the type of parity generated at the
transmission end. When this circuit is used as even parity checker, the number of input bits must always
be even
Encoder : An Encoder is a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of Decoder. It has
maximum of 2n input lines and ‘n’ output lines. It will produce a binary code equivalent to the input,
which is active High. Therefore, the encoder encodes 2n input lines with ‘n’ bits. It is optional to
represent the enable signal in encoders.
Decoder is a combinational circuit that has ‘n’ input lines and maximum of 2n output lines. One of these
outputs will be active High based on the combination of inputs present, when the decoder is enabled.
That means decoder detects a particular code.
A multiplexer, often abbreviated as MUX, is a combinational circuit that selects one of many input
lines and forwards the selected input to a single output line.
❑ Multiplexers have two sets of inputs: data inputs and control inputs. The control inputs determine
which data input gets routed to the output.
❑ Commonly used symbols for a multiplexer include a rectangle with multiple input lines and a
single output line, along with a set of control inputs that determine which input is selected.
Multiplexers are commonly used in various digital circuits and systems, including:
1. Data routing: They can be used to select data from multiple sources and route it to a
single destination.

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 2. Memory address decoding: In computer memory systems, multiplexers are used to select
specific memory locations.
3. Data selectors in arithmetic logic units (ALUs) and microprocessors.
4. Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) to select input channels.
5. Communication systems for time-division multiplexing.
A demultiplexer, often abbreviated as DEMUX or DMUX, is the opposite of a multiplexer. It takes a
single input line and routes it to one of several possible output lines based on control inputs.The control
inputs determine which output line receives the input signal.
Binary subtraction is typically performed using binary adders and two's complement representation.
To subtract one binary number from another, you add the first number to the two's complement of the
second number. Subtraction circuits can be built by modifying binary adders to handle subtraction
operations.
Comparators are digital circuits that compare two binary numbers and produce an output based on the
comparison result.
1. A common output from a comparator is a signal indicating whether one number is greater than,
equal to, or less than the other.
2. Comparators are used in various applications, including sorting algorithms, control systems, and
digital signal processing.
Sequential logic is a fundamental concept in digital electronics, where outputs depend not only on
current inputs but also on past inputs and internal states. Unlike combinational logic, sequential logic
uses memory elements like flip-flops, enabling the circuit to retain information. Synchronization
through clock signals ensures precise processing, making it vital for designing complex systems like
microprocessors and memory units.
Differentiation between sequential and combinational logic Combinational logic circuits generate
outputs solely based on current inputs, without considering past inputs or internal states. In contrast,
sequential logic circuits incorporate memory elements, allowing them to retain information from
previous inputs and states. This memory enables sequential circuits to perform tasks that require storage,
timing, and decision-making, while combinational circuits excel at immediate, input-dependent
calculations without the need for memory.
Importance of Sequential Circuits in Processing Data: Data transfer is the process of moving data
from one device or system to another. Data transfer can be done for various purposes, such as backup,
synchronization, sharing, or migration. Data transfer can be done through different methods, such as
online services, external devices, or network connections. Some of the factors that affect data transfer
