RECOGNIZINGLIVING THINGS

Biology as a science

Science is the study of the natural things around us. Biology is the branch of science that
involves the study of living things. Branches of biology include zoology, botany, microbiology,
molecular biology, ecology, etc.

LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

A living thing or organism shows a high degree of organization. Millions of atoms and molecules
are arranged in an orderly and complex way to produce a living organism. A living organism is
either a single cell or is made up of many cells. A living organism needs a lot of energy. A
constant supply of energy is needed to maintain a living organism. Consequently, obtaining and
using energy are important activities of living organisms.

Non-living things such as oxygen (gas), water (liquid), and stone (solid) do not show a high
degree of organization. Therefore, their energy content is low.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Movement: generally, living things are capable of carrying out one form of movement or
another. Most animals move from one place to another on their own accord in search of food,
mates and shelter or to escape from their enemies. Most plants are fixed and can only move
certain parts of their body such as roots and shoots in growth movement, opening and closing
of some flowers and leaves.

Respiration: all living things are capable of breaking down food substances by aerobic or
anaerobic means to release energy for all the processes of life.

Nutrition: all living things have to feed or obtain food to provide chemical energy for work and
materials for growth and repair of worn out parts. Nutrition can either be autotrophic or
heterotrophic.

Irritability: living things are capable of responding to changes in their environment to ensure
survival.

Growth: growth is an irreversible increase in size or mass of an organism. When anabolism

(building up of materials) exceeds catabolism (breaking down of built up materials) in the body
of a living organism, growth occurs. Growth can also be defined as increase in dry mass/weight.

Excretion: living things must get rid of metabolic waste products from their body. Metabolic
waste products can become toxic or poisonous if allowed accumulating in the body.
Reproduction: living organisms are capable of producing new individuals of their own kind so
that they will continue to exist.

Competition: living organisms have to struggle for all the necessities of life to be able to survive
in their environment.

Adaptation: living organisms have the ability to adjust to changes in their environment, so that
they can survive. Also they have possess features that help them to survive in their
environment.

Limited size: every living thing has a limited size. Each species has its own limited size. For
example, a rat cannot grow to the size of a goat no matter how feed the rat.

Life span: all living things have a definite period of existence. No organism lives forever. All
living things passes through the following stages: (1) origin or birth, (2) growth, (3) maturity,
(4) productivity, (5) ageing, (6) death

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

PLANTS ANIMALS
1. Autotrophic mode of nutrition due to Heterotrophic mode of nutrition because they
presence of chlorophyll. lack chlorophyll.
2. Limited movement (no organs of Move about freely, (well developed organs of
locomotion); not active. locomotion present); very active.
3. Slow response to external stimuli. Rapid response to external stimuli.
4. No sense organs. Well-developed sense organs.
5. No excretory system Well-developed excretory system
6. Spreading body form with no symmetry; Compact symmetrical body form; limited
unlimited growth. growth.
7. Growth is apical. Growth occurs equally in all parts.
8. Composed of cells enclosed in rigid cell Composed of cells which do not have cell
walls; cell walls provide mechanical support. walls; external or internal skeletons provide
mechanical support.
USEFULNESS OF BIOLOGY

Scientific research and the development of new tools and techniques have certainly improved
the quality of our lives. The usefulness of biology in this respect cannot be overemphasized.
Biology finds applications in

(i) Medicine, dentistry and veterinary science;

(ii) Agriculture and horticulture;
(iii) Food-production industries; and
(iv) Biotechnology, which includes fields like genetic engineering and hybridoma
technology.

BIOLOGY AS INQUIRY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is a systematic approach to investigating inquiries that arise from an
observed phenomenon. A student of biology observes living phenomena and uses the scientific
method to unravel the mysteries of life.

The scientific method usually includes the following steps:

(i) Make observations.

(ii) Put forward possible hypothesis to account for observations.
(iii) Design and conduct experiments to test hypothesis.
(iv) Analyze results and draw conclusions.
(v) Accept, reject or modify hypothesis.
(vi) Share the results- other persons should also test the hypothesis to confirm the
results or carry out further studies that may lead to more hypotheses.

HYPOTHESIS, THEORY AND LAW

Hypothesis: this is a reasonable explanation for a particular observation or natural

phenomenon. This explanation must be such that it can be tested by experimentation.

