EEF269: Physics for Engineering I

Presented by
Dr DJOB Roger
PhD in physics.
c
Copyright° DJOB Roger Bertin, rogerdjob@yahoo.fr

5th November 2017

Contents

Contents i

List of Figures iii

0.1 Course content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1 Electric Force and Electric Field 2

1.1 Electric Force: Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Electric Field Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Point Charge in E-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Dipole in E-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Chapter 2 Electric Flux and Gauss’Law 16

2.1 Electric Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Gauss’Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 E-field Calculation with Gauss’Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 Infinite line of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 Infinite sheet of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Uniformly charged sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.1 Isolated conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 Conductor with a charge inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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CONTENTS ii

2.4.3 Charge sprayed on a conductor sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.4.4 Conductor sphere with hole inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.5 A long hollow cylindrical conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.6 Large sheets of charge: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Chapter 3 Electric Potential 27

3.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 Work done by an electric force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.2 Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.3 Example: Moving charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.4 Potential Energy of A System of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.1 DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 Potential For A System of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.3 Potential of an electric dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.4 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.4.1 Uniformly-charged ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.4.2 Uniformly-charged disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Potential V . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.1 To get V from E-field vector: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.2 To get E-field vector from V: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 4 Ohm’s Law and Resistance 38

4.1 Electric current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.1 Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.2 Drift Velocity and current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.3 Conductivity and resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 OHM’S LAW: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 ENERGY IN CURRENT: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1 An electric dipole. (Direction of d~ from negative to positive charge) 5

Figure 1.2 E-field due to an infinite sheet of charge, charge density = σ . . . . 11
Figure 1.3 Some electric field lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 1.4 Deflection produced by E-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

q
Figure 3.1 Examples of equipotential surfaces. (a): V = 4πε0 r
and (b): V =
σ
V0 − 2ε0
|z| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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0.1 Course content 1

0.1 Course content

Objectives
Develop the capacity to apply Physics principles to electrical engineering problems.

Content
1. Mechanics:

• Mechanics of a single particle

• Solid Mechanics

• Statics

• Dynamics

2. Electricity

• Electric Force and Electric Field

• Electric Flux and Gauss’Law

• Electric Potential

• Ohm’s Law and Resistance

Outcome
At the end of this course, students will be able to:

• Explain the operation of many electrical systems in terms of the Physical principles
governing their behaviour.

• Explain the behaviour of many semiconductor devices in terms of the physical prin-
ciples used in designing them.

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Chapter 1

Electric Force and Electric Field

1.1 Electric Force: Coulomb’s law

SYSTEM WITH TWO CHARGES:

The electric force between two charges q1 and q2 can be described by Coulomb’s Law.

1 q1 q2
F~12 = 2
r̂12 (1.1)
4πε0 r12

F~12 = Force on q1 exerted by q2

~
r12
r̂12 = r12
is the unit vector which locates particle 1 relative to particle 2.
i.e ~r12 = r̂1 − r̂2

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1.1 Electric Force: Coulomb’s law 3

• q1 , q2 are electrical charges in units of Coulomb(C)

• Charge is quantized. Recall 1 electron carries 1.602 × 10−19 C

• ε0 = Permittivity of free space = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N m2

(1) q1 , q2 can be either positive or negative.

(2) If q1 , q2 are of same sign, then the force experienced by q1 is in direction away from
q2 , that is, repulsive.
(3) Force on q2 exerted by q1 :
1 q1 q2
F~21 = 2
r̂21 (1.2)
4πε0 r21
BUT:
r21 =r12 =distance between charges q1 and q2
~r21 = −~r12 , hence:

F~21 =−F~12 Newton’s 3rd law.

