Course Title: Power systems principles

Course Code: ELE 401

Course Lecturer: Dr I. A. Adejumobi
Primary sources of energy
The various sources of energy are:
1. Water - Hydro plant
2. Coal - Steam power plant
3. Nuclear Material, e.g. Plutonium, uranium - Nuclear Power Plant
4. Wind - Wind Power Plant
5. Gas - Gas Turbine Plant
6. Sunlight - Solar Power Plant
7. Oil – Oil Fired Power Station, etc

Electricity Generations (Power Stations)

Power stations are basically a gigantic energy conversion site or centre e.g. Kainji Jebba,
Shiroro, Afram, Egbin etc. Electrical energy is the final form of conversion within power station.
Power contained in the primary source e.g. water, coal, nuclear etc., is converted into final
form of Electrical energy.
Power stations are classified under two main headings i.e.
(i) Thermal (steam) and
(ii) Hydro-power stations.

STEAM POWER STATIONS

Fig 1: Sequence of energy conversion in Thermal or (Steam) Power Stations.

Summmary of Thermal or (Steam) Power Station

In a thermal or steam power stations, the primary energy source may be either coal, oil natural
gas, a nuclear material such as uranium or plutonium. Heat energy is produced in the station by
either a chemical reaction combustion of coal, oil (fossil fuel) or natural gas or by a nuclear
reaction involving fission uranium or plutonium material. The heat energy produced is used to
boil water in cycle of tubings to generate steam under very high pressure. The heat energy
contained in the steam is then converted into mechanical energy by using a turbine. As turbine
shaft turns, the rotor of the generator also turns since it is coupled to the turbine shafts. The rotor
of a generator is electro-magnetic and therefore as it turns, its magnetic fields cut across the
stationary conductors of the generator stator inducing e.m.f. in them. The induced e.m.f. is then
stepped-up using a transformer to the required transmission voltage. (Note: The voltage
maintained there is line-to-line voltage). The steam is produced in the BIOLER.

Fig1.1: Schematic Diagram of a Bioler.

PRODUCTION OF STEAM
The heat energy released from the primary energy source is used to boil pure water contained in
miles of tube, within the boiler to generate stream under high pressure. These tubes are usually
suspended in the furnace, if the water is to receive maximum heat. Pure water is used to prevent
corrosion, wear and blockage due to collection of organic materials (impurities).
THE TURBINE SYSTEM
The turbine is the main equipment involved in the conversion of heat energy (contained in the
steam) into mechanical energy or work. This is the least efficient of all the stages involved in the
product if electrical energy. The conversion of heat into work is done in a coaxial expansion
chamber, made up of 3 parts;
1. The High Pressure (HP) chamber
2. Intermediate Pressure (IP) chamber and
3. Low Pressure (LP) chamber.
The steam enters turbine through the H.P chamber. It is then piped back to be reheated out of
turbine and since drying factor decrease on leaving H.P chamber, the steam has to be piped back
to be reheated before it goes to the IP chamber. The re-heated steam is then fed into the IP
chamber from where it goes straight to L.P. chamber. From the L.P. chamber, the steam then
condenses and turns into liquid. The liquid then turns to water and returns to the boiler.
Fig 1.2: Turbine Schematic Diagram
COOLING SYSTEM
The steam coming out of the LP chamber still contains a lot of heat energy (more than half of
the heat energy for oil or coal and more that 2/3 for nuclear power stations), which must be
disposed off. The condenser is connected to the low pressures (L.P.) chamber and this contains
tube filled with water thus allowing the steam to condense on the water filled tubes (condenser).
The liquid water formed is the pumped back to the boiler to be heated. Also water coming out of
the condenser tubes is at higher temperature than that going in and this heat is disposed off in
several ways.
The waste heat energy from the L.P chamber of the turbine is disposed off in two ways: either by
(i) Direct cooling system.
(ii) By the use of cooling towers (Indirect Cooling System).
(i) Direct cooling system: In the direct cooling system, water is taken from large reservoir such
as sea or large river and pumped into the condenser. The water in the condenser tubes absorbs
heat energy from the steam and the steam is then pumped back into the source at lower
temperature.
Note: Direct cooling is used where there is large river or sea.
Fig 1.3: Direct cooling system

ADVANTAGE
(1) Cost of very low (water is free).
DISADVANTAGES
1. Salt and salt contents of the sea can cause corrosion of the pipes.
2. Tidal effect can aggravate fouling of the cold water intake due to weeds and other marine life.
3. The high temperature of the water in the outfall channel encourages the growth of algae
which can produce blockage.

COOLING TOWER (Indirect Cooling System)

The water from the condenser is passed into the cooling tower before returning into the
condenser. In this method, two types of towers, usually involved are;
(i) The dry cooling tower
(ii) The wet cooling tower.
DRY COOLING TOWER
In the dry cooling tower the water from the condenser flows downward through an array of pipes
which are cooled by the outwards flow of air. In this type, the flow of air is generally
fan-assisted. Dry tower operates with a close cycle water circulation system and their “make-up”
requirement is for purging purpose.
Note: Cooling tower is used when supply of water is not plentitude (Both wet and dry).

Fig 1.4: Dry Tower cooling System.

WET TYPE COOLING TOWER
In this method of cooling method, water from the condenser is allowed to flow down the tower
through a series of open lattices to be collected in a pond at the base of the tower. The leeward
drift of air through the tower base cools the falling water from the condenser. The top of the
tower is usually characterized by the presence of water vapour due to the evaporation and drift
losses.
Disadvantages
(1) Make up water is continuous due to evaporation and drift closes.
(2) Humidity increases in the areas of location of cooling which however result always into rain
falling

COAL FIRED POWER

This is one of the steam power plants. Primary source of energy is coal. Two type of boiler
associated with it are;
(i) chain grate stoker
(ii) Pulverizing mill boiler
In chaining grate striker, coal is feed into the moving conveyor into the furnace. The main
disadvantage here is that the amount of coal burnt depends on the speed of the conveyor.

Fig 1.5: Scematic Representation of a coal Powered Station.

In pulverizing mill boiler, coal is fed into pulverizing mill which crushed ground them into fine
powder. This is mixed with preheated air and blown into the furnace to be burnt like a gas. Here,
any type of coal may be used although those with high sulphur contents must be avoided due to
stringent environmental conditions.
The furnace of a coal powered station produces a large amount of ash, an oxide of Nitrogen,
Carbon, Sulphur, and water vapour. The combustion products are passed through an electrostatic
precipitator, where the dust and ash are attracted by plates or electrodes as the products passes
through the precipitator. The ash and dust can then be removed and sold off to be used in
highway embankment, building industry (cement factory), and land reclamation manure.
OIL FIRED POWER STATION
The primary source here is oil, which is pumped from nearby oil refinery or deport through
pipeline direct to the boiler of the power station. The oil is passes through nozzles and comes out
as a fine spray or droplets into the “boiler burner” or furnace. The waste products are similar to
that of coal fired power station except that here, no ash or dust is produced. Also wastes due to
sulphur are very low compared to that of coal fired power stations.
HYDRO POWER STATIONS
The primary energy source is water. The energy conversion sequence in Hydro power station is
as follows:

Fig 1.7: Sequence of energy conversion in Hydro Power Stations.

Fig 1.8: Schematic Diagram of a Hydro Power station

Note: The primary energy source is water which is free in cost. Water from the reservoir is
allowed to fall through a height (head) into the turbine blades. The kinetic energy associated with
the falling water is impacted to the turbine blades making them turn. The turbine in turn drives
the generator coupled with it to produce electricity.
Different turbines are used here; depending on the head of water above the turbine. These are
hydro-turbines examples;
1. Kaplan wheels: For head up to 50m. It can be used for pumped storage schemes run off-the
river with or without pondage.
2. Francis wheels Turbine: For heads from 20m – 250m. It is also good for pumped storage
schemes.
3. Pelton wheel Turbines: For heads from 250m – 1800m. It is used for schemes with reservoir
(dams) only.

PUMPED STORAGE SCHEMES

Fig 1.9: Pumped Storage Schemes

Pumped storage scheme is used basically during the peak demand period. The scheme is mainly
a hydro power station with reservoir or dams. The lower reservoir may be a natural river or lake
and upper reservoir may not have any source of natural water. This scheme is used only during
period of peak system demand.
In the off-peak period the unit acts as the motor pumping water from lower reservoir into the
upper reservoir.
The water in the upper reservoir is used for generating purpose in the usual way during the peak
demand. If the unit (turbine-generator) performs both pumping and generation functions then, it
refers to as reversible turbine schemes. In other cases separate units are used for pumping and
generation respectively.

GAS TURBINE SETS

In this scheme, the primary energy source is oil or natural gas. The oil is mixed with compressed
air and burnt in combustion chamber. The resultant hot gases are used to drive the gas turbine set
which in turn drives the rotor of the generator.
Gas turbine sets are very fast in operation taken about a minute from stand still to achieve fall
output. But they are less economical to run and they are in the main restriction for period of peak
demand.