are the size and type of the data, the speed and reliability of the connection, and the security and privacy
of the data.
Block diagrams in the context of sequential circuits are graphical representations illustrating the
system's components and their interactions using blocks and connecting lines.
State Tables:: A state table is a tabular representation of a sequential circuit's behavior. It lists all
possible present states, inputs, next states, and outputs. Each row corresponds to a specific combination
of present state and input, indicating the corresponding next state and output. State tables provide a
systematic way to define the circuit's operation for various inputs and states.
Several types of memory devices are commonly used in digital circuits
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RAM (Random Access Memory) RAM is volatile memory that temporarily stores data that the
processor is currently using or processing. It allows for fast read and write operations and is crucial for
the computer's active tasks.
ROM (Read-Only Memory ROM is non-volatile memory that stores firmware and essential
instructions for booting up the system. It retains data even when the power is turned off and is often
used to store the system's BIOS or firmwar
Cache Memory Cache memory is a small-sized volatile computer memory that provides high-speed
data storage and access to the processor. It stores frequently accessed data and instructions to reduce the
average time to access the CPU.
Flash Memory Flash memory is non-volatile and electrically erasable, making it ideal for storing data
in devices like USB drives, SSDs, memory cards, and microcontrollers. It is widely used in portable
devices due to its low power consumption and durability.
Registers Registers are small, fast storage locations within the CPU. They store data temporarily during
processing and facilitate quick access for arithmetic and logic operations. Registers play a vital role in
the execution of instructions.
Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) and Solid State Drives (SSDs): HDDs and SSDs are non-volatile memory
devices used for long-term data storage in computers. HDDs use magnetic storage, while SSDs use flash
memory, providing faster access times and improved durability compared to traditional hard drives.
Registers are small, fast storage locations within the CPU. They store data temporarily during
processing and facilitate quick access for arithmetic and logic operations. Registers play a vital role in
the execution of instructions.
Latches are basic memory devices used in digital circuits to store information. Unlike flip-flops, latches
are asynchronous, meaning they can change their output state as soon as there is a change in the input,
without waiting for a clock signal
• SR Latch (Set-Reset Latch): An SR latch has two inputs - Set (S) and Reset (R). When S is
HIGH and R is LOW, the latch sets (outputs HIGH). Conversely, when R is HIGH and S is
LOW, the latch resets (outputs LOW). It holds its state as long as S and R remain stable
• D Latch (Data or Transparent Latch): A D latch, also known as a transparent latch, has a Data
(D) input and a Clock (C) input. When the clock signal is HIGH, the D input is transferred to the
output. When the clock signal is LOW, the output holds its previous state, making it sensitive to
changes in the input D only when the clock is HIGH.
• JK Latch (Jack-Kilby Latch) : A JK latch has three inputs - J, K, and Clock (C). It behaves
similar to an SR latch but with additional control. When J and K are both HIGH, the output
toggles with each clock pulse. JK latches are versatile and can function as SR or D latches under
certain conditions.
T Latch (Toggle Latch): A T latch, or toggle latch, has a Toggle (T) input and a Clock (C) input. When
the T input is HIGH and the clock signal transitions from LOW to HIGH, the output toggles its
Set-Reset Latch: A Set-Reset (SR) latch is the simplest form of a latch, consisting of two NAND gates.
It has two inputs: Set (S) and Reset (R). When S is set to 1 and R to 0, the latch sets, storing a binary 1.
Conversely, when R is set to 1 and S to 0, the latch resets, storing a binary 0.