Theory: this refers to a hypothesis that has been tested and found to be repeatedly correct
within the limits of available evidence.

Law or principle: this is a theory that has been extensively tested and proved to be true. A law
or principle must prove true even in the face of new discoveries, improved technology and
continual experimentation.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Classification is defined as the grouping of living things according to their common

characteristics.

The system of classifying and naming plants and animals was developed by a Swedish naturalist
and taxonomist, Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778). He devised the classification of living organisms
into class, order, family, genus and species. He established precise methods for classifying and
giving scientific names to plants and animals. Each organism is given two names: the generic
and specific (trivial) names.

The study of the general principles and laws of classification is known as taxonomy or
systematics.

The taxonomic system of classification is composed of a hierarchy, called taxa (singular: taxon)
with kingdom being the highest taxon and species the lowest. An explanation of the different
taxa is as follows.

1) Species (plural: species): refers to a group of organisms that resemble one another
closely, in structures and functions. They can interbreed within themselves and their
characteristics remain fairly constant from generation after generation.
2) Genus (plural: genera): refers to a group of related species.
3) Family: refers to a group of related genera.
4) Order: refers to a group of related families.
5) Class: refers to a group of related orders.
6) Phylum (plural: phyla): refers to a group of related classes.
7) Kingdom: refers to a group of related phyla.

CLASSIFICATION OF DOG, HUMAN AND EARTHWORM

Domestic dog Human Earthworm

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Annelida
Class Mammalia Mammalia Oligochaeta
Order Carnivora Primate Megadrili
Family Canidae Hominidae Lumbricidae
Genus Canis Homo Lumbricus
Species Familiaris sapiens Terrestris

CLASSIFICATION OF MAIZE, COWPEA AND ROSE PLANTS

Maize Cowpea Rose

Kingdom Plantae Plantae Plantae
Division Tracheophyta Tracheophyta Tracheophyta
Class Angiospermae Angiospermae Angiospermae
Order Graminales Leguminosa Rosales
Family Graminacae Papilionacae Rosaceae
Genus Zea Vigna Rosa
Species Mays unguiculata Canina
This system of classifying living organisms is very useful to biologists for the following reasons:

i) It provides a set of rules that can be used to identify an organism

ii) It shows that organisms within a group are related.
iii) It helps to show evolutionary trends in different groups of living organisms.
iv) It helps to trace the geographical distribution of living organisms.
v) It helps for easy reference.
vi) It helps for easy research/study.

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

We are familiar with the common names of living organisms such as cat, goat, mango and
maize. Biologists, though, use a standard system to name living organisms. Each kind of
organism is given two names, hence, the term binomial nomenclature.

The first name is the generic name (the name of the genus the organism belongs to). The
second name is the specific or trivial name (the name of the species the organism belongs to).

Both names are printed in italics when typed, while they are underlined when handwritten with
the generic name having an initial capital letter. For example, the scientific name of the maize
plant is Zea mays, and that of the African elephant is Loxodonta africana. Our name is Homo
sapiens.

BASIS FOR CLASSIFICATION: CELLULAR STRUCTURE

On the basis of cellular structure, cells are divided into prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes are very simple and do not have membrane-bound organelles. Examples are
bacteria and blue-green algae. Eukaryotic cells are those with definite nuclei. The cells are
usually larger, more complex and contain more types of organelles. The cells of members of the
kingdoms: Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia are eukaryotic. Members of the kingdom
Monera are prokaryotic.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. No distinct nucleus Distinct nucleus present
2. No nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane present
3. No membrane-bound organelles Membrane-bound organelles present
4. Nuclear materials are scattered in the Nuclear materials are not scattered in the
cytoplasm cytoplasm
5. Exists only in simple forms Exists in complex forms
6. Primitive More advanced.

KINGDOMS

Linnaeus placed all living organisms into two kingdoms: plants and animals. In this scheme,
many one-celled organisms could not fit in properly. Now most biologists favour the placing of
all living organisms into five kingdoms, namely, Monera, Protoctista/Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia.

The five-kingdom way of classifying organisms still presents problems. For example, lichen is
made up of a fungus and a protoctist/protist, so where does it fit in?
Viruses are not included in any of the five kingdoms. Many biologists consider viruses as being
at the borderline between living and non-living things.