SYSTEM WITH MANY CHARGES:

The total force experienced by charge q1 is the vector sum of the forces on q1 exerted
by other charges.
F~1 = F~1,2 + F~1,3 + ... + F~1,N (1.3)

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1.2 The Electric Field 4

Principle of superposition
N
X
F~1 = F~1,j (1.4)
2

1.2 The Electric Field

While we need two charges to quantify the electric force, we define the electric field
for any single charge distribution to describe its elect on other charges.
Total force F~ = F~1 + F~2 + ... + F~N

The electric field is defined as

F~ ~
lim =E (1.5)
q0 →0 q0

(a) E-field due to a single charge qi :

From the definitions of Coulomb’s Law, the force experienced at location of q0 (point

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1.2 The Electric Field 5

P)
1 q0 qi
F~0i = 2
r̂0i (1.6)
4πε0 r12
where r̂0i is the unit vector along the direction from charge qi to q0 ,
r̂0i = Unit vector from charge qi to point P = r̂i (radial unit vector from qi )
Recall E~ = limq0 →0 F~ E-field due to qi at point P:
q0

~i = 1 qi
E r̂i (1.7)
4πε0 ri2
where ~ri = Vector pointing from qi to point P, thus
r̂i = Unit vector pointing from qi to point P
Note:
(1) E-field is a vector.
(2) Direction of E-field depends on both position of P and sign of qi .

(b) E-field due to system of charges: Principle of Superposition:

In a system with N charges, the total E-field due to all charges is the vector sum of
E-field due to individual charges.
N
X N
~ = ~i = 1 X qi
E E r̂i (1.8)
1
4πε0 1 ri2

(c) Electric Dipole

System of equal and opposite charges separated by a distance d. Electric Dipole

Figure 1.1: An electric dipole. (Direction of d~ from negative to positive charge)

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1.2 The Electric Field 6

Moment
p~ = q d~ = qddˆ
(1.9)
p = qd
~ due to dipole along x-axis. Consider point P at distance x along the perpen-
Example: E

dicular axis of the dipole

p:
~ =E
E ~+ + E
~− (1.10)

where E~ + E-field due to +q and E

~ − E-field due to -q
Notice: Horizontal E-field components of E~ + and E~ − cancel out. Net E-field points along

the axis opposite to the dipole moment vector.

Magnitude of E-field = 2E+ cos θ
1 q
E = 2( ) cos θ (1.11)
4πε0 r2
q
d/2
But: r = ( d2 )2 + x2 and cos = r

1 p
E=2 d
(1.12)
4πε0 (( 2 ) + x2 )3/2
2

p = qd
Special case: When x À d
(( d2 )2 + x2 )3/2 = x3 [1 + ( 2x
d 2 3/2
)]

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1.3 Continuous Charge Distribution 7

• Binomial Approximation: (1 + y)n ≈ 1 + ny if y ¿ 1

1 p 1
E-field of dipole ' 4πε0 x3
∼ x3

1
• Compare with r2
E-field for single charge

• Result also valid for point P along any axis with respect to dipole

1.3 Continuous Charge Distribution

E-field at point P due to dq:
~ = 1 dq
dE r̂ (1.13)
4πε0 r2
E-field due to charge distribution:
Z Z
~ = ~ = 1 dq
E dE r̂ (1.14)
volume volume 4πε0 r2

(1) In many cases, we can take advantage of the symmetry of the system to simplify the
integral.
(2) To write down the small charge element dq
1-D dq = λds, λ = linear charge density, ds = small length element
2-D dq = σdA, σ = surface charge density, dA = small area element
3-D dq = ρdV , ρ = volume charge density, dV = small volume element

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1.3 Continuous Charge Distribution 8

Example1: Uniform line of charge

charge per unit length = λ
(1) Symmetry considered: The E-field from +z and -z directions cancel along z-direction.

Only horizontal E-field components need to be considered.

(2) For each element of length dz, charge dq = λdz. Horizontal E-field at point P due to
element dz equals
~ cos θ = dEz cos θ = 1 λdz
d|E| cos θ (1.15)
4πε0 r2
E-field due to entire line charge at point P
Z L Z L
2 1 λdz 2 λ dz
E= 2
cos θ = 2 2
cos θ (1.16)
−L 4πε0 r 4πε 0 r
2
0

To calculate this integral:

• First, notice that x is fixed, but z, r, θ all varies.

• Change of variable (from z to θ)

(1) z = x tan θ ⇒ dz = x sec2 θdθ
x = r cos θ ⇒ r2 = x2 sec2 θ
(2) When z = 0 , θ = 00
z = L/2, θ = θ0 where tan θ0 = L/2
x
Z θ0 Z
λ x sec2 θdθ λ 1 θ0 λ 1
E=2 2 2
cos θ = 2 dθ cos θ = 2 sin θ0
0 4πε0 x sec θ 4πε0 x 0 4πε0 x
1 λL
E= q (1.17)
4πε0 x x2 + ( L )2
2

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1.3 Continuous Charge Distribution 9

along x-direction

Important limiting cases:

1 λL
1. x À L : E ' 4πε0 x2

But λL = Total charge on rod.