NUCLEAR-FIRED POWER STATION

 In nuclear-fired power station the primary energy source is nuclear materials such as uranium
and plutonium. These are made to undergo a process called nuclear fission to release a great
amount of heat.
In nuclear-fired power station the primary energy source is the controlled fission of uranium or
plutonium nuclear materials, a process that is capable of librating larger amount of heat energy
than the purely chemical combustion of coal or oil. A nuclear reactor consists of the nuclear fuel
surrounded by a moderator in which the heat is evolved. The moderator may be graphite, heavy
water or ordinary water. There are also movable control rods in the moderator which absorbs
neutrons and this exerts control over the fission process. Both fuel and moderator are enclosed in
a steel pressure-tight vessel surrounded by very thick reinforced concrete wall. Heat from the
reactor is transferred by a coolant (carbon dioxide, water, liquid sodium) to the boiler which in
turn supply steam to the turbo generator.

TYPES OF REACTORS
(i) Magnox
• Magnox alloy cans carry the uranium nuclei.
• Natural uranium rods are used as fuel.
• Coolant – CO2
• Moderator – Graphite
(ii) Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor (AGR)
• Stainless steel cans carry the nuclear fuel.
• Uranium Dioxide pellets are used as fuel.
• Coolant –CO2
• Moderator – Graphite
(iii) Pressurized Water Reactor (P.W.R.)
• Stainless steel tubes carry nuclear fuel.
• Uranium Dioxide pellets used as fuel
• Coolant –water (ordinary or light)
• Moderator –Heavy water of D2O.
(iv) Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
• Here no attempt is made to control or slow down the neutrons and therefore the power per kg
of fuel is higher.
• Plutonium fuel is used (in the form of pins)
• Highly toxic.
• Moderator –none (no control rods)
• Coolant – liquid sodium
Note: Here very small amount of material (plutonium) is needed.

Fig 1.10: Schematic Diagram of a nuclear Reactor.

EXCITATION SYSTEM
These provide variable direct current to the field circuit of the power station generators. They are
classified into two main groups;
(i) D. C. excitation system
(ii) A.C. excitation system
In the D. C. type, the exciter is a D.C. generator with its field winding fed from the station
battery.
In the A.C. type, the exciter is subsidiary synchronous generator (different from main generator),
whose A.C. output is rectified and then fed to the main generator field circuit.
The brushless type of exciter is preferred these days owning to the elimination of slip rings and
the reduced maintenance cost. Here, the field winding of the exciter is put on the stator while the
armature winding is found on the rotor. The armature output is fed into a rectifier system (also
shaft mounted) which in turn supplies the field circuit of the main generator.
Fig 1.11: Types of Excitation systems.

Factors to be taken into consideration before choosing a site for Hydro-Power

Station.
(1) Transportation in a degruate form
(2) Availability of Hydro
(3) Objection of people in the area.
(4) Cost of whole project.

SITING OF POWER STATIONS

(a) Hydro Power Station
(i) Here, the choice of site is restricted to the vicinity of the river/lake.
(ii) Adequate road network must be near to facilitate transportation of parts and supplies
(iii) Environmental impact and objections of people must be taken into account.
(b) Nuclear Power Station
(i) It must be sited away from population centers.
(ii) Subject to (i) it must be close enough to the area it is intended to supply to minimize the
transmission cost.
(iii) It must be near a source of water for cooling purposes.
(iv) Because of the heavy machinery involves the land (soil) must be able to support the heavy
machinery and equipment involved.
(v) The land must be big enough for present and future need i.e. availability of enough land.
(vi) Proximity of adequate transportation facilities for fuel elements (both in and out).
(vii) Environmental impact and objection of people must be considered.
(viii) Means of quick evaluation of people around the site in case of accident must be provided.
(c) Coal Power Station
(i) Sited away from population centers.
(ii) There must be adequate supply of cooling water.
(iii) It is sited either at the coal mining centre (to minimize transportation costs) or at the load
centre. If sited away from the coal mining centre, transportation (rail preferable) facilities must
be provided.
(iv) Environmental impact and objections of people must be taken into consideration.

(d) Oil Power Station

(i) It must be sited close to an oil refinery or oil depot to minimize pumping cost.
(ii) It must be near an adequate source of water for cooling purpose.
(iii) Environmental impact and objectivities of people must be taken into consideration.
(iv) There must be adequate available transportation facilities.
Note: Nuclear and Hydro power stations are usually sited away from load centers.

Magneto Hydrodynamic (MHD) generation

Attempts have been made to generate electricity without prime moves or rotating generator. In
this method, called magneto hydrodynamics, gases at 2500oC are passed through a chamber in
which a strong magnetic field has been created. If the gas is hot enough, it is electrically slightly
conducting (it is seeded with potassium to improve the conductivity) and constitutes a conductor
moving in the magnetic field. An e.m.f. is thus induced which can be collected at suitable
electrode to make it more practicable, it is usually used in conjunction with traditional power
plant.
Fig 1.12: The principles of MHD Power Generator.
UNCONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
1. Solar energy to generate electricity
Due to load demand fluctuation, these are needed to provide a sufficient back-up supply to
customers through solar. Here, solar energy panel water heater is built to provide the steam
needed for steam turbine. The main component is the ray collector.
The energy received by the collector per square meter (Net) = q

q = Iατ – (εF + εB)σ(T4 –T4o)

Where;

εF and εB = front and back emissivities of panel

σ = Stefan – Boltzmann cash = 5.67 x 10-8/K4-m2
τ = Transmittance of cover plate (e.g 0.93)
To = Temperature of cover plate (K)
I = Incident radiation normal to surface
T(K) and α = Temperature and absorptive of absorbing panel.
In a direct conversion to electricity approach, photovoltaic conversion occurs in a thin layer of
suitable material, e.g. silicon when hole-election pairs are created by incident solar photons and
the separation of this holes and electrons at a discontinuity in electrochemical potential creates a
potential difference.

2. Wind energy for generating electricity

The wind mills are age-old. For electric generation purposes there are three scales of operation;
(a) Small, 0.5-10KW for isolated single premises
(b) Medium, 10-100KW for communities
(c) Large say 1.5 MW for connection to power supply systems.
The types of rotor used are the two-or three-bladed propeller with horizontal axes. Energy
output can be increased by a larger rotor and hence larger tower that can with stand wind speeds
up to 180km/hr. The theoretical power in a wind stream is given by;
P = ½ ρAV3 (watts)
Where ρ = density of air (120 gm/m3 at N.T.P.)
V = mean air velocity (m/s)
A = Swept area (m2)
For example, for a rotor of 17m diameter and a velocity of 48km/hr, the theoretical power
P = ½ ρAV3 = 265KW
Note: The practical values obtainable are usually above half the theoretical value.

LOAD CURVES
A load curve is pictorial representation showing the relationship between system demand and
time. This is usually done for daily cycle. A load curve is composed of a base load (made of
industrial/commercial/transportation loads) and a weather sensitive component (consisting of
lighting, heating and ventilation)
A load curve is always affected by some factors:
(i) Time of the day
(ii) Time of the weak and
(iii) Time of the year
(iv) Routine mates in some factories.
(v) Special events-like weakened parties, programs on T.V. etc.
(vi) Promotional activities-giving tariff discount to people to encourage them using power
always for proper smoothing of the load curve.

Note: The shape of a load curve may be affected by the following factors. Time of the day, time
of the week, time of the year, the weather, special event (especially on T.V), promotional
activities by utilities (example, Night storage heater) can also affect the shape of load curve.
Load curve varies from day-day, week-week and weekday to weekend.

LOAD FORECASTING
Post load curves are primarily used in forecasting what the demand must be in the future. Since
the act of load forecasting is not exact, the spinning reserve (synchronize generator ready to take
up the inaccuracies in forecast demand of the load) is usually added to take account of the
inaccuracies in forecast demand.
The demand X say is made up of the following;
X=a+d+G

X = demand
a = base load
d = day of the week correction
g = weather dependent load.
Three (3) main methods are involved in Forecasting these are:
(i) Weather Weighting Technique
The weather weighting method assigns each item of the weather such as temperature,
cloudcover, wind velocity, rain etc, a weighting factor. Weighting factors are deduced from
previous load and weather data. The factors are applied as a percentage of the forecast base load
e.g. (weight factor = 2% of base load).
(ii) Regression Analysis
This technique involves the use of regression analysis to predict the demand linear regression
assumes that the load is linearly dependent on each of the weather factor such that
X = a + d + b1 T + b2W + b3L + b4P + f (t)
T = temperature
W = wind
L = Lighting
P = precipitation
f (t) = accounts for the variation in the base load for the time of the year.
Constant b1-b4 is found by fitting previous data of this equation.
This method is similar to that in (i) and both are accurate only for the weather forecast and must
be outdated progressively.
(iii) Pattern Recognition
This method utilizes past load data only. For example if several years data are available, with a
repeated pattern, every day it is possible to consider the time series for each day as being
ensemble of time series. Excessive data storage is required to classify all sample point. It has
very limited use for normal load prediction.
POLYPHASE SYSTEMS
Polyphase system being proposed for future transmission purposes are 6 and 12 phase systems.
Their advantages over existing 3 phase system are;
(a) Increase the thermal loading capacity of lines.
(b) Reduces corona effect due to less conductor surface stress.
(c) Higher transmission efficiency: for example an existing double circuit 3-phase line on each
tower can easily be converted to a single set of 6-phase lines.
(d) The line-line voltage relative to the line to neutral voltage becomes smaller at the higher
number of the phases. Hence less phase-phase insulation is required. Result to an increased
utilization .
6-phases

Fig 1.13: Delta and Star Connection (3 Phase).