VIRUSES

A virus is extremely small and can only be seen through an electron microscope. It does not
have a cell structure (lacks protoplasm) but is just made up of a coiled strand of nucleic acid
(DNA or RNA) enclosed within a protein coat. It can only reproduce inside the cells of other
living organisms. Outside a living cell, it exists as a crystal, and seems to be no different from
other non-living things.

Drawing of the structure of a virus

Viruses are economically important because they cause diseases in plants and animals.

KINGDOM: MONERA

Characteristics

i) They are unicellular or single-celled.

ii) They are prokaryotic.
iii) The cells lack organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts and endoplasmic
reticulum.
iv) The cell wall lacks cellulose.
v) Reproduction is asexual.
vi) Some are autotrophic while others are heterotrophic.

Kingdom Monera is divided into two phyla, namely, a) Schizophyta and b) Cyanophyta

Phylum: Schizophyta

Characteristics

i) They are prokaryotic.

ii) They are microscopic and lack chlorophyll.
iii) They reproduce asexually by binary fission.
iv) They lack membrane-bound organelles.
v) The cell wall lacks cellulose but is made up of polysaccharides and amino acids.

Bacteria belong to phylum Schizophyta.

 Diagram of the structure of a bacterium

PHYLUM: CYANOPHYTA

Characteristics

i) They are microscopic and autotrophic.

ii) They lack organs of locomotion such as cilia and flagellum.
iii) Reproduction is asexual by cell division.
iv) Some are unicellular, others are filamentous and very few form colonies.
v) They contain chlorophyll that is not in chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are absent.
vi) The cell wall lacks cellulose.
Diagram showing blue green algae (Nostoc)

KINGDOM: PROTISTA

Characteristics

i) They are eukaryotes as they have true nuclei with nuclear membranes.
ii) They have membrane-bound organelles.
iii) They are unicellular organisms.
iv) Some members are motile while others are non-motile.
v) Some protists are heterotrophic while others are both heterotrophic and
autotrophic.
vi) Mode of reproduction is usually asexual by mitosis while some have sexual
reproduction by fusion of gametes.
 There are four phyla in this kingdom. They are 1. Protozoa 2. Euglenophyta 3.
Chrysophyta and 4. Pyrrophyta

Phylum: Protozoa

i) They are microscopic organisms.

ii) They have eukaryotic cells.
iii) They reproduce asexually by binary fission.
iv) They are mainly aquatic while few are parasitic.
v) They are unicellular, motile organisms.
vi) The organisms in this phylum move by different means. E.g. Amoeba moves by
pseudopodia, Paramecium moves by cilia, etc.
 AMOEBA

Phylum: Euglenophyta

Euglena viridis a protist and a typical example of an organism having both the characteristics of
plants and animals.

Animal characteristics of Euglena

i. Possession of flagellum for movement.

ii. Possession of gullet for passage of food and as reservoir.
iii. Possession of contractile vacuole for excretion and osmoregulation.
iv. Possession of eyespot which is sensitive to light.
v. Possession of pellicle which makes its body flexible.
vi. Presence of myonemes which aid movement.
vii. It has the ability to carry out holozoic mode of nutrition in the absence of sunlight.
Plant characteristics of Euglena
i. Possession of chloroplast which enables it to carry out photosynthesis.
ii. Possession of paramylum granules which are the forms in which starch is stored.
iii. It has holophytic (autotrophic) mode of nutrition.
PHYLUM: CHRYSOPHYTA (DIATOMS)
Characteristics
(i) They are one-celled microscopic golden organisms occurring singly or in
colonies.
(ii) They are mostly aquatic.
(iii) They are of different shapes (boat shape, rod shape, disc shape, wedge
shape and spherical shape). The cell wall is made of silica and consists of
two halves.
(iv) They reproduce asexually by cell division, spores and sexually by
conjugation of gametes.

Dead diatoms can pile up in thick layers at the bottom of oceans to form
diatomaceous earth which is used as filter, heat insulators and in manufacture of
metal polish and tooth paste.
 Phylum: Pyrrophyta

This phylum is made up of dinoflagellates and cryptomonads.

KINGDOM FUNGI

For a long time, fungi were classified as plants. They differ from plants in the composition of
their cell walls. Most of their cell walls are composed of chitin instead of cellulose.

Characteristics of Fungi

(i) They are eukaryotes.