System behave like a point charge

1 λL λ
2. L À x : E ' 4πε0 x L
= 2πε0 x
2

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITELY LONG LINE OF CHARGE

Example 2: Ring of Charge

E-field at a height z above a ring of charge of radius R
0
(1) Symmetry considered: For every charge element dq considered, there exists dq where

~ field components cancel. ⇒ Overall E-field lies along z-direction.

the horizontal E
(2) For each element of length dz, charge dq = λds where λ is the linear charge density
and ds circular length element dq = λRdΦ, where Φ is the angle measured on the ring
plane
Net E-field along z-axis due to dq:
1 dq
dE = cos θ (1.18)
4πε0 r2
Total E-field Z Z 2π
1 λRdΦ z
E= dE = 2
cos θ(cos θ = ) (1.19)
4πε0 0 r r

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1.3 Continuous Charge Distribution 10

Note: Here in this case, θ, R and r are fixed as Φ varies! BUT we want to convert r, θ to
R, z. Z
1 λRz 2π
E= dΦ
4πε0 r3 0
Z
1 λ(2πR)z
E = dE = (1.20)
4πε0 (z 2 + R2 )3/2
along z-axis
BUT: λ(2πR) = total charge on the ring

Example 3: E-field from a disk of surface charge density σ

We find the E-field of a disk by integrating concentric rings of charges. Total charge

of ring dq = σ(2πrdr)

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1.4 Electric Field Lines 11

2πrdr: area of the ring

1 zdq
Recall from Example 2: E-field from ring: dE = 4πε 0 (z 2 +R2 )
3/2

Z Z R Z R
1 2πσrdr · z 1 rdr
E = dE = 2 2 3/2
= 2πσz 2 (1.21)
4πε0 0 (z + r ) 4πε0 0 (z + r2 )3/2
• Change of variable: u = z 2 + r2 ⇒ (z 2 + r2 )3/2 = u3/2
du = 2rdr ⇒ rdr = 21 du

• Change of integration limit:

r = 0 , u = z2
r = R , u = z 2 + R2
1
R z2 +R2 1
E = 4πε 0
2πσz z2 2
−3/2
R −3/2
u du BUT: u du = −2u−1/2
Thus:
σ z
E= [1 − 2 ] (1.22)
2ε0 (z + R2 )1/2
VERY IMPORTANT LIMITING CASE:
If R À z, that is if we have an infinite sheet of charge with charge density σ:
σ z σ z
E= [1 − 2 2 1/2
]≈ [1 − ]
2ε0 (z + R ) 2ε0 R
σ
E≈ (1.23)
2ε0
E-field is normal to the charged surface

Figure 1.2: E-field due to an infinite sheet of charge, charge density = σ

1.4 Electric Field Lines

To visualize the electric field, we can use a graphical tool called the electric field lines.
Conventions:

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1.5 Point Charge in E-field 12

Figure 1.3: Some electric field lines

1. The start on positive charges and end on negative charges.

2. Direction of E-field at any point is given by tangent of E-field line.
3. Magnitude of E-field at any point is proportional to number of E-field lines per unit
area perpendicular to the lines.

1.5 Point Charge in E-field

~ the force experienced by the charge is
When we place a charge q in an E-field E,
F~ = q E
~ = m~a
Applications: Ink-jet printer, TV cathoderay tube.
Example: Ink particle has mass m, charge q (q < 0 here). Assume that mass of inkdrop
is small, what’s the deflection y of the charge?
~ points
Solution: First, the charge carried by the inkdrop is negative, i.e. q < 0. Note: q E
~
in opposite direction of E.
Horizontal motion: Net force = 0
L = vt (1.24)

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1.6 Dipole in E-field 13

Figure 1.4: Deflection produced by E-field

~ À |m~g |,
Vertical motion: |q E|
q is negative, Net force =-qE = ma (Newton’s 2nd Law)

qE
a=− (1.25)
m
Vertical distance travelled:
1
y = at2 (1.26)
2

1.6 Dipole in E-field

Consider the force exerted on the dipole in an external E-field:
Assumption: E-field from dipole doesn’t affect the external E-field.

