1

Formal Language
BY HOSSAM HAWASH
Alphabet 2

• Definition − An alphabet is any finite set of symbols.

• Example − ∑ = {a, b, c, d} is an alphabet set where ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, and
‘d’ are symbols.
String 3

• Definition − A string is a finite sequence of symbols taken from ∑.

• Example − ‘cabcad’ is a valid string on the alphabet set ∑ = {a, b, c,
d}
Length of a String 4

• Definition − It is the number of symbols present in a string. (Denoted

by |S|).
• Examples −
• If S = ‘cabcad’, |S|= 6
• If |S|= 0, it is called an empty string (Denoted by λ or ε)
Kleene Star 5

• Definition − The Kleene star, ∑*, is a unary operator on a set of

symbols or strings, ∑, that gives the infinite set of all possible strings of
all possible lengths over ∑ including λ.
• Representation − ∑* = ∑0 ∪ ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪……. where ∑p is the set of all
possible strings of length p.
• Example − If ∑ = {a, b}, ∑* = {λ, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,………..}
Kleene Closure / Plus 6

• Definition − The set ∑+ is the infinite set of all possible strings of all
possible lengths over ∑ excluding λ.
• Representation − ∑+ = ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪ ∑3 ∪…….
• ∑+ = ∑* − { λ }
• Example − If ∑ = { a, b } , ∑+ = { a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,………..}
Language 7

• Definition − A language is a subset of ∑* for some alphabet ∑. It can

be finite or infinite.
• Example − If the language takes all possible strings of length 2 over
∑ = {a, b}, then L = { ab, aa, ba, bb }
Finite Automaton 8

 Finite Automaton can be classified into two types −

• Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)
• Non-deterministic Finite Automaton (NDFA / NFA)
Deterministic Finite Automaton 9

(DFA)
 In DFA, for each input symbol, one can determine the state to which
the machine will move. Hence, it is called Deterministic Automaton.
 As it has a finite number of states, the machine is called
Deterministic Finite Machine or Deterministic Finite Automaton.
Formal Definition of a DFA 10

 A DFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where −

• Q is a finite set of states.
• ∑ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabet.
• δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → Q
• q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).
• F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).
Graphical Representation of a DFA 11

 A DFA is represented by digraphs called state diagram.

• The vertices represent the states.
a
• The arcs labeled with an input alphabet show the transitions.
• The initial state is denoted by an empty single incoming arc.
• The final state is indicated by double circles.
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1} accepts all 12

starting with 0.
 solution

0
q0 q1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1} accepts all 13

starting with 0.
 solution
0,1

0
q0 q1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1} accepts all 14

starting with 0.
 solution
0,1

0
q0 q1

q2
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L= {x|x is ending 15

with 0}.
 solution

0
q0 q1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L= {x|x is ending 16

with 0}.
 solution
0

0
q0 q1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L= {x|x is ending 17

with 0}.
 solution
0

0
q0 q1

1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L= {x|x is ending 18

with 0}.
 solution
1
0

0
q0 q1

1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={x|x is string 19

starts with 1 and ends with 0}

 solution

1 0
q0 q1 q2
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={x|x is string 20

starts with 1 and ends with 0}

 solution

1 0
q0 q1 q2
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={x|x is string 21

starts with 1 and ends with 0}

 solution

1 0

1 0
q0 q1 q2
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={x|x is string 22

starts with 1 and ends with 0}

 solution

1 0

1 0
q0 q1 q2

1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={x|x is string 23

starts with 1 and ends with 0}

 solution

1 0

1 0
q0 q1 q2

0
1
q3
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x start 24

with 110}
 solution

0, 1

1 1 0
q0 q1 q2 q3
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x start 25

with 110}
 solution

0, 1

1 1 0
q0 q1 q2 q3

0
q4

0, 1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x start 26

with 110}
 solution

0, 1

1 1 0
q0 q1 q2 q3

0 0
q4

0, 1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x start 27

with 110}
 solution

0, 1

1 1 0
q0 q1 q2 q3

0 0 1

q4

0, 1
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x end 28

with 1011}
 solution

1 0 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x end 29

with 1011}
 solution

0
1 0 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x end 30

with 1011}
 solution

1
0
1 0 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x end 31

with 1011}
 solution

1
0
1 0 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4

0
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x end 32

with 1011}
 solution

1
0 0
1 0 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4

0
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x end 33

with 1011}
 solution
0

1
0 0
1 0 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4

0
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1}, L={ x | x end 34

with 1011}
 solution
0

1
0 0
1 0 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4

1
0
 35
 Describe the language
accepted by the following
DfA.

 Answer
 L=(ab)*
 L={x|x =(ab)^n n>=0}
 36

 Describe the language

accepted by the following
Dfa
 Answer
 L={ (aa)*b+ }
 L= { (aa)+ or b+}
 37

 Describe the language

accepted by the following
DfA.
 38

Implementing
DFA in C++