(ii) Some are unicellular e.g. yeast, while others are multicellular e.g. mushroom.
(iii) They are mainly non-motile organisms.
(iv) They lack true roots, stems and leaves.
(v) They are mainly saprophytes while others are parasites.
(vi) They lack chlorophyll.
(vii) They store excess food as glycogen.
(viii) Their cell wall is made up of chitin instead of cellulose.
(ix) The vegetative body part is made up of fine, delicate threads called hyphae
containing nuclei. A network of hyphae is called mycelium.
(x) They reproduce asexually by formation of spores and some sexually by
conjugation.
(xi) They are found mainly in moist environments. Examples of fungi are moulds
(Mucor and Rhizopus), mildews, yeast, mushroom and toadstool.
Diagram of Rhizopus sp. (bread mould)

A mushroom
 KINGDOM: PLANTAE

Characteristics

(i) They are eukaryotes.

(ii) They are mostly multicellular.
(iii) They are non-motile organisms.
(iv) They possess chlorophyll which enables them to carry out photosynthesis.

The plant kingdom is made up of three main divisions (phyla): 1. Thallophyta (e.g. green,
brown and red algae). 2. Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts).

3. Tracheophyta (vascular plants)

Thallophyta

This division (phylum) can be sub-divided into three groups. These are: 1. Rhodophyta (red
algae). 2. Chlorophyta (green algae). 3. Phaecophyta (brown algae).

Characteristics of Thallophytes

(i) Some are unicellular, e.g. Chlamydomonas, while others are multicellular, e.g.
spirogyra.
(ii) They are simple aquatic plants.
(iii) They lack true roots, stems and leaves.
(iv) They have cellulose cell wall.
(v) Their main mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
(vi) They exhibit both asexual and sexual reproduction.

Examples include the single free-living Chlamydomonas, the filamentous alga (spirogyra)
and the colonial alga (volvox).
 VOLVOX

DIAGRAM OF A CHLAMYDOMONAS

BRYOPHYTA

Characteristics of Bryophytes
(i) They are complex multicellular green plants.
(ii) Their cells are differentiated into tissues.
(iii) They lack true roots, stems and leaves.
(iv) They are non-vascular plants.
(v) They are usually found growing in moist places as they need moisture for
fertilization.
(vi) Their life cycle shows alternation of generations between gamete- bearing forms
(gametophytes) and spore bearing forms (sporophytes). The haploid
gametophyte is the sexual phase, followed by a diploid sporophyte.

Examples include Mosses and Liverworts.

MOSSES

DIVISION: TRACHEOPHYTA

This division is made up of vascular plants. It is divided into two sub-divisions, namely,

1. Pteridophyta 2. Spermatophyta
SUB-DIVISION: PTERIDOPHYTA
Characteristics
(i) They are multicellular vascular green plants, but lack cambium.
(ii) They are non-flowering plants.
(iii) They have true roots, stems and leaves.
(iv) They are mainly terrestrial plants, but a few are aquatic.
(v) They are non-seed producing plants.
(vi) They show sexual reproduction with antheridia and archegonia.
(vii) Some have underground stems called rhizomes while others have erect
stems.
(viii) They depend on water for fertilization.
(ix) Asexual reproduction is by spores liberated from sporangia.

Examples are ferns which include dryopteris, felimas and water ferns.

FERN

SUB-DIVISION: SPERMATOPHYTA

Characteristics of spermatophytes

(i) They are multicellular, seed-producing plants.

(ii) They are vascular plants with well-developed vascular tissues.
(iii) They have true roots, stems and leaves.
(iv) They reproduce sexually and do not need water for reproduction.
(v) They are mainly terrestrial plants.

Spermatophytes can be divided into two main classes, namely, Gymnospermae and
Angiospermae.

GYMNOSPERMAE

Characteristics of Gymnosperms

(i) They are plants with naked seeds.

 (ii) They do not bear flowers.
(iii) They have true roots, stems and leaves.
(iv) They seeds are borne on special structures called cones.
(v) They are vascular green plants.

Examples are pine, cycad, gingko and conifer.

ANGIOSPERMAE

Characteristics of Angiosperms

(i) They are the most complex green plants.

(ii) They have well-developed conducting tissues, xylem and phloem; they are
vascular plants.
(iii) They have well-developed and complete flowers for reproduction.
(iv) They are mainly terrestrial plants.
(v) Reproduction is not dependent on water.
(vi) They show a more specialized reproductive mechanism involving pollination
and fertilization.

