PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-1

Electric charge: It is one of the basic properties of matter carried by some elementary
particles. Electric charge, which can be positive or negative, occurs in discrete natural
units and is neither created nor destroyed.
Electric charges are of two general types: positive and negative. Two objects that have an
excess of one type of charge exert a force of repulsion on each other when relatively close
together. Two objects that have excess opposite charges, one positively charged and the
other negatively charged, attract each other when relatively near.
Many fundamental, or subatomic, particles of matter have the property of electric charge.
For example, electrons have negative charge and protons have positive charge,
but neutrons have zero charge. The negative charge of each electron is found by experiment
to have the same magnitude, which is also equal to that of the positive charge of
each proton. Charge thus exists in natural units equal to the charge of an electron or a
proton, a fundamental physical constant.
The unit of electric charge in MKS and SI systems is the coulomb. One coulomb consists of
6.24 × 1018 natural units of electric charge, such as individual electrons or protons. One
electron itself has a negative charge of 1.602176565 × 10−19 coulomb.
The classical study of electricity is generally divided into three general areas.
Electrostatics: the study of the forces acting between charges.
Electric current: the study of the forms of energy associated with the flow of charge.
Electromagnetism: the study of the forces acting between charges in motion.
Characteristics of charge.
 There are two kinds of charge, positive and negative
 like charges repel, unlike charges attract
 positive charge comes from having more protons than electrons; negative charge
comes from having more electrons than protons
 Charge is quantized, meaning that charge comes in integer multiples of the
elementary charge e. In other words charge is capable of free existence and the
quantum of charge is equal to that of an electron. Any charged body has a charge Q,
where Q= ne, where n = +1+2+3+4+5… and e = charge on an
electron which is equal to 1.6 x 10-19C
 Charge is conserved
Coulomb's law, or Coulomb's inverse-square law :- It states that the magnitude of the
electrostatic force of interaction between two point charges is directly proportional to the scalar
multiplication of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the same sign,
the electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they have different sign, the force between them is
attractive.

On comparing both the equations we have.

Electrostatic Potential: Moving a positive test charge against the direction of an electric
field is like moving a mass upward within Earth's gravitational field. Both movements
would be like going against nature and would require work by an external force. When
electric charges move through a conductor, an electric field interacts with the moving
charges and hence some energy is spent in moving the charges in forward direction. The
measure of the energy spent is called the electrostatic potential. Thus, the electrostatic
potential at any point may be defined as the work done in bringing a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point. It is denoted by the letter “V” and is measured in Volt. Thus a
potential is said to be 1 Volt if 1 joule of work is done in bringing a charge of 1 coulomb
from infinity to that point.
Potential difference: Consider the task of moving a positive test charge within a uniform
electric field from location A to location B. In moving the charge against the electric field
PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-2

from location A to location B, work is to be done on the charge by an external force. The
work done on the charge changes its potential energy to a higher value; and the amount of
work that is done is equal to the change in the potential energy. As a result of this change
in potential energy, there is also a difference in electric potential between locations A and B.
This difference in electric potential is represented by the symbol V and is formally referred
to as the electric potential difference. If “W” be the amount of work done in moving “Q”
coulomb of charge from one point to another , then potential difference “V” between two
points is given as;
Pot. Difference= Work done V = W
Quantity of charge transferred Q
Measurement of potential difference: potential difference is measured by an instrument
called voltmeter. It is connected in parallels with the circuit. An ideal voltmeter should have
a high resistance so that it takes a negligible current from the circuit.
Units of potential difference: - The S.I. unit of potential difference is Volt. The potential
difference between any two charges is said to be one volt if work of 1 joule is done in
moving 1 coulomb of charge from one point to another i.e.
1 Volt = 1 joule 1V = 1J
1 coulomb 1C
Electric current: It is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor
and the magnitude of electric current is the amount of electric charge passing through a
given point of conductor in one second.
Consider a charge of “Q” coulombs flowing though a conductor in time “t” seconds, then the
magnitude of electric current flowing through the conductor “I” can be given as under,
I = Q
T
The S.I. unit of electric current is Ampere denoted by letter “A”. Current is said to be one
ampere if a charge of 1 coulomb flows through any conductor in one second, i.e.
1 ampere= 1 Coulomb or 1A = 1C
1 second. 1S
Smaller units of current
One mill ampere i.e. 1 mA = 10-3 A and one microampere i.e. 1 µA = 10-6 A
Measurement of Current: Current flowing through a circuit is measured by an
instrument called as ammeter. It is connected in series with the circuit in which the
current is to be measured. An ideal ammeter should have a very low Resistance (shunt) so
that it may not change the value of electric current flowing in the circuit.
Elementary description of current :- Inside a metallic conductor there exist a large
number of free electrons which continuously move about their mean position randomly in a
very fast speed. This motion is called random thermal motion and during this motion the
speed of the electrons is around 10-5 m/s.
However when a potential difference is applied across the ends of the conductor, these free
electrons start drifting from the negative end of the conductor to its positive end. The speed
of the electrons during this drift is 10-4 m/s and is called as drift speed. It is this drift of
electros which constitute the current.
Relationship between Potential difference and Current or Ohm’s Law:
According to ohm’s Law, “At constant temperature, the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends”. If “I” be the
current flowing through a conductor and “V” the Potential difference across its ends, then
according to the Ohm’s law,
I αV
Or V αI
Or V = R.I
Where “R” is constant of Proportionality and is called as resistance of a conductor.
Or V =R
I Or V = IR
PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-3