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A Gated SR latch is an improvement over the basic SR latch. It includes two additional inputs: Enable
(E) and Control (C). The outputs Q and Q' are only affected when the enable input (E) is active (E=1)
and the control input (C) is set to the appropriate state (either S=1 or R=1).
Applications: Gated SR latches are used in applications where data needs to be latched and held
temporarily based on specific conditions. They are employed in digital systems for conditional data
storage and control operations.

Flip-flops are fundamental building blocks in digital electronics and play a key role in sequential logic
circuits. They are bistable multivibrators, meaning they have two stable states and can store one bit of
information. Unlike latches, flip-flops are edge-triggered devices, meaning they change state at specific
transitions of a clock signal.
Types of Flip-Flops
• SR Flip-Flop (Set-Reset Flip-Flop): Inputs: Set (S), Reset (R), Clock. Operation: When both S
and R are LOW, the flip-flop maintains its state. On a rising or falling edge of the clock signal
(depending on the specific type - positive-edge or negative-edge triggered), if S=1 and R=0, the
flip-flop sets to 1. Conversely, if R=1 and S=0, it resets to 0.
• D Flip-Flop (Data or Delay Flip-Flop): Inputs: Data (D), Clock ©. Operation: The D flip-
flop transfers the input data (D) to the output (Q) on the rising or falling edge of the clock signal.
The output holds the input data until the next clock transition.
• JK Flip-Flop: Inputs: J, K, Clock © Operation: The JK flip-flop has similar behavior to the
SR flip-flop but includes a "toggle" function. When J=1, K=0, the flip-flop sets to 1. When J=0,
K=1, it resets to 0. When both J and K are 1, the flip-flop toggles its state
Applications: Edge-triggered D flip-flops are widely used in digital systems for tasks requiring
synchronized data storage and processing. They are essential in microprocessors, memory units, and
various control circuits where precise timing and reliable operation are critical.
A Master-Slave SR flip-flop consists of two SR flip-flops: a master and a slave. The master flip-flop
operates on the inputs (Set - S and Reset - R) during the first half of the clock cycle, storing the desired
values. During the second half of the clock cycle, the slave flip-flop copies the master's state, providing
a stable output. This arrangement prevents intermediate or glitch states, ensuring a reliable output.
A Master-Slave D flip-flop uses two D flip-flops. The first (master) operates during the first half of the
clock cycle, capturing the input (D) value. The second (slave) flip-flop samples the master's output,
storing the D input's value and producing the final output during the second half of the clock cycle.
Master-Slave D flip-flops are widely used in digital systems where synchronized data storage is crucial,
such as in register designs and memory units.
Design of Counters and Shift Registers :
Counters:
• Synchronous Counters:
• Utilize a common clock signal for synchronized state transitions.
• Design considerations include flip-flop selection and counting sequence definition (up,
down, custom).
• Asynchronous Counters:
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 • Operate without a common clock, relying on individual flip-flop triggering.
• Simpler design but slower due to propagation delays.
Shift Registers:
• Serial In/Parallel Out (SIPO) Shift Register:
• Receives data serially and outputs it in parallel.
• Applications include data storage, LED displays, and serial-to-parallel conversion.
• Parallel In/Serial Out (PISO) Shift Register:
• Accepts parallel inputs and outputs data serially.
• Useful for serial-to-parallel data conversion in communication systems and memory
interfacing.
• Flip-Flop Selection: Choose appropriate flip-flop types based on functionality requirements.
• Clocking Schemes: Understand clocking mechanisms to ensure synchronization and glitch-free
operation.
• Application-Specific Design: Tailor the design to meet the specific needs of the application,
optimizing accuracy and efficiency.

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CELLULAR MOBILE COMMUNICATION
Course Code : CCE-3607

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Cell in Wireless Communication
➢ Cell in Wireless Communication Cell in wireless communication is the geographical region that
is covered by a transmission facility.
➢ Cell in wireless communication technologies, the geographical region that is covered by a
transmission facility. The term «cell» is most often used in reference to cellular phone
technology, but it can also be used in reference to the coverage areas for transmission of cordless
telephones, satellite transmissions, wireless local area networks (LANs), packet radio, and
paging technologies.
How does Cell work?
➢ Cells range in size from a few dozen meters to thousands of kilometers in diameter,depending
on the technology being used, the power of the transmission station, and the terrain topography.
➢ The follwing table summarizes typical cell size ranges for different wireless communication
technologies. These figures are only approximate because wireless technologies are constantly
evolving.
Satellite-based systems have by far the largest cell sizes and are rapidly increasing in popularity.
Cellular phone technologies in rural areas typically use cells with a radius of 10 to 50 kilometers,
while cells in urban areas range in size from 1 to 10 kilometers.
➢ For highly dense urban areas, cell sizes as small as 100 meters can be used, especially in high-
tier Personal Communications Devices (PCD) cellular technologies.
Shape of Cells : The coverage area of cellular networks are divided into cells, each cell having its own
antenna for transmitting the signals. Each cell has its own frequencies. Data communication in cellular
networks is served by its base station transmitter, receiver and its control unit.
The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon – Square. A square cell has four neighbors at distance
d and four at distance Root 2 d
➢ Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
➢ Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations. It offers
the following advantages −
➢ Provides equidistant antennas
➢ Distance from center to vertex equals length of side
Hexagonal cell shape is perfect over square or triangular cell shapes in cellular architecture because it
cover an entire area without overlapping i.e. they can cover the entire geographical region without
any gaps. Each cell has its own base station with transmitter power and antenna height.
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own base
station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of times that
channels arereused. By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells and by
installing these smaller cells (called microcells) between the existing cells, capacity increases due to
the additional number of channels per unit area.