• Dipole moment: p~ = q d~

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1.6 Dipole in E-field 14

• Force due to the E-field on +ve and −ve charge are equal and opposite in direction.
Total external force on dipole = 0.
BUT: There is an external torque on the center of the dipole.

Reminder: Force F~ exerts at point P. The force exerts a torque ~τ = ~r × F~ on point P

with respect to point O.

Direction of the torque vector ~τ is determined from the right-hand rule.

Net torque τ

• direction: clockwise torque

• magnitude: τ = t+ve + t−ve = F d2 sin θ + F d2 sin θ = pE sin θ

~
τ = p~ × E

Energy Consideration:
When the dipole p~ rotates of dθ, the E-field does work.
Work done by external E-field on the dipole:

dW = −τ dθ (1.27)

Negative sign here because torque by E-field acts to decrease θ.

BUT: Because E-field is a conservative force field, we can define a potential energy (U)
for the system, so that
dU = −dW (1.28)

For the dipole in external E-field:

dU = −dW = pE sin θdθ (1.29)

Z Z
U (θ) = dU = pE sin θdθ = −pE cos θ + U0 (1.30)

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1.6 Dipole in E-field 15

set U (θ = 90) = 0,
0 = −pE cos 90 + U0 ⇒ U0 = 0
Potential energy:
~
U = −pE cos θ = −~p · E (1.31)

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Chapter 2

Electric Flux and Gauss’Law

2.1 Electric Flux

Graphically: Electric flux represents the number of E-field lines crossing a surface.
~ is perpendicular to the area A. For non-uniform E-field
Reminder: Vector of the area A

~ is not uniform. dA
and surface, direction of the area vector A ~ = Area vector for small
area element dA
Electric flux
~ · dA
dΦE = E ~ (2.1)
~ through surface S:
Electric flux of E
Z
ΦE = ~ · dA
E ~ (2.2)
S

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2.1 Electric Flux 17

R
S
= Surface integral over surface S = Integration of integral over all area elements on
surface S

~ = 1 −2q 1 q
E 2
r̂ = − r̂
4πε0 R 2πε0 R2
~ = dAr̂
For a hemisphere, dA
Z Z
q q q
ΦE = − 2
r̂ · (dAr̂) = − dA = −
S 2πε0 R 2πε0 R2 S ε0
~ goes from inside to outside of closed surface S.
Recall: Direction of area vector dA
Electric flux over closed surface S:
I
ΦE = ~ · dA
E ~ (2.3)
S

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2.2 Gauss’Law 18

ΦE = Surface integral over closed surface S

Example: Electric flux of charge q over closed spherical surface of radius R.

~ = 1 q 1 q
E 2
r̂ = r̂
4πε0 r 4πε0 R2
at the surface
Again, dA~ = dA~r
Z Z
q q
ΦE = 2
r̂ · (dA~r) = dA
S 4πε0 R 4πε0 R2 S
2
Total surface area of S = 4πR
q
ΦE =
ε0
IMPORTANT POINT: If we remove the spherical symmetry of closed surface S, the
total number of E-field lines crossing the surface remains the same.
The electric flux ΦE I I
ΦE = ~ · dA
E ~= E ~= q
~ · dA (2.4)
S S0 ε0

2.2 Gauss’Law

I
ΦE = E ~= q
~ · dA (2.5)
S ε0
for any closed surface S
And q is the net electric charge enclosed in closed surface S.

• Gauss’Law is valid for all charge distributions and all closed surfaces. (Gaussian
surfaces)

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2.3 E-field Calculation with Gauss’Law 19

• Coulomb’s Law can be derived from Gauss’Law.

