1

C3 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher.
Definition
Once the research project is identified and defined clearly, the next stage is to design the research.
Research design investigates the process of designing methods in general or for particular disciplines
for research work. The overall process is to better understand and to improve the design methods for research
work. The aim of research design is to promote the study and research into the process of designing methods
in all of its fields.

Purpose of research design

Research design has following purposes.
1. We need to know how the data was obtained because the method we choose for research effect the
results. Knowing how the data was collected help the leader to evaluate the validity and reliability,
reproducibility of results and conclusion we draw from them.- what method you are going to choose.
2. As there are different methods that can be used to investigate the research problem so the methodology
used should be clear and make the reason clearly that why you are doing this?- why you are opting
this method

The research design provides a complete guideline for data collection.

Basic steps for a research design

Following are the basic important steps for a research design
1. Selection of research approach
2. Designing of sampling plan
3. Designing of experiment
4. Designing of questionnaire
1. Selection of research approach
There are two major classifications of research approaches that are
• Exploratory research
• Conclusive Research
 2

Based on the requirements of the study the researcher should decide about the type of study to be
conducted. For example the modeling research should be used to find the best results through a model and
algorithmic research should be used to find solution using the exact algorithms.

MODELING RESEARCH:
• Modelling studies are used widely to help inform decisions about health care and policy and
their use is increasing.
• A model is an analytical methodology that accounts for events over time and across
populations, that is based on data drawn from primary or secondary sources and in the
context of health care-evaluation.
• Scientific modeling is a research method scientists use to replicate real-world
systems – whether it's a conceptual model of an atom, a physical model of a river delta, or a
computer model of global climate.

ALGORITHMIC RESEARCH [Algorithm: It is a sequence steps to solve a problem of interest]

2. Designing of sampling plan

• A sampling plan is a mechanism by which sampling units of a study are selected from the sampling
frame of population.
• The selection of sampling plan in a study in term affects the cost and time conducted during the
study.
• A study on layout sampling plan aims to minimize the cost of material handling and maximize the
utilization of equipment. Hence the sampling should be selected with the utmost care.

C-5:
Classification of sampling plan

A sampling plan can be classified into

a. Probability sampling plans
b. Non probability sampling plans

Population vs sample
First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample, and identify the target
population of your research.
• The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
• The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.
 3

Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it should
include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that population).
Probability sampling plans: Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected. It is
mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of the whole
population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.
It include
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
 4

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your
sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other techniques that
are based entirely on chance.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every
member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals
are chosen at regular intervals.
3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It
allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the
sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant
characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income bracket, job role).
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be sampled from
each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select
entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques
above.
 5

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in the
sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled
clusters are really representative of the whole population.

a. Non probability sampling plans

Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria,
allowing you to easily collect data.
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every individual
has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That means the
inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions
may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of
the population as possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In these
types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial
understanding of a small or under-researched population.
These plans include
• Convenience sampling
• Voluntary response
• Judgment sampling/purposive sample
• Snow ball sample
 6

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
2. Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of
the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by
responding to a public online survey).
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be more
likely to volunteer than others.
3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise to
select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific
phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific. An
effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants.
The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.

Depending upon the population size and available time carry out the research project a suitable
sampling plan should be selected.

3. Designing of experiment
A study involves different variables. Each variable may be affected by several factors. To test the effects
of these factors on a variable, a suitable experiment should be designed.
There are two main steps to design an experiment.
1. Identify the variables of the study.
2. For each variable repeat following steps.

a. Identify the factors affecting the variables.

b. Fix the number of levels or treatments of each factor.
c. Form the skeleton of the experiment.
d. Write the model of experiment and define its components.

4. Designing of questionnaire

Steps of designing questionnaire

The success of survey method depends upon the strength of questionnaire used. A questionnaire consists
of a set of well formulated questions and obtained responses from the respondents. The generalized steps of
designing questionnaire are presented as follows;
i. Identification of research issues and finalization of set of hypothesis.
ii. For each issue, formulation of a set of questions and then deciding about the comments and format of
each question.
iii. Decide about the question wording depending upon the types of question.
iv. Arrangement of questions in the questionnaire should be in appropriate sequence.
v. Review questionnaire again and again for improvements. [31-5-2022, 30-1-2024 [PhD]]
 7

IMPORTANT STEPS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

Step 1: Define your research question and variables
Step 2: Write your hypothesis
Step 3: Design your experimental treatments
Step 4: Assign your subjects to treatment groups
Example question 1: Phone use and sleep
You want to know how phone use before bedtime affects sleep patterns. Specifically, you ask how the
number of minutes a person uses their phone before sleep affects the number of hours they sleep.
Example question 2: Temperature and soil respiration
You want to know how temperature affects soil respiration. Specifically, you ask how increased air
temperature near the soil surface affects the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) respired from the soil.
To translate your research question into an experimental hypothesis, you need to define the main
variables and make predictions about how they are related.
Start by simply listing the independent and dependent variables.
Research question Independent variable Dependent variable