There are two sub-classes of Angiosperms: Monocotyledonae with one seed leaf (cotyledon) in
the seed; and Dicotyledonae with two seed leaves (cotyledons) in the seed.

MONOCOTYLEDONAE (MONOCOT PLANTS)

Characteristics of monocotyledonous plants

(i) They bear seed which has only one seed leaf (cotyledon).
(ii) The vascular bundles of their stem are scattered.
(iii) The floral parts exist in threes or multiples of three.
(iv) The leaves show parallel venation.
(v) They have fibrous root system.
(vi) They do not undergo secondary growth because their stem lacks cambium.
Examples include maize, rice, oil palm tree, guinea grass etc.

DICOTYLEDONAE (DICOT PLANTS)

 Characteristics of dicotyledonous plants

(i) They bear seed with two seed leaves (cotyledons)

(ii) Vascular bundles of their stem are arranged in rings or regular pattern.
(iii) The floral parts exist in fours or fives or multiples of four or five.
(iv) The leaves show net venation (net-veined leaves).
(v) They have tap root system.
(vi) They usually undergo secondary growth.

Examples are mango, orange, cowpea, groundnut and balsam plant.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MONOCOT PLANTS AND DICOT PLANTS

MONOCOT PLANTS DICOT PLANTS

Possess one seed leaf (cotyledon). Possess two seed leaves (cotyledons).
Vascular bundles of stem are scattered. Vascular bundles of stem are arranged in
rings or regular pattern.
They have fibrous root system. They have tap root system.
They exhibit hypogeal germination. They exhibit epigeal germination
Floral parts exist in threes or multiples of Floral parts exist in fours or fives or multiples
three. of four or five.
Leaves show parallel venation. Leaves show net venation.
They do not undergo secondary growth. They undergo secondary growth.

KINGDOM: ANIMALIA

The phyla under this kingdom are:

1. PORIFERA
2. COELETERATA (CNIDARIA)
3. PLATYHELMINTHES
4. NEMATODA
5. ANNELIDA
6. MOLLUSCA
7. ARTHROPODA
8. ECHINODERMATA
9. CHORDATA
PHYLUM: PORIFERA

Characteristics

(i) They are simple aquatic invertebrates.

(ii) They do not move about, but are attached to rocks or shells.
(iii) They live in colonies.
(iv) Their larval stage is motile.
(v) They are primitive multicellular animals.
(vi) They have asymmetrical bodies.
(vii) They lack specialized tissues.

Examples of porifera are the sponges.

PHYLUM: COELENTERATA (CNIDARIA)

Characteristics

(i) They are simple multicellular organisms.

(ii) Their body is made up of two layers.
(iii) They are aquatic organisms.
(iv) They are radially symmetrical.
(v) They have soft jelly-like bodies.
(vi) They have tentacles and stinging cells used for capturing their prey.

Examples of coelenterates (cnidarians) are Hydra, jelly-fish, sea anemone and coral.

PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES (FLATWORMS)

Characteristics

(i) They are multicellular.

(ii) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
(iii) They lack body cavity or lumen.
(iv) Their body is made up of three layers- ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
(v) Many of them are parasites, while some are free-living.
(vi) Most are hermaphrodites and reproduce sexually.

Examples are tapeworm, planaria, liver fluke and blood fluke (Schistosome)

PHYLUM: NEMATODA (ROUNDWORMS)

Characteristics

(i) They have round and cylindrical bodies.

(ii) They lack body cavity, i.e. they have pseudo coelom.
(iii) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
(iv) Some are parasites in plants and animals while others are free-living.
(v) Their body is made up of three layers.
(vi) Some are hermaphrodites while sexes are separate in others.

Examples of nematodes are Ascaris, hookworms, guinea worms, thread worms and filarial
worms.

PHYLUM: ANNELIDA

Characteristics

(i) They are long, cylindrical, soft-bodied segmented worms.

(ii) They are triploblastic (have3 body layers) and bilaterally symmetrical.
(iii) They have well-developed coelom or body cavity.
(iv) Each segment has locomotory organs called chaetae.
(v) Each segment has a pair of excretory tubes (nephridia) which open to the exterior.
(vi) They reproduce sexually and many of them are hermaphrodites.
(vii) Some are aquatic while others are terrestrial.
(viii) The alimentary canal has two openings –the mouth and the anus.
(ix) Gaseous exchange occurs through the skin covering the body (cutaneous
respiration).