Fig 1.14: Six Phase connection With Center tappings.

Fig 1.15: Phasor representation of a 6 phase System

Since balanced system is assume then:

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 + 𝑉𝑛𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑛

Using cosine rule,

2 2 2 𝑜
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 + 𝑉𝑐𝑛 − 2𝑉𝑎𝑛𝑉𝑐𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠60

2 2 1
= 2𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑉𝑎𝑛 × 2

2
= 𝑉𝑎𝑛

2 2
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛

Therefore V line-to-line = V line-to neutral for a 6-phase system.

12-phases
Fig 1.16: 12 Phase Sysyem ( with Center Tappings ).

Fig 1.17: Phasor representation of a 12 phase System

Since balanced system is assume then:

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 + 𝑉𝑛𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑛

Using cosine rule,

2 2 2 𝑜
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 + 𝑉𝑐𝑛 − 2𝑉𝑎𝑛𝑉𝑐𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠30

2 2
= 2𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑉𝑎𝑛×0. 866
 2
= 0. 268𝑉𝑎𝑛

2 2
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 0. 268𝑉𝑎𝑛

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 0. 52𝑉𝑎𝑛

Therefore V line-to-line = 52% of V line-to neutral for a 12-phase system.

i.e VLL < VLN
Polyphase systems are usually described in terms of the phase voltage (L-N) rather than line-line
as the case for 3 –φ system.
Example 1: Consider a 12-phase 300KV transmission system. Find VL-L and VL-N Solution
Here = VLN = 300KV
VLL = 0.52VL –N
= 0.52 x 300KV
= 156KV
(b) Consider a 3-phae 300KV transmission system find VLL and VLN
Solution
Here = VL-L = 300KV

𝑉𝐿−𝐿 = 3 𝑉𝐿−𝑁

300 𝐾𝑉
𝑉𝐿−𝑁 =
3

= 173 KV

Power supply systems

In determining the design and construction of transmission and distribution systems, three broad
classification of choices need to be considered. The type of electric systems are (i) a.c (ii) d.c
and if a.c - (i) single phase or (ii) poly-phase.
The types of delivery system are; (i) radial, (ii) loop, or (iii) network.
The types of construction are; (i) overhead or (ii) underground.
FACTORS TO BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION IN ENERGY (POWER)
DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSMISSION
As said above, electrical energy may be distributed over two or more wires. The principal factors
desired are:
(i) Safety
(ii) Smooth and even flow of power
(iii) Economy and types of loads to be supplied.
D.C. supply system is obtained form a D.C. generators and rectifiers. D.C. supply systems are
usually at a fixed (or constant) voltage. AC supply is obtained generally from synchronous
generators at fixed frequency.
TYPES OF DC SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Direct current systems usually consist of two or three wires
(a) 2-wire with 1- wire earthed

Fig1.18: 2-wire with 1-wire Earthed

(b) 2-wire, with midpoint earthed

Fig 1.19: 2-wire with mid point earthed

(c) 3- wire system
Fig 1.20: 3- Wire System
𝑉
This type is used for distribution purposes. There are choices of two voltages 2
and V. Here,
more power can be handled compared to a 2-wire system for distribution.
Exercise 2

A four-wire distributor, 400m long is fed at one end at 240V. At the points 250m and 400m from
the feeding end there are loads 200A and 160A respectively. Calculate the cross-sectional area of
each core in order that the voltage at 160A load may be 96% of that at the feeding point. Also
determine the cost of energy loss in the distribution over a period of 6 hours if the above load
were maintained constant during that time. Assume the resistivity of the conductor at working
temperature to be 0.02μΩm, and the cost of electrical energy to be 0.5 kobo per KWhr.
Solution
(i)

Let R’ be the Ω/m of the conductor.

Total voltage drop along the conductor = 240 – (0.96 x 240) = 9.6 V
'
9. 6 = 2𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑅 ×𝐴𝐵 + 2𝐼𝐵𝐶𝑅'×𝐵𝐶

'
= 2𝑅 [(200 + 160)𝐴×250 + (160×150)]
' 9.6
𝑅 = 228×103
Ω/𝑚

ρ𝑙
𝑅' = 𝐴
𝑅 ' ρ
𝑙
=𝑅 = 𝐴

−6
ρ 0.2×10 Ω𝑚
𝐴= 𝑅'
= 9.6Ω/𝑚

2
= 475𝑚𝑚

2
(ii) Total Energy Cost = 𝐼 𝑅𝑡
9.6 2 2
3 (2×360 ×250 + 2×160 ×150×6)
228 × 10

Total Energy Lost = 18.31 KWh

0.5𝑘 ×18.31𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟
Cost of energy loss = 𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟

= 9.16 Kobo

AC SUPPLY SYSTEM
(a) 1 phase 2 – wire with one wire Earthed.

Fig 1.21: 1 phase, 2-wire with one wire Earthed

(b) 1 ϕ 3 wire system

Fig 1.22: 1 Phase, 3 wire System.

Note: Basically it is used for distribution of power. The power is distributed at two voltage levels
V/2 and V. Common in the U.S. for distribution of power to domestic premises.

(c) 3-ϕ, 3 wire System

Fig 1.23: 3 Phase, 3 wire system.

It used for transmission and subtransmission purposes. It also can be found in distribution to
large loads (e.g. 11KV, 33KV distribution).
Assignment
State 3 reasons for using the three – phase -4 - wire system in preference to a single phase for the
distribution purposes. Also, explain the significance for using the fifth -wire when street lighting
is desired.
(d) 3- ϕ, 4 wire

Fig 1.24: 3 phase, 4 wire system.

Used mainly for distribution purposes in domestic, commercial/ industrial premises. Can handle
small as well as large loads due to existence of the two voltage levels ( i.e. line‐ line
and line – to phase).
(e) 3-ϕ, 5 wire
Fig 1.25: 3 phase, 5 wire system.
This is used for power distribution for domestic premises and street lighting purposes.The 5th wi
re is taken from the any of the three phases at the sub‐stationor generating station.This is to
ensure security of the supply to the street lamps at all lines and also to ensure separate metering
for the street lightings.

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
The delivery of electric energy from the generating plant to the consumer may consist of several,
more or less distinct parts that are nevertheless somewhat interrelated. The part considered as
“distribution”, i.e. from the bulk supply substation to the meter at the consumer’s premises, can
be conveniently divided into two subdivisions:

(i) Primary distribution; which carries the load at higher than utilization voltages from the
substation (or other source) to the point where the voltage is stepped down to the value at which
the energy is utilized by the consumer.

(ii) Secondary distribution; which includes that part of the system operating at utilization
voltages, up to the meter at the consumers premises.

PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION FEEDERS DESIGN

Primary distribution feeders are usually:
(i) Radial lines system or
(ii) loop/ring system.

In distribution feeders design, first of all load survey must be carried out to establish the
magnitude of the load to be serving. Once this is done, a decision must be made as to what type
of feeders system to be used i.e. radial line or loop system. The choice made is based upon the
type and characteristics of the load to be serving and also the cost.

(i) RADIAL SYSTEM DESIGN

The radial type system is the simplest and the most commonly used. It consist of separate feeders
or circuits radiating out of the substation or source, each feeder usually serving a given area.
Design procedures
Assumption
(i) The same conductor is used in every part of the system.
(ii) The same voltage level at all points.
(iii) Let Z = 0.05 + j0.5 Ohms/km of conductor.

Question
Determine the voltage of distribution, voltage drops and losses in feeder.

Procedure
(i) Choose a voltage level e.g. 11 KV for instance.
(ii) Assume no losses within the system; determine the voltage drops at all load points.
(iii) If voltage drop at load point is greater than or equal to 10-12% of the nominal voltage level
chosen (in this case 10-12% off 11kV) then, choose the next higher voltage level e.g. 33kV etc.
(iv) If (iii) is true go to step (2) to (iii) until otherwise. If (iii) is not true, i.e. volt drop all within
10-12% go to (v)
(v) Calculate power losses and determine actual voltage drops

How, for this exercise, Let us choose 11KV for the feeders.

(𝑃.𝑅+𝑄.𝑋)𝐿
Volt drop ∆𝑉 = 𝑉
volts

Where P = Active power (KW) in the line.

Q = Reactive Power (KVAR) in the line.
R + JX = impedance peer unit length of the line (Ω/km).
L = Length of the line in km.
V = Line-to-line voltage (kV).