Phone use and sleep Minutes of phone use before sleep Hours of sleep per night

Temperature and soil Air temperature just above the soil CO2 respired from soil
respiration surface
Then you need to think about possible extraneous (affecting the dependent variable only) and confounding
(affecting the dependent and independent variable) variables and consider how you might control them in
your experiment.
Extraneous variable How to control

Phone use and sleep Electricity breakdown, Control statistically: measure the average
health issue etc difference between sleep with phone use and
sleep without phone use rather than the
average amount of sleep per treatment group.
Temperature and soil Soil moisture also affects Control experimentally: monitor soil
respiration respiration, and moisture moisture and add water to make sure that soil
can decrease with moisture is consistent across all treatment
increasing temperature. plots.
Finally, put these variables together into a diagram. Use arrows to show the possible relationships between
variables and include signs to show the expected direction of the relationships.
 8

Here we predict that increasing phone use is negatively correlated with hours of sleep, and predict an unknown
influence of natural variation on hours of sleep.

Here we predict a positive correlation between temperature and soil respiration and a negative correlation
between temperature and soil moisture, and predict that decreasing soil moisture will lead to decreased soil
respiration.
 9

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
In an experiment, an extraneous variable is any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially
affect the outcomes of your research study.
If left uncontrolled, extraneous variables can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the relationship
between independent and dependent variables.
Research question Extraneous variables

Is memory capacity related to test performance? • Test-taking time of day

• Test anxiety
• Level of stress
Does sleep deprivation affect driving ability? • Road conditions
• Years of driving experience
• Noise
Does light exposure improve learning ability in mice? • Type of mouse
• Genetic background
• Learning environment

CONFOUNDING VARIABLE

In research that investigates a potential cause-and-effect relationship, a confounding variable is an

unmeasured third variable that influences both the supposed cause and the supposed effect.
It’s important to consider potential confounding variables and account for them in your research design to
ensure your results are valid.
10
 11

Step 2: Write your hypothesis

Now that you have a strong conceptual understanding of the system you are studying, you should be able to
write a specific, testable hypothesis that addresses your research question.
Null (H0) hypothesis Alternate (Ha) hypothesis
Phone use and sleep Phone use before sleep does not Increasing phone use before sleep
correlate with the amount of sleep a leads to a decrease in sleep.
person gets.
Temperature and soil Air temperature does not correlate Increased air temperature leads to
respiration with soil respiration. increased soil respiration.
The next steps will describe how to design a controlled experiment. In a controlled experiment, you must be
able to:
• Systematically and precisely manipulate the independent variable(s).
• Precisely measure the dependent variable(s).
• Control any potential confounding variables.
If your study system doesn’t match these criteria, there are other types of research you can use to answer your
research question.

Step 3: Design your experimental treatments

How you manipulate the independent variable can affect the experiment’s external validity – that is, the extent
to which the results can be generalized and applied to the broader world.
First, you may need to decide how widely to vary your independent variable.
Soil-warming experiment
You can choose to increase air temperature:
• just slightly above the natural range for your study region.
• over a wider range of temperatures to mimic future warming.
• over an extreme range that is beyond any possible natural variation.
Second, you may need to choose how finely to vary your independent variable. Sometimes this choice is made
for you by your experimental system, but often you will need to decide, and this will affect how much you
can infer from your results.
Phone-use experiment
You can choose to treat phone use as:
• a categorical variable: either as binary (yes/no) or as levels of a factor (no phone use, low phone use,
high phone use).
• a continuous variable (minutes of phone use measured every night).

Step 4: Assign your subjects to treatment groups

How you apply your experimental treatments to your test subjects is crucial for obtaining valid and
reliable results.
First, you need to consider the study size: how many individuals will be included in the experiment? In
general, the more subjects you include, the greater your experiment’s statistical power, which determines how
much confidence you can have in your results.
Then you need to randomly assign your subjects to treatment groups. Each group receives a different level
of the treatment (e.g. no phone use, low phone use, high phone use).
You should also include a control group, which receives no treatment. The control group tells us what would
have happened to your test subjects without any experimental intervention.
When assigning your subjects to groups, there are two main choices you need to make:
1. A completely randomized design vs a randomized block design.
2. A between-subjects design vs a within-subjects design.
Randomization
An experiment can be completely randomized or randomized within blocks (aka strata):
• In a completely randomized design, every subject is assigned to a treatment group at random.
 12

• In a randomized block design (aka stratified random design), subjects are first grouped according to
a characteristic they share, and then randomly assigned to treatments within those groups.
• Completely randomized design Randomized block design

Phone use and sleep Subjects are all randomly assigned Subjects are first grouped by
a level of phone use using a age, and then phone use
random number generator. treatments are randomly
assigned within these groups.
Temperature and soil Warming treatments are assigned Soils are first grouped by
respiration to soil plots at random by using a average rainfall, and then
number generator to generate map treatment plots are randomly
coordinates within the study area. assigned within these groups.