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Cell Sectoring : Cell sectoring is replacing with an omnidirectional type of the antenna at the base
station by several types of a directional antenna. It is done mainly to reduce factors such as a co-channel
interface.
➢ Cell sectoring is another method to increase capacity. It keeps the radius of the cell constant and
decreases the co-channel reuse ratio D/R to reduce the cluster size N.
➢ So here in cell sectoring process generally cell divided in 120° & 60° sectors.
➢ A cell is in sectoring is 120 ₀ then hexagon cell consists of three sectors and if the sector is 60 ₀
then the hexagonal type cell consists of six sectors.
There are two types of most common antenna are used at mobile towers, they are sector panel antenna
and omnidirectional antenna
Radio propagation: In wireless networks, the signal has no wire to determine the direction of
propagation. For wireless transmission, signal predictable. behavior is only valid in a vacuum, i.e.,
without matter between the sender and the receiver.
Radio propagation is the way radio waves travel or propagate when they are transmitted from one point
to another and affected by the medium in which they travel and in particular the way they propagate
around the Earth in various parts of the atmosphere.
REFLECTION: Occurs when a signal is transmitted, some of the signal power may be reflected back
to its origin rather than being carried all the way. When reflection occurs, it can be seen that the angle
of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection for a conducting surface as would be expected for light.
When a signal is reflected there is normally some loss of the signal, either through absorption, or as a
result of some of the signal passing into the medium. Occurs through Large buildings ,earth surface.
DIFFRACTION: The apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of
waves past small openings. Occur through Obstacles with dimensions in order of lambda
SCATTERING: It Is a general physical process where light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to
deviate from a straight trajectory, by one or more localized non-uniformities, in the medium through
which they pass occur through Obstacles with size in the order of the wavelength of the signal or less.
Foliage, lamp posts, street signs, walking pedestrian, etc.
Free-Space Path Loss (FSPL) : In telecommunication, free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal
strength of an electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space, with
no obstacles nearby to cause reflection or diffraction. The FSPL appears in vacuum under ideally
conditions, e.g. a radio communication between satellites. It is a criterion for the derivation of the radar
equation too.
Free Space Path Loss (or FSPL) represents the amount of energy that a given radio wave loses as it
travels through the air away from its source. Understanding FSPL will help us understand how far a
Wi-Fi signal can go. It is also widely used by Wi-Fi survey tools to predict Wi-Fi signal propagation.
This loss is relative to 2 main components:
➢ Frequency
➢ Distance

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Course Code : CCE-3505

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Purpose of Database Systems : In DBMS, database systems provide a safe and effective platform to
manage vast amounts of data. Their role is to provide services like data organization, storage, and
manipulation, as well as to guarantee data integrity. A database system’s primary goal is to facilitate
data retrieval and provide a dependable storage platform for essential data.

Relational Databases : A relational database (RDB) is a way of structuring information in tables, rows,
and columns. An RDB has the ability to establish links—or relationships–between information by
joining tables, which makes it easy to understand and gain insights about the relationship between
various data points.
Database Design : Database design is a collection of steps that help create, implement, and maintain a
business's data management systems. The primary purpose of designing a database is to produce
physical and logical models of designs for the proposed database system.
Data Storage and Querying : The database system is divided into two components, i.e
Storage Manager
Query Processor
Storage Manager It is the component of a database system that provides an interface between the low-
level data stored, application programs and queries submitted to the system.
The storage manager is in charge of interactions with the file manager. Raw data is stored on the disk
using the file system provided by the operating system. It translates various DML statements into Low-
level commands.
Authorization and Integrity Manager: Tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks
the authority of users to access data.
Transaction Manager: Ensures that the database remains in a uniform state despite system failures
where the ongoing transaction executions proceed without conflict.
File Manager: Manages the allocation of space on disk storage and therefore the data structures used
to represent information on the disk.
Buffer Manager: Accountable for fetching data from disk storage into main memory, and deciding
what data to cache in main memory.
Data Files: Stores the database itself.
Data Dictionary: Stores metadata (data about data) about the structure of the database, specifically, the
scheme of the database.
Indices: Provides fast access to data items.
Query Processor
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Query Processor contains the following three components:
DDL Interpreter: The DDL Interpreter is the Data Definition Language Interpreter which is used to
build and modify the structure of your tables and other objects in the table.
DML Compiler: DML Compiler is the Data Manipulation Language which is used for adding
(inserting), deleting, and modifying (updating) data in a database. or we can say translating the DML
statements into query language consists of low-level instructions that only query engines can understand.
Query Evaluation Engine: It executes the low-level language instructions, generated by DML
Compiler.