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝
Now, voltage drop per unit (p.u.) = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

(𝑃.𝑅+𝑄.𝑋)𝐿
Voltage drop p.u. ∆𝑉 = 2
𝑉

Step 1:
Assume 11KV distribution voltage along all feeders.

Step 2:
Assume P.F. of 0.8 lagging
P = S Cos θ Q = S sin θ
P = 15 x 0.8, Q = 15 x 0.6

SBC = 15MVA
15(0.8×0.05+0.6×0.5)12
∆𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 2
11

∆𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 0. 506𝑝𝑢 𝑜𝑟 50. 6%

SAB = (10 + 15) MVA = 25MVA
25(0.8×0.05+0.6×0.5)15
∆𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 2
11

= 1. 05𝑝𝑢 𝑜𝑟 5% 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒

SOA = (3 + 10 + 15) MVA = 28MVA

28(0.8×0.05+0.6×0.5)10
∆𝑉𝑂𝐴 = 2
11

= 0. 79𝑝𝑢 𝑜𝑟 79%

Step 3
∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 12%

∆𝑉𝐵𝐶 > ∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

∆𝑉𝑂𝐴 > ∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

So we choose the next higher voltage (33KV) . Then calculate volt drops assuming no losses in
the system.

15(0.8×0.05+0.6×0.5)12
∆𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 2 = 0. 056𝑝𝑢
33

= 5. 6%
 25(0.8×0.05+0.6×0.5)15
∆𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 2 = 0. 116𝑝𝑢
33

= 11. 6%

28(0.8×0.05+0.6×0.5)10
∆𝑉𝑂𝐴 = 2 = 0. 088𝑝𝑢
33

= 8. 8%

Hence, ∆𝑉𝐵𝐶, ∆𝑉𝐴𝐵, ∆𝑉𝑂𝐴 < 12%

Therefore the 33KV distribution voltage is acceptable for the feeders.

Step 4

Calculate losses within the system

2
Power Loss ∆ 𝑆 = |𝐼| |𝑍| × 𝐿 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)

While ∆ P = |I|2R, Q = |I|2X

|𝑆|
But |𝐼| = |𝑉|

|𝑆| 2
∆𝑆 = ( ) |𝑍| × 𝐿
|𝑉|
(𝑀𝑉𝐴)

Assume Transforms losses to be 1% of normal rating

∆ ST= 1%

NODE C

∆STC = 0.01 (15MVA) = 0.15MVA

∆SC = 0.15 + 15 = 15.15MVA

 |𝑆| 2
∆ 𝑆𝐵𝐶 = ( ) |𝑍| × 𝐿
|𝑉|
(𝑀𝑉𝐴)

|Z| = (0.052 + 0.52)1/2 = 0.502

|15.15| 2
∆ 𝑆𝐵𝐶 = ( |33| )|0. 502| × 12 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)

= 1.27MVA

Thus to compensate for losses, SBC should be

SBC = 15 + 0.15 + 1.27 = 16.42 MVA

NODE: B

∆ STR (transformer loss at point B) = 0.01 x 10MVA = 0.1MVA

SB = 16.42 + 0.1 + 10 = 26.52 MVA

|26.52| 2
∆ 𝑆𝐵𝐶 = ( |33| )|0. 502| × 15 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)

= 4.68MVA

SAB = SB + ∆SAB = 26.52 + 4.86 = 31.38 MVA

NODE A

∆STA = 0.01 x 3MVA = 0.03 MVA

SA = 6.03 + 3 + 31.38 = 34.41 MVA

|34.42| 2
∆ 𝑆𝐵𝐶 = ( |33| )|0. 502| × 10 = 5. 46 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)

SO = capacity of source or indeed

SOA = SO = 5.46 + 34.41 = 39.87 MVA

Now that we know the power flow loses everywhere along the line, we use these flows to
calculate the true voltage drops at each node.

𝑆𝑂𝐴(𝑅cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ+𝑋sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ ) 𝐿𝑂𝐴

∆𝑉𝑂𝐴 = 2
𝑉
 39.87(0.05×0.8+0.5×0.6)×10
∆𝑉𝑂𝐴 = 2
33

12.42
∆𝑉𝑂𝐴 = 100
×33 = 4𝐾𝑉

31.38(0.05×0.8+0.5×0.6)×15
∆𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 2
33

= 0.146 p.u. or 14.6% of 33KV

= 4.83KV

16.42(0.05×0.8+0.5×0.6)×12
∆𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 2
33

= 0.062 p.u or 2.03KV drop

Exercise:
It is proposed to supply electric power to the 5 major load points within the university campus
using a ring network as shown below. Show your design proposal including choice of
distribution voltage and power losses determination. Use initial distribution voltage of 11KV.
Choose:
Z = (0.1 + j0.4) Ω/km
pf = 0.8 lagging
ST = 1% of rated capacity or transformer

Solution:
To solve the problem, split-point where effect of SA´ + SB´ = 0

STEP 1: Break loop at in feed point.

Find SA´, SB´ (break at injection point)

To find SA´, Take moment about B´

𝑆𝑖𝐿𝐵𝑖 𝑆1𝐿𝐵1+𝑆2𝐿𝐵2+ 𝑆3𝐿𝐵3+𝑆4𝐿𝐵4+𝑆5𝐿𝐵5

𝑆𝐴' = ∑ 𝐿 ' '
= 𝐿 ' '
𝑖 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵

(3×10)+(10 ×10.5)+(1×13.5)+(7.5 ×20)+(5×23)

𝑆𝐴' = 27

SA´= 15.315 MVA

Also take moment About A´ to find SB´

𝑆𝑖𝐿𝐴𝑖 𝑆1𝐿𝐴1+𝑆2𝐿𝐴2+ 𝑆3𝐿𝐴3+𝑆4𝐿𝐴4+𝑆5𝐿𝐴5

𝑆𝐵' = ∑ 𝐿 ' '
= 𝐿 ' '
𝑖 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵

' (3×17)+(10 ×16.5)+(1×13.5)+(7.5 ×7)+(5×4)

𝑆𝐵 = 27
= 11. 185 𝑀𝑉𝐴
SO = SA´+ SB´= 26.50 MVA

Step 2

Find the split point i.e. where the power from both ends meets. This is done by assuming zero
losses in the system.

From this diagram as indicated above the two load arrows meet at node 2 which is summed up to
1.815 MVA + 8.185 MVA.

Node 2 is our “Split point” so we can effect two radial lines as follows
Step 3:
Analyze each radial line as done previously.

Note: It is usual to allow a loop circuit to operate with a uniform voltage. Assume no losses. Use
11KV for preliminary calculations.

15.315(0.1×0.8+0.4×0.6)×4
∆𝑉 ' = 2 𝑝. 𝑢. = 0. 16 𝑜𝑟 16%
𝐴5 11

Since ∆ VA´5 > 0.12 or 12%, we therefore go to next high voltage which is 33KV. Then check if
33KV will be O.K.

15.315(0.1×0.8+0.4×0.6)×4
∆𝑉 ' = 2 𝑝. 𝑢. = 0. 018𝑝. 𝑢. = 1. 8%
𝐴5 33

8.185(0.1×0.8+0.4×0.6)×0.5
∆𝑉 ' = 2 𝑝. 𝑢. = 0. 0012𝑝𝑢 = 0. 12%
𝐵2 33

Here all ∆ V’S are less than 12%. Hence, the 33KV is acceptable as distribution voltage.

Step (iv): Calculate the losses and Power flow.

Step (v): Using information from (IV) calculate actual volts drops.

SUBSTATIONS
It is a layout if power supply circuits for bulk transmission of power or distribution of power.
The choice of layout is based on the following considerations;
(a) Character or nature of the load (1MV, 8MV, or 8MV load, steel works, hospitals, etc.)
(b) Necessity for maintaining continuity of service.
(c) Flexibility in operation.
(d)It must provide proper facilities for equipment incorporation.

Substations may be for outer transmission, sub-transmission or distribution purposes.

The distribution is based on the level of primary voltage.

(i) Unit Scheme

Unit = Source + Breaker + Line

Fig 1.26: Unit Scheme.

In unit scheme, substation interruptions to consumers are relatively unimportant for example
distribution of power to houses or homes.

Below is another type of unit scheme:

Fig 1.27:Unit Sceme with flexibility.

This type of Unit scheme incorporates flexibility. Here, a whole unit may be dropped without
affecting supply to the loads. It is quite common in primary distribution substations (i.e. 11KV or
33KV). It is the cheapest substation evaluation is unit scheme.
(ii) Double Bus Bar Scheme
Fig 1.28: Double Bus Bar Scheme/ Double Bus Bar Scheme with sectional breaker.

In the double bus bar scheme, flexibility is achieved by using duplicate bus and switchgear. It is
costly, though! The whole sections may be removed for inspection or maintenance purpose
without interrupting supply to consumers. It is Common in sub-transmission and distribution
substation. It is also common in transmission substations.
(iii) BREAKER-AND-A-HALF SCHEME

Fig 1.29: Breaker and a half scheme.