Or I = V
R
Thus from above equation it is quite clear that the current flowing through a conductor “I”
is directly proportional to its Potential difference “V” and inversely proportional to the
resistance “R”.
Experimental Verification of Ohm’s Law:
The circuit diagram for the verification of Ohm’s Law is as shown as under:
In this circuit a conductor having resistance “R” is connected in series with an ammeter
“A”, battery “B”, key “K” and a rheostat “Rh”. The voltmeter “V” is connected across the
conductor to measure the voltage .The Ammeter measures the current through the
resistance “R”. The purpose of rheostat is to change the circuit resistance and hence
current .The key “K” is to make or break the circuit.
To start the experiment, close the key “K” and set the rheostat “Rh” at some value .Take the
reading of voltmeter “V” and ammeter “A”. Let it be V1 and I1 respectively. Find the ratio of
V1/I1.Now change the setting of rheostat so that current in the circuit changes. Note down
the readings again. Let it be V2 and I2 respectively. Find the ratio of V2 and I2.It will be found
that :

On taking a number of readings , it is observed that the ratio of potential difference

to current in each case is constant and is equal to the resistance of the conductor .If we
plot a graph between the voltage and current ,a straight line is obtained, which also proves
the Ohm’s law.

+ - Rh

R I

V
v
Resistance of a Conductor: Resistance of a conductor is defined as the property due to
which it opposes the flow of current through it. It is defined by letter “R” and is equal to the
ratio of potential difference across its ends to the current flowing through it. Thus,

Or
The S.I. Unit of resistance is Ohm denoted by Greek symbol Omega (Ώ).The Resistance of a
conductor is said to be 1 Ohm if a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across its ends
and a current of 1 ampere is flowing through it, i.e. .

Factors on which Resistance of a conductor depends:

Resistance of a conductor depends upon:
a) Length: - If the length of a conductor increases, the electrons have to travel a longer
distance and as a result of this, its resistance increases. If ‘l’ is the length of the
conductor then
Thus, R  l …………………… (1)
b) Cross-Sectional area: - If the cross-sectional area of the conductor decreases, the
electrons find it more difficult to pass through it and as such its resistance
increases. Thus.
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1
R∝ …………………… (2)
A
Combining 1 and 2, we get
l l
R∝ or R=
A A
Where ρ (Rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the specific resistance or
resistivity of the conductor. The resistivity of conductor depends on the nature of its
material.
Resistivity: - Resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of the
material of side one meter when the current flows perpendicular to the opposite faces of the
cube. It is also defined as the resistance of the conductor of length 1m having area of cross-
section 1m2.
Unit of Resistivity:-
We know that
l RA
R= OR ρ=
A l
ohm  m 2
Therefore, unit of ρ is  ohm  m
m
Combination of Resistance: The Resistance can be combined in two ways in electrical
circuit viz.
I) In Series: When two or more resistors are connected end to end consecutively, they are
said to be connected in series as shown under:

The current flowing through each resistance placed in series remains same.
II) In Parallel: When two or more resistances are connected between the same two points,
they are said to be connected in parallel as shown under:

The potential difference across the ends of each resistance remains same.
Law of Combination of Resistances:
1) Law of combination of resistances in series:
According to this law, “The combined resistance of any number of resistances connected
in series in a circuit is equal to the sum of their individual resistances”. For example if a
number of resistances R1, R2, R3, R4--------Rn are connected in series, then their resultant
resistance is given by.
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 --------------Rn

Expression for total resistance of a number of resistances connected in series:

Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in series as shown under in the figure.
V
^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^
R1 R2 R3
A I
PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-5

I
+ -
K V

Let “V” be the total voltage applied across the ends and “I” be the total current flowing
through the circuit. Then, according to the Ohm’s law, we have:
V
V= I . Rs [because R = ]
I
Therefore, Voltage drop across resistance R1, can be given as:
V1 = I . R1 -------------------- (i)
And Voltage drop across resistance R2, can be given as:
V2 = I . R2 ------------------ (ii)
And Voltage drop across resistance R3, can be given as:
V3 = I . R3 ------------------ (iii)
Since total voltage applied on the circuit is V, then:
V= V 1 + V2 + V3
V= I R1 + I R2 + I R3 ( Using Eq. i, ii and iii )
 V= I (R1 + R2 + R3)
 V/I = R1 + R2 + R3
But, from Ohm’s law, we have:
V/I = R
Then Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
Hence, the total resistance of a no. of resistances connected in series in a circuit is given by
the algebraic sum of their individual resistances.
The result of the combination of resistors in series combination:
I. If n resistors are combined in series combination with each of value R the their
resultant resistance is expressed as:
Then Rs = R1 + R2 + R3…..n times
II. The current flowing across each resistance remains same and is equal to the total
current across the conductor.
III. The potential difference from the source is distributed across the ends of resistor.
The maximum potential difference is across the resistor having maximum resistance
and the minimum potential difference is across having minimum resistance. This
confirms that the potential difference across any one of the resistors is directly
proportional to the resistance.
IV. Connecting a number of resistors in parallels is same as increasing the length of the
conductor which finally results in the increase in the resistance.
V. In series combination, the equivalent resistance is greater than the greatest of all the
resistances.
2) Law of Combination of resistances in Parallel:
According to this, “The Reciprocal of the combined resistances of a number of resistances
of a number of resistances connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of all
the individual resistances”. If a number of resistances R1, R2, R3, R4--------Rn are connected
in parallel, then their combined resistance R is given as under:
1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4 + ------------------------- +1/Rn

Expression for total resistance of a number of resistances connected in parallel:

Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel as shown under in the
figure:

V
R1
^^^^^^^^^^^
R2
^^^^^^^^^^^
R3
A
PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-6

^^^^^^^^^^^ I
I
+ -
K V

Let “V” be the total voltage applied across the ends and “I” be the total current flowing
through the circuit. Then according to Ohm’s Law, we have:
V = I.R  I = V/R
Therefore, current across resistance R1 can be given as:
I1 = V / R1 ……………(I)
Similarly, current across resistance R2 can be given as:
I2 = V / R2 ……………(II)
And, current across resistance R3 can be given as:
I3 = V / R3 ……………(III)
Since total current flowing current flowing through the circuit is I, then:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
I = V / R1 + V / R 2 + V / R3 [Using equations (I), (II) & (III)]
I = V ( 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 )
I/V = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3
But from Ohm’s Law, we have:
V/I = R OR I/V = 1/R
Then 1 / Rp = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3
Hence the reciprocal of the total resistance of a number of resistances connected in
parallels in a circuit is given by the algebraic sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.
The result of the combination of resistors in parallel combination:
VI. If n resistors are combined in parallal combination with each of value R the their
resultant resistance is expressed as:
1 / Rp = 1 / R + 1 / R + 1 / R …. n times = n/R
VII. The potential difference across each resistance remains same and is equal to the
total potential difference across the conductor.
VIII. The current from the source divides itself into different paths making the different
amount of current to flow through each resistor. The maximum current flows
through the resistor having minimum resistance and the minimum current flows
through the resistor having maximum resistance. This confirms that the current
flowing through the conductor is inversely proportional to the resistance of the
resistor.
IX. Connecting a number of resistors in parallels is same as providing as a number of
paths for the electron flow which finally results in the decrease in the resistance.
X. In parallel combination, the equivalent resistance is lesser than the least of all the
resistances.
XI. If two resistance R1 and R2 are connected in parallels the resultant resistance is
found as Rp= (R1R2) /(R1+R2)
Electrical Circuits: A circuit may be defined as a continuous path of conducting wires and
other resistances between the terminals of a battery along which an electric current is
flowing .Drawing circuit diagrams, showing the connectivity of the different components of
a circuit by using their electrical symbols, represents these. A circuit containing resistance
“R”, Voltmeter “V”, ammeter “A”, key “K” and cell connected together is shown under:
R
PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-7