• For system with high order of symmetry, E-field can be easily determined if we
construct Gaussian surfaces with the same symmetry and applies Gauss’Law

2.3 E-field Calculation with Gauss’Law

2.3.1 Infinite line of charge

Linear charge density: λ

Cylindrical symmetry.
E-field directs radially outward from the rod.
Construct a Gaussian surface S in the shape of a cylinder, making up of a curved surface

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2.3 E-field Calculation with Gauss’Law 20

S1 , and the top and bottom circles S2 , S3 . Gauss’Law:

I
~ = T otal charge = λL
~ · dA
E
S ε0 ε0
I Z Z Z
~ ~
E · dA = ~ ~
E · dA + ~ ~
E · dA + ~ · dA
E ~
S S1 S2 S3
R R
~ · dA
E ~= ~ · dA
E ~=0
S2 S3 Z
λL
E dA =
S1 ε0
R
knowing that S1
dA = 2πrL, finally we find

λ
E=
2πrε0

2.3.2 Infinite sheet of charge

Uniform surface charge density: σ

Planar symmetry.
E-field directs perpendicular to the sheet of charge.
Construct Gaussian surface S in the shape of a cylinder (pill box) of cross-sectional area
A.
Gauss’Law: I
~ ~= Aσ
E dA
S ε0
Z
~
E ~=0 E
dA ~ ⊥ dA
~ over whole surfaceS1
S1

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2.3 E-field Calculation with Gauss’Law 21

Z Z
E dA + E dA = 2EA
S2 S3

~ A~2 and Ekd

Ekd ~ A~3
Note:
~ and dA
For S2 , both E ~ 2 point up
~ and dA
For S3 , both E ~ 3 point down

Aσ σ
2EA = ⇒E=
ε0 2ε0

2.3.3 Uniformly charged sphere

Total charge = Q
Spherical symmetry.
(a) Gauss’Law: I
~= Q
~ · dA
E
S ε0
I
Q
E dA =
S ε0
surface area of S = 4πr2
Q
E=
4πε0 r2

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2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors 22

q volume enclosed by S’
(b) Q
= Total volume of S
4
q πr3 r3
= 43 3 ⇒ q = 3 Q
Q 3
πR R
Gauss’Law: I 3
~ = q = Qr
~ · dA
E
S ε0 ε0 R 3
surface area of S 0 = 4πr2
Qr
E= f or r≤R
4πε0 R3

2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors

2.4.1 Isolated conductor

For isolated conductors, charges are free to move until all charges lie outside the surface
of the conductor. Also, the E-field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to its
surface. (Why?)
Consider Gaussian surface S of shape of cylinder:
I
~ = σA
~ · dA
E
S ε0
BUT Z
~ · dA
E ~ = 0 (E
~ ⊥ dA)
~
S1
Z
~ · dA
E ~ = 0 (E
~ = ~0 inside conductor)
S3

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2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors 23

Z Z
~ · dA
E ~=E ~ k dA)
dA(E ~ = EA
S2 S2
σA
Gauss’Law ⇒ EA = ε0
σ
On conductor’s surface E = ε0

BUT, there’s no charge inside conductors.

Inside conductors E = 0 Always!
Notice: Surface charge density on a conductor’s surface is not uniform.

2.4.2 Conductor with a charge inside

Note: This is not an isolated system (because of the charge inside).

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2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors 24

2.4.3 Charge sprayed on a conductor sphere

First, we know that charges all move to the surface of conductors.

(i) For r < R: Consider Gaussian surface S2

Z
~ · dA
E ~ = 0 no charge inside
S2

⇒ E = 0 everywhere

(ii) For r =R: Consider Gaussian surface S1 :

Z Z
~ ~ Q
E · dA = E dA =
S1 S1 ε0
Q
⇒E=
4πε0 r2

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2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors 25

2.4.4 Conductor sphere with hole inside

Consider Gaussian surface S1 : Total charge included = 0

E-field= 0 inside
The E-field is identical to the case of a solid conductor!!

2.4.5 A long hollow cylindrical conductor

Inside hollow cylinder ( +2q ): inner radius a outer radius b

Outside hollow cylinder ( -3q ): inner radius c outer radius d
Question: Find the charge on each surface of the conductor.
For the inside hollow cylinder, charges distribute only on the surface.
Inner radius a, charge = 0 and outer radius b, charge = +2q
For the outside hollow cylinder, charges do not distribute only on outside.

Dr DJOB Physics for engineering I

2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors 26

It’s not an isolated system. (There are charges inside!)