Examples are earthworms, leeches, lug-worms, tube worms and rag worms.

PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA

Characteristics of Molluscs

1. They have soft unsegmented bodies.

2. They have tentacles on their heads.
3. They have muscular foot adapted for crawling or burrowing.
4. They a tongue-like organ which is modified for rasping or scraping vegetation and
feeding. E.g. land snail, periwinkle and oyster.
5. Some have calcareous shells, e.g. snails, while others lack shells, e.g. octopus and slug.
6. Some are aquatic while others are terrestrial.
7. Gaseous exchange is by means of gills or lung-like organ in the mantle.
8. Molluscs reproduce sexually. The sexes are separate. Some are hermaphrodites.

Examples of molluscs are squid, mussel, periwinkles, snails, clams, scallops and octopus.

PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA

This is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. The following classes make up the phylum:
Crustacea, Insecta, Arachnida and Myriapoda.

Characteristics of Arthropods

1. Their body is segmented.

2. They have exoskeleton of chitin.
3. When they grow too big for their exoskeleton, they moult (ecdysis) and grow a new one.
Some moult all through their lives, while others moult only during the early stages of
their lives.
4. Thy have jointed appendages.

Class: Crustacea

Characteristics of Crustaceans
(i) Their body is divided into cephalothorax (head-thorax) and abdomen.
(ii) They have two pairs of antennae.
(iii) Wings are absent.
(iv) They have a pair of stalked compound eyes.
(v) They carry out gaseous exchange by means of gills.
(vi) Many have a chalky exoskeleton that provides a very effective protection
against predators.

Examples of Crustacea are crabs, shrimps, crayfish and lobsters.

Class: Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes)

Characteristics of myriapods

(i) They have long bodies made up of many segments.

(ii) Their body is not divided into separate regions.
 (iii) Centipedes have one pair of legs on each segment so that the total number
of legs depends on how many segments there are. They are fast moving
carnivores. They have powerful jaws and secrete venom which can paralyze
their prey.
(iv) Millipedes have two pairs of legs on each body segment. They are slow-
moving herbivores. They are often found feeding in leaf litter.

CLASS: INSECTA

Characteristics of Insects

(i) Their body is divided into head, thorax, and abdomen.

(ii) Many species have two pairs of wings on the thorax.
(iii) The thorax also bears three pairs of legs.
(iv) Respiration (gaseous exchange) is by means of tracheae.

Insects have colonized most habitats in the world, although there are very few species in
the sea. Two reasons why they are very successful on land are that they are covered
with waterproof cuticle that prevents them from losing too much water, and many can
fly.

Examples of insects are cockroach, housefly and mosquito.

CLASS: ARACHNIDA

Characteristics of Arachnids

(i) Their body is divided into cephalothorax (prosoma) and abdomen (opisthosoma).
(ii) They have four pairs of legs (8 legs).
(iii) They lack wings.
 (iv) They have no antennae.
(v) They have several pairs of simple eyes but lack compound eyes.

Examples are spiders which can weave silken webs with their spinnerets. Other members of
this class are scorpions, ticks and mites.

PHYLUM: ECHINODERMATA

Characteristics of Echinoderms

(i) Their body is radially symmetrical with body parts arranged around a central
mouth and anus.
(ii) They have spiny skin.
(iii) They are marine animals living on sea shores and sea beds.
(iv) They are triploblastic- they have three body layers.
(v) They have tube feet for movement.
(vi) They have neither head nor brain; they have tough calcareous endoskeleton
formed inside the body.
(vii) They have unique system of water canals for transporting materials inside the
body. Examples are starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, bristle stars and sea lily.

PHYLUM: CHORDATA

Characteristic Features of Chordates

(i) Possession of notochord (a cartilaginous rod running underneath the body).

(ii) Possession of dorsal, hollow nerve cord.
(iii) Possession of slits in the pharynx.
(iv) Possession of postnatal tail.

Most chordates belong to the sub-phylum Vertebrata (the vertebrates). In the vertebrates,
the notochord is replaced with a backbone. The rest of the chordates fall under the sub-
phylum, Acraniata.

SUB-PHYLUM: VERTEBRATA

Characteristics of vertebrates

(i) They possess a backbone.