+ -
K Cell
Heating effect Electric Current:-
When current passes through a conductor, it becomes hot. This means that electric energy
gets converted into heat energy and the effect is called heating effect of current.
We know that conductors have free electrons. When a potential difference is applied
across the ends of a conductor, these electros begin to drift from lower potential to higher
potential. The motion of these electrons is not smooth because they experience a resistance
on account of their collisions with other electrons and also with the ions in the conductor.
As a result of this, some work is done to overcome this resistance. It is this work done that
is converted into heat.
Joule’s Law of Heating:-
Consider a current ‘I’ flowing through a resistor of resistance R. Let the potential
difference across it be V. Let the time during which a charge Q flows across. The work done
is moving the charge Q through a potential difference V is VQ. Therefore, the source must
supply energy equal to VQ in time t. Hence, the power input to the circuit by the source is
P= VQ
T
P = VI (where Q/T = I)
Or the energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t is P x T, i.e. VIT
Thus for a steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in time T is
H = VIT
Applying Ohm’s law, we get
H = I2RT
This is known as Joule’s law of heating.
This law implies that, heat produced in a resistor is:
1. Directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance.
2. Directly proportional to resistance for a given current and
3. Directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor.
Electric Energy : When an electrical current flow through a conductor, work is being done
by the electrical current and the electrical energy consumed is given by the product of
electric power and the time for which it is consumed i.e.
Electric energy = Power x time
E =PxT
But P =VxI
Thus E =VxIxT Or E = VI T
Thus, the product of voltage, current and time, can give electrical energy consumed. The S.I
unit of energy is Joule. When a joule is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an
appliance of 1 Watt power is use for one second. However a bigger unit of electrical energy
is Kilowatt-hour also known as Board of trade unit (B.T.U).
Now if W is the amount of work done by the electric energy. Therefore we can say:
W = VI T ………….(i) (as work done is equal to electrical energy consumed).
As we know that V = IR. Therefore W = IR I T or W = I2RT ………….(ii)
As we know that I = V/R.
Therefore from equation (i) W = V(V/R) T or W = (V2/R)T….………….(iii)
Therefore, E = W = H = VI T = I RT = (V /R)T
2 2

Electric Power and the relationship between power, potential difference, current and
resistance:
When an electric current flow through a conductor, electrical energy is used up and it is
said that current is doing work. The rate of doing work is called as power. In other words,
electric power is the work done by electrical current in unit time. Thus.
PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-8

Power = Work done

Time taken
If “W” be the work done by the electrical current in time “t” seconds then the power “P” can
be given as under:
P = W/T------------------------------- (I)

But W =VxIxT [because W = Vq and q = IT]

Where V = Potential difference

I = Current flowing
T = Time taken
Thus P = VxIxT
T
Or P = VxI -------------------------- (II)
Thus, Electric power = Potential difference x current
Also from Ohm’s law, we have;
V/I =R
Or V = I.R
From equation and we have
P =IxRxI
P = I2 R -------------------------- (III)
But from Ohm’s law I = V/R
Then from equation II we have
P =V x I
Or P = V x V/R
Or P = V2 /R----------------------- (IV)
Thus, equation (I) (II) (III) and (IV) are four equations for explaining and calculating
electrical power.
Thus S. I. unit of electrical power is watt denoted by letter “W” and power is said to be 1
watt if a work of 1 joule is done in one second.
1 watt = 1 joule
1second
However, power can also be expressed in bigger units like kilowatts and Megawatts;
When, I Kilowatt =103 watts.
And 1 Megawatt = 106 watts
Electric Fuse: It is a safety device having a short length of a thin wire made up of tin or tin
lead alloy having low melting point, which melts and breaks the circuit, if the current
exceeds a safety value. Fuse is connected in series in the circuit and works on the heating
effect of the current.
An electric fuse consists of a porcelain fuse holder “H” having two brass terminals T 1 and T2
in it, which is connected to the live wire. The second part of the fuse is a removable fuse
grip “G” made up of porcelain having a fuse grip fixed in it. When the fuse grip is inserted
in the fuse holder, the current of domestic wire is completed, and the electric current is
available in the domestic wires.
When a short circuit or overloading takes place, the current flowing through the circuit
becomes large which heats up the fuse wire, ultimately leading into its blowing. This
happens because the fuse wire has a low melting point, thus breaks electric supply without
any serious damage to the rest of the wirings of the circuit.