Consider Gaussian surface S 0 inside the conductor: E-field always = 0
Need charge -2q on radius c surface to balance the charge of inner cylinder.
So charge on radius d surface = -q. (Why?)

2.4.6 Large sheets of charge:

Total charge Q on sheet of area A,
Q
Surface charge density σ = A
By principle of superposition

Region A: E = 0 (on insulator) E= 0 (on conductor)

Q Q
Region B: E = ε0 A
(on insulator) E = ε0 A
(on conductor)
Region C: E = 0 (on insulator) E = 0 (on conductor)

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Chapter 3

Electric Potential

3.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces

3.1.1 Work done by an electric force

Electric force is a conservative force. Work done by the electric force F~ as a charge

moves an infinitesimal distance d~s along Path A = dW

Note: d~s is in the tangent direction of the curve of Path A.

dW = F~ · d~s (3.1)

Total work done W by force F~ in moving the particle from Point 1 to Point 2
Z 2
W = F~ · d~s (3.2)
1
R2
1
= Path Integral= Integration over Path A from Point 1 to Point 2.

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3.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces 28

3.1.2 Convention
We define potential energy U such that
Z Z 2
dU = −W = − F~ · d~s (3.3)
1

For particle moving from 1 to 2

Z 2 Z 2
dU = U2 − U1 = − F~ · d~s (3.4)
1 1

where U1 , U2 are potential energy at position 1, 2.

3.1.3 Example: Moving charge

Suppose charge q2 moves from point 1 to 2. From definition:

Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
1 q1 q2
U2 − U1 = − F~ · d~r = − F dr = − dr
1 1 1 4πε0 r2
Z 2
q1 q2 1 q1 q2 1 1
−∆W = ∆U = 2
dr = ( − )
4πε0 1 r 4πε0 r2 r1
Note:
(1) This result is generally true for 2-D or 3-D motion.
(2) If q2 moves away from q1 , then r2 > r1 , we have

• If q1 , q2 are of same sign, then ∆U < 0, ∆W > 0 (∆W = Work done by electric
repulsive force)

• If q1 , q2 are of different sign, then ∆U > 0, ∆W < 0 (∆W = Work done by

electric attractive force)

(3) If q2 moves towards q1 , then r2 < r1 , we have

• If q1 , q2 are of same sign, then ∆U > 0, ∆W < 0

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3.2 Electric Potential 29

• If q1 , q2 are of different sign, then ∆U < 0, ∆W > 0

(4) Note: It is the difference in potential energy that is important.

REFERENCE POINT: U (r = ∞) = 0
q1 q2 1 1
U (r2 = ∞) − U 1 = ( − )
4πε0 ∞ r1
q1 q2
U (r) = (3.5)
4πε0 r
If q1 , q2 same sign, then U(r)> 0 for all r
If q1 , q2 opposite signs, then U(r)< 0 for all r
(5) Conservation of Mechanical Energy: For a system of charges with no external force,

E = K + U = Constant

where U is the potential energy and K the Kinetic Energy

∆E = ∆K + ∆U = 0 (3.6)

3.1.4 Potential Energy of A System of Charges

Example: P.E. of 3 charges q1 , q2 , q3
Start: q1 , q2 , q3 all at r = ∞,U=0
Step1: Move q1 from ∞ to its position ⇒ U = 0
q1 q2
Step2: Move q2 from ∞ to new position ⇒ U = 4πε0 r12
, r12 being the distance between
the two charges
Step3: Move q3 from ∞ to new position ⇒ Total P.E. U = 1
( q1 q2
4πε0 r12
+ q1 q3
r13
+ q3 q2
r23
)
Step4: What if there are 4 charges?