What is the Relational Model?

The relational model represents how data is stored in Relational Databases. A relational database
consists of a collection of tables, each of which is assigned a unique name. Consider a relation
STUDENT with attributes ROLL_NO, NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE, and AGE shown in the table.
Database Schema
A database schema is a logical representation of data that shows how the data in a database should be
stored logically. It shows how the data is organized and the relationship between the tables.
Database schema contains table, field, views and relation between different keys like primary
key, foreign key
Different Types of Database Keys
Candidate Key
Primary Key
Super Key
Alternate Key
Foreign Key
Composite Key

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Relational Query Language is used by the user to communicate with the database user requests for the
information from the database. Relational algebra breaks the user requests and instructs the DBMS to
execute the requests. It is the language by which the user communicates with the database. They are
generally on a higher level than any other programming language. These relational query languages can
be Procedural and Non-Procedural.
SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language for interacting with relational databases.
It's used to create, retrieve, update, and manage data efficiently.
Key characteristics:
Declarative language: You tell the database what you want, not how to do it.
English-like syntax: Easy to learn and understand.
Widely adopted: Supported by most major database systems.
SQL Data Definition
Purpose: To create and manage the structure of a database.
Key commands:
CREATE DATABASE: Creates a new database.
CREATE TABLE: Creates a new table within a database.
ALTER TABLE: Modifies an existing table's structure.
DROP TABLE: Deletes a table.
Basic Structure of SQL
Statements: Instructions written in SQL.
Clauses: Parts of statements that specify actions or conditions.
Keywords: Reserved words with specific meanings in SQL.
Syntax: Rules for combining statements, clauses, and keywords
Queries
Purpose: To retrieve specific data from a database.
Key command: SELECT: Specifies the columns to retrieve.
Additional clauses:
FROM: Indicates the table to query.
WHERE: Filters results based on conditions.
ORDER BY: Arranges results in a specific order.
Additional Basic Operations
INSERT INTO: Adds new rows to a table.
UPDATE: Modifies existing data in a table.
DELETE FROM: Removes rows from a table.

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Set Operations
Aggregate Functions
Performing calculations on sets of values:
SUM: Calculates the total.
COUNT: Counts the number of items.
AVG: Calculates the average.
MAX: Finds the maximum value.
MIN: Finds the minimum value.
Nested Sub-queries
Queries embedded within other queries.
Enable complex data retrieval and manipulation.
Modification of the Database
Commands for altering database structure and content:
ALTER TABLE: Modifying table structure.
INSERT INTO: Adding new data.
UPDATE: Modifying existing data.
DELETE FROM: Deleting data.
Join Expressions
Combining data from multiple tables:
INNER JOIN: Returns rows where values match in both tables.
LEFT JOIN: Returns all rows from the left table, matching rows from the right.
RIGHT JOIN: Returns all rows from the right table, matching rows from the left.
FULL OUTER JOIN: Returns all rows from both tables, regardless of matching.
Views
Virtual tables based on underlying tables or queries.
Simplify complex queries and provide security layers.
Transactions
Units of work that ensure data consistency:
COMMIT: Saves changes to the database.
ROLLBACK: Undoes changes to the database.
Integrity Constraints
Rules to maintain data integrity:

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PRIMARY KEY: Uniquely identifies each row in a table.
FOREIGN KEY: References a primary key in another table, enforcing relationships.
NOT NULL: Ensures columns have values.
CHECK: Validates data based on defined conditions.
SQL Data Types
Specify the kind of data a column can hold:
INT: Integers.
VARCHAR: Variable-length strings.
DATE: Dates.
DECIMAL: Decimal numbers.
Accessing SQL From a Programming Language
Purpose: To integrate SQL functionality into applications written in other languages.
Methods:
Embedded SQL: SQL statements within application code.
API calls: Functions provided by database libraries.
Functions and Procedures
Purpose: To encapsulate reusable SQL code for complex operations.
Functions: Return a single value.
Procedures: Perform tasks without returning a value.
Triggers
Purpose: To automate actions in response to database events (e.g., inserts, updates, deletes).
Common use cases: Data validation, maintaining data integrity, auditing changes.
Recursive Queries
Purpose: To query hierarchical data or perform self-referential operations.
Example: Finding all employees and their managers recursively.
Advanced Aggregation Features
Purpose: To perform complex calculations on data sets.
Examples: Grouping sets, rollups, cubes, window functions.
OLAP (Online Analytical Processing)
Purpose: To analyze large volumes of data for decision-making.
Common operations: Pivoting, drill-downs, slicing and dicing.
Relational Database Design

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1. Question: What are the features of a good relational design?
Answer: A good relational design minimizes redundancy, ensures data integrity, and supports efficient
query processing.
2. Question: Define Atomic Domains in the context of relational database design.
Answer: Atomic domains are indivisible and cannot be further subdivided. Each attribute in a relational
schema should represent an atomic domain.
3. Question: Why is achieving First Normal Form (1NF) important in relational database design?
Answer: 1NF ensures that each attribute in a relation contains only atomic values, reducing redundancy
and facilitating data retrieval.
4. Question: How is decomposition used in the context of functional dependencies?
Answer: Decomposition involves breaking down a relation into smaller relations to eliminate anomalies
and achieve a more robust database structure based on functional
. Question: What is the significance of Functional-Dependency Theory in relational database design?
Answer: Functional-Dependency Theory helps identify relationships between attributes and ensures
proper normalization by eliminating partial and transitive dependencies.
6. Question: Describe the algorithms used for decomposition in relational database design.
Answer: Algorithms such as Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) and Third Normal Form (3NF) are
commonly used for decomposition to achieve a higher level of normalization.
7. Question: How does decomposition using Multivalued Dependencies contribute to database design?
Answer: Decomposing relations using Multivalued Dependencies helps eliminate redundancy and
ensures that the resulting relations are in a more normalized form.
8. Question: What are the additional normal forms beyond BCNF and 3NF in relational database design?
Answer: Fourth Normal Form (4NF), Fifth Normal Form (5NF), and Domain-Key Normal Form
(DK/NF) are examples of more advanced normal forms.
Application Design and Development
1. Q: What is the role of User Interfaces in application design?
A: User Interfaces facilitate user interaction with applications, providing a visual interface for control.
2. Q: How do Web Fundamentals contribute to application development?
A: Web Fundamentals (HTML, CSS, JS) form the basis for creating dynamic and responsive web
applications.
3. Q: What purpose do Servlets serve in web development?
A: Servlets, Java components, handle requests and generate dynamic content for web applications.
4. Q: Why are Application Architectures crucial, and what do they define?
A: Application Architectures define the structure and organization, crucial for scalability and
maintainability.
5. Q: What is Rapid Application Development (RAD) and its focus?
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A: RAD is an iterative approach emphasizing quick prototyping and user feedback for accelerated
development.
6. Q: Why is optimizing Application Performance important?
A: Application Performance impacts user experience; optimization techniques include profiling and
caching.
7. Q: How does Application Security protect software?
A: Application Security safeguards against unauthorized access and common vulnerabilities like SQL
injection.
8. Q: Explain the significance of Encryption in development.
- A: Encryption secures data during transmission and storage, making it unreadable without the proper
key.
9. Q: How do you ensure secure form submissions in web apps?
- A: Secure form submissions involve HTTPS, server-side input validation, and secure coding
practices.
10. Q: When is Application Performance Testing beneficial?
A: Performance Testing is vital during development to identify and resolve bottlenecks under varying
conditions.