(ii) Their body is bilaterally symmetrical.
(iii) They possess highly developed systems for digestion, transport, reproduction and
excretion.
(iv) Their brains are the most advanced of all the phyla in the animal kingdom.
(v) They possess a ventral heart, unlike the dorsal one in the invertebrates.

The classes of organisms under the sub-phylum Vertebrata are Chondrichthyes,

Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia.

Class: Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)

Characteristics

(i) Their skeleton is made up of cartilage and not bone.

(ii) They breathe through gills which are not covered by opercula.
(iii) They possess large jaws.
(iv) They possess paired pectoral and pelvic fins and unpaired dorsal, caudal and anal
fins for swimming.
(v) They possess two-chambered heart.
(vi) They possess tooth-like scales called placoid scales on their skin.
(vii) They possess well-developed senses of hearing, smelling and sight.
(viii) They are poikilothermic (cold-blooded).
(ix) They exhibit internal fertilization.
(x) Some lay eggs (oviparous), others retain the eggs within the female body until they
are ready to hatch (ovoviviparous) or give birth to live young ones (viviparous).

Examples are sharks, rays, skates, sawfish and chimaeras.

Class: Osteichthyes

Characteristics

(i) They possess paired pectoral and pelvic fins and unpaired caudal, dorsal and anal
fins for swimming in water (either fresh or salt).
(ii) They possess thin, bony, round cycloid scales on their skin.
(iii) They possess slimy body due to secretion of mucus by glands under the skin.
(iv) They breathe through four pairs of gills which are protected by opercula.
(v) They possess swim bladder for buoyancy in water. No swim bladder in cartilaginous
fishes.
(vi) They are poikilothermic (cold-blooded).

Examples are Tilapia, Clupea (herring), catfish and salmon.

CLASS: AMPHIBIA

Characteristics of Amphibians

(i) They have moist skin which can be used for gaseous exchange to supplement the
lungs.
(ii) They lack scales.
(iii) They have bony endoskeleton.
(iv) They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
(v) External/ internal gills are present in the aquatic larva (tadpole) only. Lungs are
present in the adult which is usually terrestrial.
(vi) They lack external ear.
(vii) They produce eggs and their fertilization is external.
(viii) Adults must return to water for reproduction.
(ix) They are poikilothermic.

Examples are frog, toad, newts and salamander.

CLASS: REPTILIA

Characteristics of Reptiles

(i) They have dry scaly skin with horny scales.

(ii) They have bony endoskeleton.
(iii) They usually possess two pairs of pentadactyl limbs with the exception of the
snakes.
(iv) They use lungs for gaseous exchange.
(v) They lack external ear.
(vi) Fertilized yolky eggs are laid or eggs are retained in the body until hatching. The eggs
have a leathery cover (shell).
(vii) Fertilization is internal (oviparous mode of reproduction).
(viii) They have homodont dentition.
(ix) They are poikilothermic.

Examples of reptiles are lizards, snakes, crocodile and iguana.

CLASS: AVES (BIRDS)

Characteristics of Birds

(i) They are homoeothermic (warm-blooded) animals.

(ii) Their bodies are covered with feathers except the legs which are covered with
scales.
(iii) The fore-limbs are modified into wings for flight.
(iv) The mouth is modified into beak for feeding.
(v) They have rigid and hollow bones with air sacs which make them light during flight.
(vi) They have a four-chambered heart.
(vii) They exhibit oviparous mode of reproduction.
(viii) They exhibit internal fertilization.
(ix) They have lungs for gaseous exchange.
(x) They show parental care for their young ones.

Examples of birds are pigeon, domestic fowl, duck, ostrich, weaver bird, woodpecker, hawk,
sparrow, owl, etc.

CLASS: MAMMALIA

Characteristics of Mammals

(i) They are homoeothermic or warm-blooded animals.

(ii) Their body is covered with fur or hair.
(iii) They have heterodont dentition.
(iv) Majority have external ear (pinna) for trapping sound waves.
(v) They have two pairs of limbs.
(vi) Their skin contains glands such as sweat, sebaceous and mammary glands.
(vii) They show viviparous reproduction (they give birth to their young ones alive).
(viii) They exhibit internal fertilization.
(ix) They have well-developed brains.
(x) They a four-chambered heart.
(xi) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
(xii) They show parental care the young ones.

Examples are man, rabbit, rat, whale, bat, goat, lion, elephant, etc.