Sometimes randomization isn’t practical or ethical, so researchers create partially-random or even non-random
designs. An experimental design where treatments aren’t randomly assigned is called a quasi-experimental
design.
Between-subjects vs. within-subjects
In a between-subjects design (also known as an independent measures design or classic ANOVA design),
individuals receive only one of the possible levels of an experimental treatment.
In medical or social research, you might also use matched pairs within your between-subjects design to make
sure that each treatment group contains the same variety of test subjects in the same proportions.
In a within-subjects design (also known as a repeated measures design), every individual receives each of
the experimental treatments consecutively, and their responses to each treatment are measured.
Within-subjects or repeated measures can also refer to an experimental design where an effect emerges over
time, and individual responses are measured over time in order to measure this effect as it emerges.
Counterbalancing (randomizing or reversing the order of treatments among subjects) is often used in within-
subjects designs to ensure that the order of treatment application doesn’t influence the results of the
experiment.
Between-subjects (independent Within-subjects (repeated measures) design
measures) design

Phone use and sleep Subjects are randomly assigned a Subjects are assigned consecutively to low,
level of phone use (low, medium, medium, and high levels of phone use
or high) and follow that level of throughout the experiment, and the order in
phone use throughout the which they follow these treatments is
experiment. randomized.

Temperature and soil Warming treatments are assigned Every plot receives each warming treatment
respiration to soil plots at random and the (1, 3, 5, 8, and 10C above ambient
soils are kept at this temperature temperatures) consecutively over the course of
throughout the experiment. the experiment, and the order in which they
receive these treatments is randomized.
Experiments are always context-dependent, and a good experimental design will take into account all of the
unique considerations of your study system to produce information that is both valid and relevant to your
research question.
 13

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS REGARDING RESEARCH DESIGN

What is the difference between internal and external validity?
What’s the difference between reliability and validity?
Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:
• Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under
the same conditions).
• Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they
are supposed to measure).
If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of
your experiment.
What is the difference between a control group and an experimental group?
What is the difference between internal and external validity?
Internal validity is the degree of confidence that the causal relationship you are testing is not
influenced by other factors or variables.
External validity is the extent to which your results can be generalized to other contexts.
The validity of your experiment depends on your experimental design.
What is the difference between a control group and an experimental group?
An experimental group, also known as a treatment group, receives the treatment whose effect
researchers wish to study, whereas a control group does not. They should be identical in all other ways.
What’s the difference between within-subjects and between-subjects designs?
In a between-subjects design, every participant experiences only one condition, and researchers
assess group differences between participants in various conditions.
In a within-subjects design, each participant experiences all conditions, and researchers test the
same participants repeatedly for differences between conditions.
The word “between” means that you’re comparing different conditions between groups, while the
word “within” means you’re comparing different conditions within the same group.
What is a confounding variable?
A confounding variable, also called a confounder or confounding factor, is a third variable in a study
examining a potential cause-and-effect relationship.
A confounding variable is related to both the supposed cause and the supposed effect of the study. It
can be difficult to separate the true effect of the independent variable from the effect of the
confounding variable.
In your research design, it’s important to identify potential confounding variables and plan how you
will reduce their impact.
What are independent and dependent variables?
You can think of independent and dependent variables in terms of cause and effect: an independent
variable is the variable you think is the cause, while a dependent variable is the effect.
In an experiment, you manipulate the independent variable and measure the outcome in the dependent
variable. For example, in an experiment about the effect of nutrients on crop growth:
• The independent variable is the amount of nutrients added to the crop field.
• The dependent variable is the biomass of the crops at harvest time.
Defining your variables, and deciding how you will manipulate and measure them, is an important part
of experimental design.
What is experimental design?
Experimental design means planning a set of procedures to investigate a relationship
between variables. To design a controlled experiment, you need:
• A testable hypothesis
• At least one independent variable that can be precisely manipulated
• At least one dependent variable that can be precisely measured
When designing the experiment, you decide:
• How you will manipulate the variable(s)
 14

• How you will control for any potential confounding variables

• How many subjects or samples will be included in the study
• How subjects will be assigned to treatment levels
Experimental design is essential to the internal and external validity of your experiment.

Q: What is difference between strata and blocks in statistics?

Ans: Blocking is more for experimental design while strata is for survey sampling.
 15

[10-10-2024 RME]

[11-10-2024 RMM]