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OPERATING SYSTEMS
Course Code : CCE-4705

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Operating System : At its core, an operating system is a sophisticated piece of software that manages
and coordinates various hardware components, ensuring a smooth execution of computer programs.
Different Kinds of Operating Systems :
• Desktop Systems
• Multiprocessor Systems
• Distributed Systems
• Clustered Systems
• Real-time Systems
• Handheld Systems
User Operating-System Interface : Users interact with the operating system through interfaces such
as command-line (CLI), graphical user interface (GUI), and batch processing interfaces, making
computing accessible and user-friendly.
Operating-System Services:
• Program Execution
• I/O Operations
• File System Manipulation
• Communication Services
• Error Detection and Handling
Operating-System Structure:
• The structure of an operating system encompasses various components, including the kernel,
shell, file system, device drivers, and more. Each component plays a crucial role in ensuring the
overall functionality of the operating system.
• Virtual Machines:
• Virtualization technology introduces the concept of virtual machines, allowing multiple
operating systems to coexist on a single physical machine. This enables efficient resource
utilization and flexibility in running diverse applications
System Calls: System calls act as gateways for applications to request services from the operating
system. They provide an interface for applications to interact with the underlying hardware and access
essential functionalities.
Types of System Calls:
• Process Control
• File Management
• Device Management
• Information Maintenance
• Communication

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Operating-System Design and Implementation
Components of Operating-System Implementation:
Kernel:
The core of the operating system responsible for essential functions like process scheduling, memory
management, and I/O operations.
Device Drivers:
Programs that facilitate communication between the operating system and hardware devices.
File System:
A component that manages the storage and retrieval of data on storage devices.
User Interface:
The part of the operating system that allows users to interact with the system, including graphical user
interfaces and command-line interfaces.
System Programs:
File Management Programs:
Text Editors:
Compilers:
Debuggers:
System Utilities:
Process Concept Definition:A process is a dynamic entity that includes a program in execution, its
associated data, and the execution state. It embodies the active life of a program within the computer
system.
Process Management:Imagine a computer as a bustling city, with various programs acting as citizens.
Process management, akin to urban planning, ensures smooth coordination of these programs. Let's
explore the facets process management:
Definition of Process Management: Process management involves creating, scheduling, and
terminating processes. It's like managing the flow of traffic in our city of programs to optimize
efficiency.
Inter-Process Communication: Just as citizens in a city need to communicate and collaborate,
processes require mechanisms for sharing information. Inter-process communication involves methods
like shared memory and message passing to facilitate seamless collaboration between different
processes.
Process Scheduling: Process scheduling is about determining the order in which processes are
executed. Much like planning the routes for commuters, scheduling ensures optimal resource utilization
and responsiveness.
Scheduling Criteria and Scheduling Algorithms: To ensure smooth traffic flow, scheduling criteria
such as fairness, efficiency, and responsiveness guide the selection of scheduling algorithms. Algorithms
like FCFS (First-Come-First-Serve), SJF (Shortest Job First), and Round Robin dictate how processes
are scheduled, mirroring traffic management strategies.
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Multiprocessing: In our digital city, multiprocessing involves distributing tasks across multiple
processors, allowing different programs to run simultaneously. It's like having multiple lanes on a road
to accommodate diverse types of traffic efficiently.
Time Sharing: Time sharing is akin to dynamically allocating resources to different processes over
time. It ensures fair access to resources, much like giving equal time on a stage to different performers
in our digital city.
Multiple processor scheduling or multiprocessor scheduling focuses on designing the system's
scheduling function, which consists of more than one processor. Multiple CPUs share the load (load
sharing) in multiprocessor scheduling so that various processes run simultaneously.
Thread Scheduling : Threads are scheduled for execution based on their priority. Even though threads
are executing within the runtime, all threads are assigned processor time slices by the operating system.
Algorithm Evaluation : The first thing we need to decide is how we will evaluate the algorithms. To
do this we need to decide on the relative importance of the factors we listed above (Fairness, Efficiency,
Response Times, Turnaround and Throughput).
Resource allocation The operating system allocates resources through various policies and
mechanisms, such as First come, first served (FCFS), Shortest job first (SJF), Priority, and Round robin.
Dispatching Dispatcher provides control of the CPU to the process picked by the short-term scheduler.
When the scheduler finishes its task of selecting a process, then the dispatcher takes that process to the
destination state.
For example,
Suppose there are 5 processes P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5.
The arrival times of these processes are T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5.
Here, FIFO (first in first out) algorithm is used. So, P1 comes first, and then the scheduler will choose
that it is the first process that is going to execute. The dispatcher will eliminate P1 from ready queue
and take it to the CPU.
Processor access methods
There are three file access methods in OS:
Sequential Access, Direct Access and Indexed Sequential Access
A deadlock happens in operating system when two or more processes need some resource to complete
their execution that is held by the other process.