The advantage of this scheme is that the scheme provides considerable flexibility with the fewest
number of breakers.
(iv) DOUBLE RING BUS BAR SCHEME

Fig 1.30: double Ring Bus Bar Scheme.

Reactor: To limit here effecting fail current by increasing the effective impedance.
DRB scheme – used for high load denitrify areas, very flexible and reliable. Breaker Interrupts
fault current and in so doing, the equipment and working/maintenance men are safe.

A TYPICAL TRANSMISSION SUBSTATION

ARC HORN: Interrupts magnetizing in-rush current only.
WAVE TRAP: Low pass filter. Allow 50Hz (or electric power) signals to pass though but blocks
any communication signal (which are of high frequency).
SURGE/LIGITING ARRESTER: Allows the discharge of any dangerous over-voltage (e.g.
lightening) before it does any damage to the equipment and then restores the line to normal
operation if after the discharge. The arc Gap does not break down under normal voltages. It only
breaks down when an over-voltage surge passes through. The thyrite is a non-linear resistor
which reduces current at gap until it is extinguished. Lighting Arrester is also called surge
diverters.
CIRCUIT BREAKER (CB)
It interrupts fault (short circuit) currents on feeders live or bus bars, thus protecting them against
damage.
ISOLATOR/SERIES SWITCH/DISCONNECTING SWITCH
It serves as additional back-up protection for personnel in the circuit breaker opens. It enables the
circuit breaker to be completely isolated for maintenance and inspection purposes.
REACTOR
Basically, for limiting short circuit current at a bus. It is usually connected in series in this case.
Fault current (MVA) = √3 V ISC
ISC supposed to be limited which is done by reactor
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
Used for obtaining currents which are portioned to the system currents for use in various ways
e.g. for metering and relaying.
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMAER/POTENTIAL TRANSFORMAER (PT/VT)
It is a two winding Transformer which gives a measure of nominal voltage. It is used for
providing voltage much lower than system normal voltage for metering or relaying purposes. It
is actually a 2-winding transformer with the secondary having a nominal voltage of 110V.
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSORMER (CVT)
It serves same purpose as VT. In addition, it provides complying of wave trap to the system
conductor.
RELAYS
These are devices which indicate abnormal system conditions. They are responsible for
energizing circuit breakers trip circuit.
ARC HORN: Interrupts magnetizing in-rush current only.
WAVE TRAP: Low pass filter. Allows 50Hz (or electric power) signals to pass through but
blocks any communication signals (which are high frequency)
SURGE/LIGHTNING ARRESTER: Allows the discharge of any dangerous over-voltage (e.g.
lightning) before it does any to the equipment and then restores the line to normal operation after
the discharge.
Fig 1.31: A typical Transformer Substation

ECONOMICS IN POWER SUPPLY

The considered charge for consumption of electricity is based on the two-part tariff nowadays.
The two-part-tariff is given as:
Consumption charge = a + bx energy consumed (KWhr)
Where;
a = fixed charge in (N) and depends on the size/cost of generating plant and transmission system.
b = the charge (N/KW) per unit energy used. This is depends upon duration of use of consumer
equipment.

The fixed charge a, is payable whether energy is used or not, b is levied only when energy is
consumed.
It is usual to express the fixed charge in terms of the size of equipment i.e. the KVA of maximum
demand used.
 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐷𝐼𝑉𝐸𝑅𝑆𝐼𝑇𝑌 𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅(𝐷. 𝐹.) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡

Or
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐷. 𝐹. = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Diversity factor is generally greater than unity (1).

The D.F takes into account that it is most unlikely that all connected plant will be in use at any
one time.
Maximum Demand (M.D.) = the average load over the half-hour of maximum output.

Fig 1.31: DIAGRAM

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐹.) = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀.𝐷.𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

= 0-100%

Units used in 24Hr period = A

Units used If M.D. had been in use for 24hrs = A + B
Example:
A consumer of max demand of 500KW consume 4,800KWh unit of electricity per day. What is
load factor (L.F)? If the load factor is improved to 66 % what will be the savings on the max
demand charge if the half charge is N10/KW of max demand the energy used remaining
unchanged.

Solution
M.D = 500KW
Unit used/day = 4800KWh
Unit use/day when M.D is in service is given by 500KW x 24hrs = 12000KWhr

4800𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟
(a) 𝐿. 𝐹. = 1200𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟
×100%

2 4800𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟
(b) 𝐿. 𝐹. = 66 3
= 𝑥
×100%

Where x= Energy use unit used with M.D. KWhr in 24hrs

4800𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟 4800𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑥= 2 ×100% = 0.667
= 7200𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟
66 3
 7200𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑀. 𝐷. = 24
= 500𝐾𝑊

Saving in MD = (500-300) = 200KW.

Saving expected = 200kw x 10 N/KW=N2000

POWER FACTORS (P.F.)

Note: 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) = 3×𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠×𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠×𝑃𝐹

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) = 3𝑉𝐼 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ

Or KW = KVA x PF

−3
𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 3𝑉𝐼×10

Also note that in power supply system, voltage is usually assumed constants.

Watts = K x amp x cos ϕ

Where K = constant = 3𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)

This we assume that the power drawn by the load (i.e. remains constant). Them for load
operating at low power factor i.e. cos ϕ = 0, the current (I) drawn by the load is high.

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝐼(𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠) = 𝐾cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ

Now if load operates at high power factor, cos ф ≈ 1, then the current taken by the load is small
In summary:
Amps = high if Cos ф = 0
Amp = Low if Cos ф = 1
Note: It is obvious that operating at low p.f. results in the system capacity being reached.
Operating at an improved p.f., results in spare capacity being released within the system (i.e.
lower current demand for the same load).

Thus if a consumer operates with high p.f., then spare capacity will be available for additional
system load.
Due to the above reason supply authority penalizes consumer for operating with low p.f. The
tariff charge here is based on KVA rating of max Demand rather than the KW.

𝐾𝑊 = (𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑋 𝑃𝐹)
 𝐾𝑊
𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 𝑃.𝐹.

For a given KW load KVA demand depends upon the P.F.

KVA is small when PF is high
KVA is large when P.F. is low for the same KW load.

Question
A 50hp 415V, 3- ф motor operates on full load at 0.7 p.f.(lagging), at an efficiency of 85%. What
will be the KVA demand and the current taken from the supply? By how much will the KVA
demand and the current be reduced if the p.f. is improved to 0.95 lagging.
Solution:
(a) Output of motor = 50ℎ𝑝 = 50 × 0. 746𝐾𝑊 = 37. 3𝐾𝑊

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 37.3
Motor input = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
= 0.85
𝐾𝑊 = 43. 9𝐾𝑊

𝐾𝑊 43.9
𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 𝑝.𝑓.
= 0.7
= 62. 7𝐾𝑉𝐴

−3
𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 3 𝐾𝑉(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒) × 𝐼 = 3 𝐾𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑥 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑥 10

= 3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 × 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠

𝐾𝑉𝐴 62.7
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠 = = 0.45
= 87. 2𝐴
3𝐾𝑉(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)

(b) PF is improved to 0.95

𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑘𝑤
𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑝.𝑓.

43.9
= 0.95
= 46. 2𝐾𝑉𝐴

𝐾𝑉𝐴 46.2
𝐼 = = = 63. 4𝐴
3𝐾𝑉(𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒) 3×0.415

𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 62. 7 – 46. 2 = 16. 5𝐾𝑉𝐴

𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 87. 2 – 64. 3 = 22. 9𝐴

 POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
Most loads are inductive in nature and therefore absorbs VARs (volts ampere reactance) leading
to lagging power factor. If a load is capable of supply leading VAR is connected in parallel or
across the induction load, the p.f correction of inductive load will be improved. P.F correction
equipments in use are shunt-connected capacitor, synchronous compensator (condenser).

A synchronous compensator is synchronous motor with no load coupled with the system shaft.
It generates or absorbs VARs; depending on level of excitation which also depends on voltage
level on the line.

Note that in a pure capacitive reactive load the capacitor current leads the voltage by π/2 or
90o since it is purely reactive.
The current I2 drawn from the supply is less than. I1 and ф1 reduces to 0

Thus, Cos ф 2 > Cos ф 1

The P.F of the load is thus improved from Cos ф1 to Cos ф 2 (since ф2 < ф1). As a result I2 is less
that I1 thus releasing spore capacity.

Note that in the above phasor diagram, the capacitor is purely reactive and therefore its current
I2 leads V by 90o.

Note:
OG = I1 cos ф1 = I2 cos ф2
IB = I1 cos (90 – θ1) = I1 sin ф1
IB = I2 Cos (90 – ф2) = I2 sin ф2
Now Ic = I1 sin ф1 – I2 sin ф2

𝑉𝑐 6
10
𝑋𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐
= 2π𝑓𝐶

Where C is in μF (i.e. 10-6F)

1
𝑋𝑐 = 2π𝑓𝐶

Fig 1.32: DIAGRAM

In power system it is assumed that the voltage is to remain constant. Therefore by multiplying all
axes by V, the new phasor diagram is obtained.