3.2 Electric Potential

Consider a charge q at center, we consider its effect on test charge q0

3.2.1 DEFINITION
We define electric potential V so that
∆U ∆W
∆V = =− (3.7)
q0 q0
(∆V is the P.E. per unit charge)

Dr DJOB Physics for engineering I

3.2 Electric Potential 30

• Similarly, we take V(r =∞) = 0

• Electric Potential is a scalar

• Unit: Volt(V) = Joules/Coulomb

1 q
• For a single point charge: V(r) = 4πε0 r

• Energy Unit: ∆U = q∆V

electron-Volt(eV) = 1.6 × 10−19 J

3.2.2 Potential For A System of Charges

For a total of N point charges, the potential V at any point P can be derived from the
principle of superposition.
1 q1
Recall that potential due to q1 at point P: V1 = 4πε0 r1

Total potential at point P due to N charges:

V =V1 + V2 + + VN (principle of superposition)

1 q1 q2 qN
V = ( + + ... + )
4πε0 r1 r2 rN
N
1 X qi
V = (3.8)
4πε0 i=1 ri
~ F~ , we have a sum of vectors
Note: For E,
For V,U, we have a sum of scalars

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3.2 Electric Potential 31

3.2.3 Potential of an electric dipole

d
Consider the potential of point P at distance x > 2
from dipole.
1 +q −q
V = [ d
+ ]
4πε0 x − 2 x + d2

Special Limiting Case: x À d

1 1 1 1 d
d
= d
' [1 ∓ ]
x± 2
x 1 ± 2x x 2x
1 q d d p
V = [1 + − (1 − )] = (Recall p = qd) (3.9)
4πε0 x 2x 2x 4πε0 x2
1
For a point charge E ∝ r2
, V ∝ 1r
1
For a dipole E ∝ r3
, V ∝ r12
1
For a quadrupole E ∝ r4
, V ∝ r13

3.2.4 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distribution

For any charge distribution, we write the electrical potential dV due to infinitesimal
charge dq:
1 dq
dV = (3.10)
4πε0 r
Z
1 dq
V = (3.11)
charge distribution 4πε0 r
Similar to the previous examples on E-field, for the case of uniform charge distribution:
1-D ⇒ long rod ⇒ dq = λdx
2-D ⇒ charge sheet ⇒ dq = σdA
3-D ⇒ uniformly charged body ⇒ dq = ρdV

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3.2 Electric Potential 32

3.2.4.1 Uniformly-charged ring

Length of the infinitesimal ring element = ds = Rdθ

charge dq = λds = λRdθ
1 dq 1 λRdθ
dV = = √
4πε0 r 4πε0 R2 + z 2
The integration is around the entire ring.
Z Z 2π Z 2π
1 λRdθ 1 λR
V = dV = √ = √ dθ
ring 0 4πε0 R2 + z 2 4πε0 R2 + z 2 0
Total charge on the ring = λ(2πR)
1 Q
V = √
4πε0 R + z 2
2

Q
LIMITING CASE: z À R ⇒ V = 4πε0 |z|

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3.2 Electric Potential 33

3.2.4.2 Uniformly-charged disk

Using the principle of superposition, we will find the potential of a disk of uniform
charge density by integrating the potential of concentric rings.
Z Z 2π
1 dq
V = dV =
disk 0 4πε0 r
Ring of radius x: dq = σdA = σ(2πxdx)
Z Z R Z R
1 σ(2πxdx) σ d(x2 + z 2 ) σ √ 2
V = dV = √ = √ dx = ( R + z 2 − |z|)
disk 0 4πε 0 2
x +z 2 4ε 0 0 2
x +z 2 2ε 0

Limiting Case:

1. If |z| À R
√ R2 1/2 1 R2
R2 + z 2 = |z|(1 + ) ' |z|(1 + )
z2 2 z2
At large z,
σ R2 Q
V ' = (like a point charge)
2ε0 2|z| 4πε0 |z|
where Q = total charge on disk = σπR2

2. If |z| ¿ R
√ z 2 1/2 1 z2
x2 + z 2 = R(1 + ) ' R(1 + )
R2 2 R2
σ z2
V ' (R − |z| − )
2ε0 2R
σR
At z = 0,V = 2ε0
; Let’s call this V0

σ z2 σR |z| z2
V (z) = (R − |z| + 2 ) = (1 − − )
2ε0 R 2ε0 R 2R2

Dr DJOB Physics for engineering I

3.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Potential V 34

The key here is that it is the difference between potentials of two points that is
important.
⇒ A convenience reference point to compare in this example is the potential of the
charged disk.
The important quantity here is
|z| z2
V (z) − V0 = − V0 − V0
R 2R2
Since z ¿ R, V (z) − V0 is approximated as
|z|
V (z) − V0 = − V0
R