Live wire

T1
H
Fuse Holder Fuse wire
FUSE GRIP
PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-9

T2 G

However, the in the electrical appliances consists of a glass tube “T” having a thin
fuse wire inside it. The glass tube has two metal caps at its ends to which the fuse wire is
connected. The metallic caps are to connect the fuse suitably in circuit as shown under:
T Glass Tube

Metal Cap

Symbol of Electric Fuse

Fuse Wire
Characteristics of an Ideal Safety Fuse:
1. It should have a low melting point, so that it melts and breaks a circuit easily.
2. It should be made up of a thin wire of tin or tin lead alloy and fixed supports of a
fireproof material.
3. It should be of a correct value so that it can function properly in an electric circuit.

Rating of an electrical appliance :-

Generally electrical appliances such as an electric bulb, geyser, heater, etc. are rated with
power and voltage. If a device is rated 100W - 250V, it means that when a device is lit on a
250V supply, it consumes 100 W of electric power. This means that, 100 J of electrical
energy gets converted into heat and light energy in 1 second.. The power rating is expressed
in either Watts or Kilowatts. Power is equal to the supplied voltage multiplied by the
current draw or P (power)= I (amps) x V (volts). Household voltage will generally fluctuate
between 110 and 120 volts although there are other factors and should be measured.
From this rating we can calculate the resistance of the filament of the appliance while it is
glowing and also the current which flows through it. Suppose a bulb is rated 100W – 250
V.
Resistance of the filament of the of the bulb, R= V2/P as P = V2/R
R = 250 /100
2 R = 625 Ω
The resistance of the filament of a bulb is much less than this value when it is not lit
because the resistance of a filament increases with the increasing temperature.
Current through the filament I = P/V OR I = 100/250 OR I = 0.4 A
This is the maximum value of the current that can flow through the bulb without causing it
to fuse off.
Domestic wiring or House hold electric circuits: The electric current is transmitted
from PowerStation to houses through copper wires fixed over electric poles. From electric
poles every house brings two insulated wires, one called live wire “L” having high potential
of 220 Volts and the other Neutral wire “N” having a ground potential of zero Volts. Thus,
the potential difference between two wires is 220 volts. The two insulated wires then enter
a box having a fuse of high rating about 50 amperes called the main fuse “F1” and a watt-
hour meter “M”. Which records the consumption of electrical energy in the units of Kilowatt
hours? The two wires coming out from the meter are connected to a main switch “S”. After
the main switch there is another fuse in the live wire called as consumers fuse “F2”. The
circuit is then divided into two separate circuits lighting circuit with a 5 ampere fuse and
power circuit with a 15 ampere fuse. These fuses are provided separately, so as to detect
any fault occurring in the circuit. However, a third wire, called as earth wire “E” is
introduced into the heating or power circuit along with the live and neutral wires. The earth
is an uncovered wire, whose one end is connected to a copper plate buried deep under deep
under the earth. In each room, all the electrical appliances like bulbs, fans, sockets etc. are
provided with separate switches connected in parallel across the live wire and the neutral
wires as shown under:
PHYSICS (10TH) ELECTRICITY PAGE-10

Usually, a red coloured wire is used as a live wire, a black wire as a neutral wire and a
green wire as the earth wire. The separate coloured wires are used so as to make easy
differentiation of live, neutral and earth wires.
Meter Main Switch
Main Fuse
M S
Live wire F1 Consumer Fuse
L F2

Watt hour
Meter

N
Neutral Wire
F F
Lighting Heating
E Circuit circuit Heating
Earth Fuse Fuse Circuit
Wire

S S
Switch for Switch
Bulb for
Socket
B
Copper plate buried
deep under the earth Bulb
Socket
Hazards or Dangers of Electricity:
1. It gives a severe electric shock to a person touching it, which may prove fatal to the
person.
2. Short circuiting due to damaged wiring or overloading can lead to over heating of the
wires or even electrical fires causing great loss to property and life.
3. Fluctuations produced due to over loading may cause damage to various electrical
appliances used in houses.
4. Defective switches, loose connections and wiring in circuits may cause sparking and
lead to electrical fires.
Precautions in using electricity:
1. The electrical supply should be switched off or cut off incase of electric fires, short
circuiting or any other electrical accident.
2. The electrical supply should be switched off incase a person receive an electric shock
and should be ensured an insulated support of wood, plastic, rubber, cloth etc.
3. The wires of the circuits should be of good quality having a proper insulation, and
the connections should be tight and properly covered with an insulating material.
4. While working with live circuits, rubber gloves and shoes should be used.
5. The electrical appliances should be properly connected to earth wire, so as to avoid
electric shocks.