Qc = Q1 - Q2

Qc = V Ic
Q1 = VI1 sin ф1
Q2 = VI2 sin ф2
Therefore improving power factor leads to reduction in KVA demand i.e. saving in KVA demand
= S1 –S2
Note: Power factor improvement may also be done by connecting a synchronous compensator
(Synchronous motor) instead of the shunt capacitor
Example1:
A current of 35A is taken from 240V single phase 50Hz A.C. supply at p.f. of 0.75 lagging. If a
capacitor is installed to improve p.f. to 0.96 lagging find:
(a) Current taken from the supply.
(b) The capacitor current.
(c) The capacitance of the capacitor.

(a) I1cos ф1 = I2 cos ф 2

𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ1 35 𝑥 0.75
𝐼2 = cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ
= 0.95

(b) Ic = I1sin ф1 – I2sin ф2 = 35 sin 41.4o – 27.3 sin 16.30o

Ic = 15.5A
6
10 𝐼𝑐
(c) 𝐶 = 2π𝑓𝑉
µ𝐹
6
10 ×15.5
𝐶= 2π×50×240
= 205μ𝐹

Example 2
A 414V, 33-4, 50Hz motor 150kw output operates on full load at lagging P.F. of 0.707 with an
efficiency of 85.6%. Find the rating if a capacitor required to improve the P.F. to 0.98 lagging
and its capacitance per phase, if it is delta connect. If the maximum demand charge in the tariff is
N8.00 per KVA per annum, what will be the annual reduction is the cost of electricity?
Solution:
Motor Input = output
ŋ
= 150KW =175.2kw
0.856
ф1 = Cos-1 (0.707) = 450
ф2 = Cos-1 (0.98) = 11.5
Q1 =P tan ф1 = 175.2 tan 45o = 175.2KVAR
Q2 = P tanф2 = 175.2 tan11.5o = 35.6KVA
Q2 = Q1 – Q2 = 139.6KVA = total rating of capacitor

139.6
Capacitor rating per phase = 3
= 46. 5𝐾𝑉

3
𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑟 46.5 ×10
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
× 103 = 415
= 112. 0𝐴

NB: VL-L = VL-N for ∆ connection

 6
10 𝐼𝐶 106 ×112
𝐶 = 2π𝑓𝑉
µ𝐹 = 2π×50×415
= 895𝑀𝐹 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑝1
But 𝑆1 = cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ1
= 247. 8𝐾𝑉𝐴

𝑝2
𝑆1 = cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ2
= 178. 8𝐾𝑉𝐴

Reduction in KVA = S1 – S2 = 69.04KVA

Annual reduction = (S1-S2) x tariff = 69.04 x 8 = N552.32

Synchronous Motor for Power Factor Improvement

The power factor at which machines operate is an economically important features because
of the cost of reactive KVA. Low power factor adversely affect system operation in three
principal ways.

1. Power equipments (generators, transformer etc) are rated in KVA rather than kilowatts,
because their losses and heating are very nearly determined by voltage and current.

2. Low power factor means more current and greater copper losses in generating and
transmitting equipment.

𝑃
𝑃 = 3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ф = 𝐼 =
3𝑉cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ

𝑃
𝐼=
3𝑉 ×𝑃𝐹

𝑃
If P = Costant , V = Costant, i.e = 𝐾 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
3𝑉

𝐾
𝐼 = 𝑃𝐹

3. Low power factor leads to poor voltage regulation. But most industrial load (e.g.
induction motor) are inductive in nature and therefore absorbs vars leading to lagging
power factor. If a load capable of supplying leading power factor vars and it is connected in
parallel or across the inductive load, then the power factor will be improved.

One of the P.F. correction equipment in use is synchronous condensers or synchoronous

compensator. A synochronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without
mechanical load, and depending on level of excitation, it can absorb or generate reactive
power. If under excited it absorbs vars from the system (i.e. produces leading vars). i.e.
current leads the voltage. If over excited, it generates vars into the system (i.e. generating at
lagging P.F).
Since synchronous motor is not purely inductive it does not lead by 90O but at certain angle
<90O inductive load (e.g. induction motor).

I2 = I1 + Im
Q1 = Phase angle b/4 correction
Q2 = Phase angle after correction
Qm = Phase angle of motor.
Multiplying each phasor by V to get terms in power.

Solution:
𝑃 800𝐾𝑊
Actual load of the factory = η
= 0.8
= 1000𝐾𝑊
𝐾𝑊 1000
Factory load in 𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 𝑃𝐹
= 0.85
= 1176. 5𝐾𝑉𝐴

Fig 1.33: DIAGRAM

Load phasor Diagram for with lagging load.

𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑚
Actual Load of synchronous = η
= 200𝐾𝑊
𝑜
𝑄2 = 0. 98 = 11. 5

𝑄𝑚 = ?

𝑃2 1235.3 1235.3
But 𝑆2 = cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ2
= 0 = 0.98
= 1260. 5 𝐾𝑉𝐴
cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 11.5

0
𝑄2 = 𝑃2𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ2 = 1235. 3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 11. 5 = 215. 3𝐾𝑉𝐴

Q, = Q1 – Q3 = (619.7 – 251.3) KVA

𝑄𝑚 368.4
𝑇𝑎𝑛 ф𝑚 = 𝑃𝑚
= 235.3
= 1. 6

0
ф𝑚 = 1. 6 = 58
 0
𝑃𝑓𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ф𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 58 = 0. 53 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

Therefor the power factor at which the sychronous motor operates to improve the P.F. of the
load to 0.98 lagging = 0.53 leading.

Exercise
A three-phase induction motor deliver 500 hp at an efficiency of 0.71, the operating power
factor being 0.76 lagging. A loaded synchronous motor with a power consumption of
100KW is connected in parallel with the motor. Calculate the necessary KVA and the
operating power factor of the synchronous motor if the overall power is to be Unity.
( Answer = 365 KVA, 0.274).

TRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLE

CABLES
Cables used in electrical circuit are of many types but all consists of the following main
parts:
(a). Conductor
(b). Insulator
(c). Mechanical protection

(a). Conductor: are usually made of copper, the conducting cores being formed from strands
of copper wire so that the cable is more flexible that if solid cores were used. If vulcanized
rubber insulation is to be used the copper conductors are tinned to prevent corrosion of the
copper by sulphur which is present is vulcanized rubber.

(b). Insulation of Cables used in domestic installations is normally of vulcanized rubber

(V.R.I.) or poly-vinyl-chloride (P.V.C.). Where mineral insulation (magnesia) is employed,
the cable has a copper cluster sheath, this type of cable is known as mineral insulated
copper Sheathed cable (MICS).

(c). Mechanical Protection: This is provided to prevent damage to the cable during
insulation and throughout its subsequent service.

NB: For overhead lines, the aluminium conductors or various sizes are used. The insulation
is air and no mechanical protection is required. Although it is not as good as copper, its
light weight and absence of copper losses are advantages, in many situation, lower prices
and larger diameter are another advantages.
 Overhead Lines
Types and Parameters
Overhead Lines are suspended from insulators which are themselves supported by toward
or poles. The span between two towers is dependent upon the allowable sag in the line, and
for sheet towers with very high voltage lines the span in normally 370-460m
(1200-1500ft). Typical supporting structures are shown in figures 3a-3h.

There are two main types of tower:

a. Those for straight runs in which the stress due to the weight of the line alone has to be
withstood.
b. those for changes in route, called deviation towers; these withstand the resultant forces
set up when the line changes direction.

Fig 1.34: Typical Pole-type structres

Fig 1.35: Typical Pole Structures

Fig 1.36: 400V double circuit overhead line tower, with two conductors per phase (Bundle
Conductors).

When specifying towers and lines, wind loadings as well as extra forces due to a break in
lines on one side of a tower; are taken into account. For lower voltages and distribution
circuit wooden or reinforced concrete poles are used with conductor supported in
horizontal formations.

The line conductors are insulated from the towers by insulation which take two basic
forms, the pin type and suspension type. The pin type is used for lines up to 33KV whole
the suspension type is used for lines up to 400KV.

Insulations of Overhead Lines

Overhead lines conductors are not themselves insulated. Insulators mounted on suitable
crossarm are required to give necessary clearances between conductors and between
conductors and earth. The insulator must provide the necessary mechanical support for
conductors against mechanical loading.
Porcelain and toughened glass are the only two materials generally used for insulating bare
overhead lines conductors.

Conductor Materials
Hard drawn (HD), high conducting (HC) copper, hard drawn *** copper, hard drawn
aluminium and aluminium, alloy and cored aluminium (Aluminium Cable Steel reinforced
ACSR) are conductor materials.

For high voltages ≥ 230KV, it is not possible to use a round single conductor due to corona.
Bundle conductors of two, three or four conductors per phase spaced about 11/2 ft apart
are used. This also reduces the line reactance and give added advantage of increased
transmission capacity.