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Virtual memory
1. What is virtual memory and why is it used?
Answer: Virtual memory is a memory management technique that provides an "idealized abstraction of
the storage resources that are available on a given machine" which "creates the illusion to users of a very
large (main) memory."
2. Explain the concept of Demand Paging.**
Answer: Demand Paging is a technique in virtual memory systems where pages are only loaded into the
main memory when they are demanded by the program during its execution, rather than loading all
pages at the beginning.
3. What is Page Replacement in virtual memory, and why is it necessary?**
Answer: Page Replacement is the process of swapping out pages from the main memory to the secondary
storage when the system needs to bring in new pages. It's necessary to free up space for new pages that
are demanded by the running processes.
4. Describe the FIFO Page Replacement Algorithm.**
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Answer: FIFO (First-In-First-Out) is a page replacement algorithm where the oldest page in the main
memory is the first one to be replaced when a new page needs to be brought in.
5. What is Optimal Page Replacement, and why is it considered the "ideal" algorithm?
Answer: Optimal Page Replacement is a theoretical page replacement algorithm that replaces the page
that will not be used for the longest period in the future. It's considered "ideal" because it minimizes the
number of page faults, but it's practically impossible to implement.
6. Explain the Least Recently Used (LRU) Page Replacement Algorithm.
Answer: LRU Page Replacement Algorithm replaces the page that has not been used for the longest
period of time. It is based on the principle that pages that have not been used recently are less likely to
be used in the near future.
7. What is thrashing in the context of virtual memory?**
Answer: Thrashing occurs when a computer's virtual memory system is in a constant state of paging,
with the operating system spending more time transferring data between the main memory and the disk
than executing actual tasks. This leads to a significant decrease in system performance.
8. How does virtual memory contribute to multitasking in operating systems?
Answer: Virtual memory allows multiple processes to run concurrently, even if their combined memory
requirements exceed the physical RAM. It provides an illusion of a larger memory space by utilizing
both RAM and secondary storage.
File systems
1. Question: What is a file system?
Answer: A file system is a method used by an operating system to organize and store data on a storage
device.
2. Question: What are the two primary access methods for files?
Answer: The two primary access methods are sequential access and direct access (random access).
3. Question: What is the purpose of a directory structure in a file system?
Answer: A directory structure organizes files into a hierarchical tree-like arrangement, making it easier
to navigate and manage files.
4. Question: Explain file-system mounting.
Answer: File-system mounting is the process of making a file system available for access and attaching
it to a specific directory in the file hierarchy.
5. Question: How does file sharing work in a file system?
Answer: File sharing allows multiple users or processes to access the same file concurrently. This is
achieved through file permissions and access control.
6. Question: What is the difference between a file-system implementation and a directory
implementation?
Answer: File-system implementation deals with the overall structure and management of files, while
directory implementation focuses specifically on organizing and managing directories.
7. Question: What are the common allocation methods for file storage?
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Answer: Common allocation methods include contiguous allocation, linked allocation, and indexed
allocation.
8. Question: Explain contiguous allocation.
Answer: Contiguous allocation assigns a consecutive block of storage to a file. It simplifies access but
may lead to fragmentation.
9. Question: What is the purpose of an inode in file systems?
Answer: An inode (index node) is a data structure that stores information about a file, such as its location,
size, ownership, and permissions.
10. Question: How does a file system handle open file management?
Answer: File systems use a data structure called a file table to manage open files, tracking their status,
location, and other relevant information for efficient access.

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