Forging

• Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between two

dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part.

• It is used to make a variety of components which include engine crankshafts and

connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, and jet engine turbine
parts.

• Forging is carried out in many different ways.

• One way to classify the operations is by working temperature.

• Most forging operations are performed hot or warm, owing to the significant
deformation demanded by the process and the need to reduce strength and
increase ductility of the work metal.

• Cold forging is also very common for certain products. The advantage of cold
forging is the increased strength that results from strain hardening of the
component.
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• A forging machine that applies an impact load is called a forging hammer, while
one that applies gradual pressure is called a forging press.

• Another difference among forging operations is the degree to which the flow of
the work metal is constrained by the dies. By this classification, there are three
types of forging operations: (a) open-die forging, (b) impression-die forging, and
(c) flashless forging.

• In open-die forging, the work is compressed between two flat (or almost flat)
dies, thus allowing the metal to flow without constraint in a lateral direction
relative to the die surfaces.

Open-die forging

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• In impression-die forging, the
die surfaces contain a shape or
impression that is imparted to
the work during compression,
thus constraining metal flow to
a significant degree. Impression-die forging

• In this type of operation, a

portion of the work metal flows
beyond the die impression to
form flash which is the excess
metal that must be trimmed off
later.

• In flashless forging, the work is

completely constrained within
the die and no excess flash is Flashless forging.
produced.
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Open – die forging
• The simplest case of open-die forging involves
compression of a work-part of cylindrical cross
section between two flat dies, much in the
manner of a compression test.

• This forging operation, known as upsetting or

upset forging, reduces the height of the work
and increases its diameter.

Analysis of Open-Die Forging

• The true strain experienced by the work during
the process can be determined by
Where
ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜 = Starting height of the work
𝛆 = ln ℎ= Height at some intermediate point in
ℎ
the process, mm (in).

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Analysis of Open-Die Forging
• At the end of the compression stroke i.e. at final
value ℎ𝑓 , the true strain reaches its maximum
value.

• The force ( 𝐹 ) required to continue the

compression at any given height h during the
process can be obtained by multiplying the
corresponding cross-sectional area by the flow
stress:

𝐹 = 𝑌𝑓 𝐴

Where
𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of the part
𝑌𝑓 = Flow stress corresponding to the strain given

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• In an actual upsetting operation the friction opposes the flow of work metal at
the die surfaces. This creates the barreling effect.

• When performed on a hot work-part with cold dies, the barreling effect is even
more pronounced.

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• Diameter to-height ratio of the work-part
increases, due to the greater contact area at
the work–die interface.

• We can apply a shape factor (𝐾𝑓 ) to account for

effects of the D/h ratio and friction:

𝐴 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑌𝑓 𝐴

• 𝐾𝑓 is the forging shape factor, defined as

0.4𝜇𝐷
𝐾𝑓 = 1 +
Where ℎ
𝜇 = Coefficient of friction
𝐷 = Work-part diameter or other dimension representing contact length with die
surface
ℎ = Work-part height

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Operations classified as open-die forging
• Fullering is a forging operation performed to reduce the cross section and
redistribute the metal in a work-part in preparation for subsequent shape
forging.

• It is accomplished by dies with convex surfaces.

• Fullering die cavities are often designed into multi-cavity impression dies, so
that the starting bar can be rough formed before final shaping.

Fullering

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Operations classified as open-die forging

• Edging is similar to fullering, except that the dies have concave surfaces.

• A cogging operation consists of a sequence of forging compressions along the

length of a work-piece to reduce cross section and increase length.

• It is accomplished using open dies with flat or slightly contoured surfaces. The
term incremental forging is sometimes used for this process.

Cogging
Edging
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Impression-die forging
• Also called closed-die forging, is performed with dies that contain the inverse of the
desired shape of the part.

• The involves raw work-piece as a cylindrical part similar to that used in the previous open-
die operation.

• As the die closes to its final position, flash is formed by metal that flows beyond the die
cavity and into the small gap between the die plates.

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Impression-die forging
• Although this flash must be cut away from the part in a subsequent trimming operation, it
actually serves an important function during impression-die forging.

• As the flash begins to form in the die gap, friction resists continued flow of metal into the
gap, thus constraining the bulk of the work material to remain in the die cavity.

• In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted because the thin flash cools quickly against
the die plates, thereby increasing its resistance to deformation.

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Impression-die forging
• Restricting metal flow in the gap causes the compression pressures on the part to
increase significantly, thus forcing the material to fill the sometimes intricate
details of the die cavity to ensure a high-quality product.

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Analysis of impression-die forging

• The force formula is the same as previous for open-die forging, but its
interpretation is slightly different:
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑌𝑓 𝐴

Where
𝐹 = Maximum force in the operation
𝐴 = Projected area of the part including flash
𝑌𝑓 = Flow stress of the material
𝐾𝑓 = Forging shape factor. In hot forging

• Impression-die forging is not capable of close tolerance work, and machining is

often required to achieve the accuracies needed.

• The basic geometry of the part is obtained from the forging process, with
machining performed on those portions of the part that require precision
finishing (e.g., holes, threads, and surfaces that mate with other components).
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Flashless Forging
• In closed-die forging, the raw work-piece is completely contained within the die
cavity during compression, and no flash is formed.

• Flashless forging is often classified as a precision forging process

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Coining
• Coining is a special application of closed-die forging in which fine details in the
die are impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of the work-part.

• There is little flow of metal in coining, yet the pressures required to reproduce
the surface details in the die cavity are high.

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Forging Hammers, Presses and Dies
• Equipment used in forging consists of forging machines, classified as hammers or
presses, and forging dies, which are the special tooling used in these machines.

• In addition, auxiliary equipment is needed, such as furnaces to heat the work,

mechanical devices to load and unload the work, and trimming stations to cut
away the flash in impression-die forging.
Forging Hammers
• Forging hammers operate by applying an
impact loading against the work.

• The term drop hammer is often used for

these machines, owing to the means of
delivering impact energy.

• Drop hammers are most frequently used

for impression-die forging. Drop hammer for impression-
die forging.
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Forging Hammers
• The upper portion of the forging die is
attached to the ram, and the lower
portion is attached to the anvil.

• In the operation, the work is placed on

the lower die, and the ram is lifted and
then dropped.

• When the upper die strikes the work, the

impact energy causes the part to assume
the form of the die cavity.

• Several blows of the hammer are often

required to achieve the desired change Drop hammer for impression-
in shape. die forging.

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Forging Presses
• Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden impact, to accomplish the
forging operation.

• Forging presses include mechanical presses, hydraulic presses, and screw

presses.

Mechanical presses

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Hydraulic Press

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