Sag and Stress Calculation

There is overhead line regulation for the minimum height for lines above ground. The
regulation states that sag must be calculated under the specified worst conditions line temp
= 220F, covered with ice of radial thickness of 3/8” with ice weighing 57lbf/ft3 and to the
end such that the pressure on line is 8lbf/ft2 of total projected area.

a. Consider Parabola shape line with relation

Y = ax2 (1)

If L = span, S = Sag at mid-span

𝑙
At mid point, y = s and x = 2 .

This gives from equation (1)

4𝑠
𝐴 = 2 - (2)
𝑙

𝑥 2
𝑦 = 4𝑠 ( ) 𝑙

With O as origin.
Let T = tension (lbf) at O (assume constant over the whole span).

W = conductor or weight lbf/ft.

Taking moment about A gives

𝑇𝑆 = ( )( ) 𝑤𝑙
2
𝑙
4

2
𝑤𝑙
𝑆 = 8𝑇

2
𝑤𝑥
Or 𝑦 = 2𝑇

(b). If Support is at different level,

Let Lc = Span of complete parabola

L = Actual span
𝐿𝐸
Then let xL = L - 2
The equation y = ax2 holds and
2
𝑤𝑙
𝑆 = 8𝑇

2
𝑋𝑙
2 𝑙𝑐
𝑆−ℎ
= 4𝑆

2
𝑋 𝑙
(from 𝑌
= 4𝑆
)

2𝑇ℎ
Which gives 𝐿𝐶 = 𝐿 + 𝑤𝑙

LINE PARAMETERS CALCULATIONS

The parameters of interest for circuit analysis are inductance, capacitance, and resistance,
and, leakage resistance. These four parameter affect the ability of transmission line to
fulfill its function as part of power system.

(a). Inductance
Assignment
Prove that
I. Inductance due to an internal flux (Internal inductance) of a conductor is given by

ɸ𝑖𝑛𝑡 −7
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐼
= ½ × 10 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟.

II. Flux Linkage between two points external to an isolated conductor is given by

−7 𝐷2
ɸ12 = 2 × 10 𝐼 ln 𝑙𝑛 𝑟1

−7 𝐷2
or 𝐿12 = ɸ 12 = 2 ×10 ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐷1
Inductance of a single-phase two wire line

Let I1 = -I2.
A line of flux set up by current in conductor to a distance equal to or greater than D + r2
from the centre of conductor 1 does not link the current (since total current enclosed is
zero).

Inductance due to conductor 1

−7 𝐷2
𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 2 × 10 𝐼 ln 𝑙𝑛 𝑟1
(𝐻/𝑚)

For internal
ɸ𝑖𝑛𝑡 −7
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐼
= ½ × 10 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ( 1
2
+ 2 ln 𝑙𝑛
𝐷2
𝑟1 ) −7
× 10 (𝐻/𝑚)

= 2 ( 1
4
+ ln 𝑙𝑛
𝐷2
𝑟1 ) × 10
−7
(𝐻/𝑚)

Or= 2× 10
−7
( 1
4
ln 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 + ln 𝑙𝑛
𝐷2
𝑟1 ) (𝐻/𝑚)

= 2× 10
−7
( ln 𝑙𝑛
𝑟1𝑒
𝐷2
1
−4
) (𝐻/𝑚)

−7 𝐷
= 2 × 10 ln 𝑙𝑛 ' (𝐻/𝑚)
𝑟1

1
' −4
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟1 = 𝑟1𝑒

In some text books; the Inductance of a single-phase two wire line is given as

µ
4π (1 + 4 ln 𝑙𝑛
𝑑−𝑟
𝑟 ) (𝐻/𝑚)
Where d = distance between the centres
r = radius of the conductors (assume r1 = r2)

Example 3.1
A single phase circuit comprises two parallel conductors 0.25 inch diameter, spaced 3ft
apart. Calculate the inductance/loop/mile; if the material of the conductor is (a) Copper (b)
Steel of effective relative permeability of 59

Solution
1
µ 𝐷2 ' −4
𝑙= 2π
ln 𝑙𝑛 ' (𝐻/𝑚) (non-magnetic material 𝑟1 = 𝑟1𝑒 )
𝑟1

𝑂𝑟 𝐿 =
µ𝑜
π ( µ𝑟
4
+ ln 𝑙𝑛
𝐷
𝑟 ) 𝐻/𝑚
for a magnetic material of relative permeability µr.

a. For copper,
µ𝑜
𝐿 = π (ln 𝑙𝑛 ) 𝐻/𝑚 𝐷
𝑟

1
' −4
𝑟1 = 𝑟1𝑒

0.25
𝑟 = 2
= 0. 125𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

D = 3ft + 0.25 inches

D = 36.25inches

Therefore
1
' −4
𝑟1 = 0. 125𝑒 = 0.125 x 0.7788

D = 36.25 inches.

Therefore,
−7
𝐿 =
4π×10
π (ln 𝑙𝑛 36.25
0.125×0.7788 ) 𝐻/𝑚

−7
𝐿 =
4π×10
π (ln 𝑙𝑛 36.25
0.09735 ) 𝐻/𝑚
 −7
= 4π×10 (ln 𝑙𝑛 372. 36 ) 𝐻/𝑚

−6
= 2. 368×10 𝐻/𝑚

For a mile,
−6 8
𝐿 = (2. 368×10 )(1000)( 5 )𝐻

= 0.003788H
= 0.0038H

b. For steel, µr = 50

𝐿 =
µ𝑜
π ( µ𝑟
4
+ ln 𝑙𝑛
𝐷
𝑟 ) 𝐻/𝑚
D = 36.25 inches
r = 0.125 inches
−7
𝐿 =
4π×10
π ( 36.25
0.125 ) 𝐻/𝑚
−7
= 4π×10 (18. 16988) 𝐻/𝑚

−6
= 7. 268 ×10 𝐻/𝑚

For a mile,
−6 8
𝐿 = 7. 268 ×10 ×1000× 5
𝐻/𝑚

= 0. 01168𝐻

b. Line Capacitance
The overhead line conductors without insulation between them constitutes a capacitance
which when connected to an alternating voltage supply will take a charging current which
will flow even under no load condition. The changing current will be greatest at sending
end and will diminish to zero at the receiving end.

The line construction may consist of double – circuit lines with two conductors/phases. In
effect the capacitance is a leading power factor on the line current. These leakage currents
are proportional to the line voltage. At high voltages (300KW and above) and lines in excess
of 200miles, the impact of these shunt elements becomes of primary concern to the system
engineers.

Capacitance of Single Phase Line

We will prove this with our basic knowledge in integral calculus

𝑑𝑍
Recall, 2+ 2
𝑍 𝑟

Let Z = rtanθ
𝑑𝑍 2
𝑑θ
= 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ

2
𝑑𝑍 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ𝑑θ
2+ 2 = 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐θ
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐θ𝑑θ
𝑍 𝑟

Assume we carry + Q C/m of the wire

𝐿 𝐿
= ∫ 𝑄𝑆𝑒𝑐θ1𝑑θ1 + ∫ − 𝑄𝑆𝑒𝑐θ2𝑑θ2
−𝐿 −𝐿

NB: ∫ 𝑆𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)

𝐿 𝐿
𝑄 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑠𝑒𝑐θ1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ1)|−𝐿 – 𝑄 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ2)|−𝐿

2
NB: 𝑇𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑟
2 2
1 𝑍 +𝑟
sec 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ = cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
= 𝑟
 𝐿 𝐿
⎡ ⎡⎢𝑍+ 2 2⎤
𝑍 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎤ ⎡ ⎡⎢𝑍+ 2 2⎤
𝑍 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎤
= 𝑄 ln 𝑙𝑛 ⎢⎢ ⎣ 𝑟1
⎦ ⎥
⎥ − ⎢⎢ ⎣ 𝑟2
⎦ ⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦−𝐿 ⎣ ⎦−𝐿

⎡ ⎡⎢𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎤ ⎡ ⎡−𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎤ ⎡ ⎡𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎤ ⎡ ⎡−𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎤
= 𝑄 ln 𝑙𝑛 ⎢⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎥ − 𝑄 ln 𝑙𝑛 ⎢ ⎢⎣ ⎦ ⎥ − ⎢ ⎢⎣ ⎦ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎢⎣ ⎦ ⎥
𝑟1 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑟1 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑟2 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑟2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎡⎢𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎤⎡ ⎡⎢−𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎤
= 𝑄 ln 𝑙𝑛 ⎢⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎥⎢ ⎣
⎥⎢ ⎡
⎦ ⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎡⎢𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎥⎢ ⎢−𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎥
⎣⎣ ⎦ ⎦⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦

Again, the wire carry + Q e/m of the wire with opposite signs. The electric potential at an
arbitrary point P is,

𝑞
𝑉= 4πɛ𝑜𝑟
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

2 2
𝑎= 𝑧 + 𝑟1
 2 2
𝑏= 𝑧 + 𝑟2

We obtain by summation for the potential at P

+𝐿 +𝐿
𝑞 𝑞
𝑉𝑝 = ∫ + ∫
2 2 2 2
−𝐿 4πɛ𝑜 𝑧 +𝑟1 −𝐿 4πɛ𝑜 𝑧 +𝑟2

where 2L is the total line height.

⎡ ⎡⎢𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎤⎡ ⎡⎢−𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎦ ⎥⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎥
⎢⎡ 2 2⎤
⎥⎢ ⎡ 2 2⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎢𝐿+ 𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎥⎢ ⎢−𝐿+ 𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎥
⎣⎣ ⎦ ⎦⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦

If L → ∞

⎡ ⎡⎢𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎦ ⎥→1
⎢⎡ 2 2⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎢𝐿+ 𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎥
⎣⎣ ⎦ ⎦

But
⎡ ⎡⎢−𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎦ ⎥ 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒,
⎢⎡ 2 2⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎢−𝐿+ 𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥ ⎥
⎣⎣ ⎦ ⎦

But,

𝑟2 2
⎡ ⎡⎢−𝐿+ 2 2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟2⎥ ⎤ ⎡
−1+⎢1+
1
( ) + ……⎤⎥⎥⎦ 2
⎢⎣
⎢⎡
⎢ ⎢−𝐿+ 2
⎦
2⎤
𝐿 + 𝑟1⎥
⎥=
⎥
⎥
⎢
⎣
⎡
−1+⎢1+
⎢
2

1
𝐿

𝑟1 2
( ) + ……⎤⎥⎥⎦
= ( )
𝑟2
𝑟1
⎣⎣ ⎦ ⎦ ⎣
2 𝐿

This term varnishes with increasing L, therefore for L → ∞

2
𝑉𝑝 =
𝑄
4πɛ𝑜
ln 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟2
𝑟1
=
𝑄
4πɛ𝑜
ln 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟2
𝑟1
Note:
a. Vp is constant along the contour for which the ratio r2/r1 is unchanged. The
equipotential surfaces are these cylinders.

b. In close proximity of the line charges the ratio r2/r1 is either very large or very
small.

The potential V1 on the cylinder of radius R1 equals

𝑄 𝐷
𝑉1 = 2πɛ ln 𝑙𝑛 𝑅
𝑜 1

D = distance between wires

R1 is the immediate neighborhood of the +ve wire.

𝑄 𝑅2
𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 ≈ 2πɛ𝑜
ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐷

Likewise, p.d. between the two cylindrical surfaces as

𝑉1 − 𝑉2 =
𝑄
2πɛ𝑜 ( ln 𝑙𝑛
𝐷
𝑅1
− ln 𝑙𝑛
𝑅2
𝐷 ) =
𝑄
2πɛ𝑜 (
ln 𝑙𝑛
𝐷
𝑅1𝑅2 )
𝑄 πɛ𝑜
But 𝐶 = =
𝑉1−𝑉2
ln𝑙𝑛
( )
𝐷
𝑅1𝑅2

If the conductor have equal radii i.e. R1 = R2, then

πɛ𝑜
𝐶=
ln𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐷
𝑅
 TRANSMISSION LINES CONTD
For transmission (over-head transmission) line, it is usual to assume the lines are fully
transposed such that phase inductances are equal to each other and capacitances to ground
are also the same.

Transmission lines generally carry balanced load. It is normal to assume transmission lines
to be balanced. Hence, it can be represented on per phase basis. The representation of T/Ls
is limited by the length of the line.

Fig. 1.37: Transposition of the lines

1. Short Transmission Lines

These spans from 0-80km in length. Here, capacitances are negligible and the series
independence is lumped together. (See fig. B).

Fig 1.38: Short Transmission Line Model.

R = line resistance
X = line series reactance (inductance).

The four terminal network constant (to be discussed later) are A = 1, B = Z, C = 0, D = 1.

The voltage drop along a line is important and the regulation is defined as:

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 – 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. Medium Length Transmission Lines
These characteristics lines with length between 80-240 km. Here, the capacitances to
ground are appreciable and therefore incorporated. Lines in these categories are
represented by their π-equivalent or T-equivalent (see figure below).

Fig 1.39: Medium – Length – π-equivalent category

Fig. 1.40: Medium – length line – T-equivalent circuit.

Where R = line series resistance

X = impedance
Ysh = line capacitance to ground in admittance form

Note: For π-equivalent ext,

𝑉𝑅𝑌
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑍 = 𝑉𝑅 + ( 2
+ 𝐼𝑅)𝑍 - (1)

𝑌𝑉𝑅
But 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅 + 2

𝑉𝑆 = (1 +
𝑍𝑌
2
)𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 - (2)

𝑉𝑆 𝑌 𝑉𝑅𝑌
𝐼𝑠 = 2
+ ( 2
+ 𝐼𝑅) - (2a)

𝑍𝑌 𝑌 𝑉𝑅𝑌
𝐼𝑠 = [(1 + 2
)𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅] 2
+ 2
+ 𝐼𝑅 (2b)
 𝑍𝑌 𝑌 𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑠 = [(1 + 2
) 2
+ 2
]𝑉𝑅 + ( 2
+ 1)𝐼𝑅 (3)

Combining (2) and (3), we have

[𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑠 ] = [𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 ] 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 [ ]
𝑍𝑌
Where, 𝐴 = (1 + 2
);

𝐵 = 𝑍

𝑍𝑌 𝑌 𝑌
𝐶 = [(1 + 2
) 2
+ 2
]

𝑍𝑌
𝐷 = (1 + 2
)

𝑍𝑌
𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝑌(1 + 2
)

These are ABCD or general parameters of the Y transmission lines.

Similarly, for T-equivalent Network

𝑍𝐼𝑆
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝐶 + 2

𝑍𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉 𝑅 + 2
(2)

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶𝑌 (3)

Solving out, will give

𝐴=𝐷 = 1 + ( 𝑍𝑌
2 )

(
𝐵= 1 +
𝑍𝑌
4 )𝑍
𝐶=𝑌
Long Transmission Lines
These are lines spanning above 240km in length. Here the line parameters are assumed
distributed. The changes in voltage and current over an element length Δx of the line, x
meters from the sending end are determined and conditions for the whole line obtained by
integration,
2 2
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑉
That is we normally use relations, 2 , 2 etc in the analysis and parameters are in per
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
unit length.

For lines less than 500km in length, the following expressions for the ABCD constants hold
approximately.

𝑍𝑌
𝐴 = 𝐷 = (1 + 2
)

𝑍𝑌
𝐵 = 𝑍(1 + 6
)

𝑍𝑌
𝐶 = 𝑌(1 + 6
)

Let R = resistance/unit length

L = Inductance/unit length
G = Conductance/unit length
C = Capacitance/unit length
z = Impedance/unit length
y = Shunt admittance/unit length
Z = Total Series Impedance of the
Y = total shunt admittance of line

The voltage and current x metres from the sending end are given by

𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑆𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎγ𝑥 – 𝐼𝑆𝑍𝑜𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎγ𝑥

𝑉𝑆
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎγ𝑥 – 𝑍𝑜
𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎγ𝑥

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 γ = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = (α + 𝑗β) = (𝑅 + 𝐽𝑤𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝐽𝑤𝐶) = 2𝑦

Where Zo = characteristics impedance

 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑤𝐿
𝑍𝑜 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝑤𝐶

CORONA

Air at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature breaks down at 330KV/cm (peak or
crest value). Smooth cylinders this stress may be determined from the expression;

𝑉
𝑟ln𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑑
𝑟

where V = voltage between line and a neutral

d = spacing between line
r = radius of conductor (cm)

If the visual critical voltage Vv of a line conductor system is reached only if the line
conductor is subject to a stress above the value above in (i), the discharge will occur in the
air surrounding a conductor. This is easily detected by a hissing sound and at night by a
blue glow (or a violet glow) around the conductors, and this is called corona.

Corona is established at a stress Ev called the visual critical stress (corresponding to a

voltage Vv) which is greater than the basic breakdown value Eo. Assume a smooth
conductor surface,

0.3
𝐸𝑉 = 𝐸𝑜(1 + ) (2)
𝑟

𝑉
𝐸𝑉 =
𝑟ln𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑑
𝑟

Effects of Corona

1. The power loss due to corona especially cut abnormal weather condition is really
significant.
2. Radio Interference (RI) or radio noise. Although the presence of corona results in a
power loss, a more important effect is that the discharge causes radiations to be
propagated in the frequency bands used by radio and television.

3. The corona discharges occur at discontinuities on the conductor surface and random
generation of purpose occurs.

Control of Corona

1. Use of Bundle Conductor: The most effective way to reduce or avoid corona and
radio interference is the use of bundle conductors; i.e. several conductors per phase
 suspended from common insulators and separated mechanically by spacers of
various designs. On some systems four – conductor bundles are in use. The
configuration of conductors forming a bundle modifies the single conductor surface
electric field such that the maximum stress is lower than with a single conductor.
This also increases the current rating of the circuit thereby increasing line thermal
capacity.

2. Since corona discharges is more pronounced at discontinuities, good contact and

smooth surfaces at points will greatly reduce corona.

Assignment

Briefly highlight the benefits of using overhead lines over underground networks.