3.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Po-

tential V

3.3.1 To get V from E-field vector:

Recall our definition of the potential V:
∆U ∆W12
∆V = =− (3.12)
q0 q0
where ∆U is the change in P.E.; W12 is the work done in bringing charge q0 from point 1
to 2. R2
1
F~ · d~s
∆V = V2 − V1 = −
q0

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3.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Potential V 35

However, the definition of E-field: F~ = q0 E

~
Z 2
∆V = V2 − V1 = − ~ · d~s
E
1

Note: The integral on the right hand side of the above can be calculated along any path
from point 1 to 2. (Path-Independent)
Convention: V∞ = 0 Z P
VP = − ~ · d~s
E (3.13)
∞

3.3.2 To get E-field vector from V:

Again, use the definition of V:

∆U = q0 ∆V = −W

W is the work done.

~ s
However, W = q0 E∆~
W = q0 Es ∆s

where Es is the E-field component along the path ∆s.

q0 ∆V = −q0 Es ∆s (3.14)
∆V
Es = − (3.15)
∆s
For infinitesimal ∆s,
dV
Es = − (3.16)
ds
Dr DJOB Physics for engineering I
3.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Potential V 36

Note:
(1) Therefore the E-field component along any direction is the negative derivative of the
potential along the same direction.
~ then ∆V = 0
(2) If d~s ⊥ E,
~
(3) ∆V is biggest/smallest if d~s k E
Generally, for a potential V(x,y,z), the relation between E(x,y,z) and V is

∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − Ey = − Ez = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂
, ∂ , ∂ are partial derivatives
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂
For ∂x V (x, y, z), everything y, z are treated like a constant and we only take derivative
with respect to x.
Example: If V (x, y, z) = x2 y − z
∂V
∂x
= 2xy
∂V
∂y
= x2
∂V
∂z
= −1
Example: Uniformly charged disk
σ
√
From potential calculations: V (z) = 2ε0
( R2 + z 2 − |z|) for a point along the z-axis
For z > 0, |z|= z
∂V σ z
Ez = − =− [1 − √ ]
∂z 2ε0 R2 + z 2
Example: Uniform electric field (e.g. Uniformly charged +ve and −ve plates)
Consider a path going from the −ve plate to the +ve plate
Potential at point P, VP can be deduced from definition. i.e.

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3.4 Equipotential Surfaces 37
Z s
VP − V− = − ~ · d~s (V− = P otential
E of − ve plate)
0
Z s Z s
VP − V− = − (−Eds) = E ds = Es
0 0

~ d~s pointing opposite directions

E,
Convenient reference: V− = 0
VP = Es (3.17)

3.4 Equipotential Surfaces

Equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential is constant.
⇒ ∆V = 0

q σ
Figure 3.1: Examples of equipotential surfaces. (a): V = 4πε0 r and (b): V = V0 − 2ε0 |z|

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Chapter 4

Ohm’s Law and Resistance

4.1 Electric current

Electric current is defined as the flow of electric charge through a cross-sectional area.

dQ
i= (4.1)
dt

Unit: Ampere (A) = C/second

4.1.1 Convention
(1) Direction of current is the direction of flow of positive charge.
(2) Current is NOT a vector, but the current density is a vector.
~j = charge flow per unit time per unit area
Z
i= ~
~j · dA (4.2)

4.1.2 Drift Velocity and current density

Consider a current i flowing through a cross-sectional area A. In time ∆t, total charges
passing through segment:
∆Q = qA(Vd ∆t)n (4.3)

where q is charge of the current carrier, n is density of charge carrier per unit volume
Current:
dQ
= nqAvd
dt

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4.2 OHM’S LAW: 39

Current Density:
j = nq v~d (4.4)

Note : For metal, the charge carriers are the free electrons inside.

~j = −nev~d (4.5)

for metals
Inside metals, ~j and v~d are in opposite directions.

4.1.3 Conductivity and resistivity

We define a general property, conductivity (σ), of a material as:

~
~j = σ E (4.6)

Note : In general, σ is NOT a constant number, but rather a function of position and
applied E-field. A more commonly used property, resistivity (ρ), is defined as

1
ρ= (4.7)
σ
~ = ρ~j
E (4.8)

Unit of ρ : Ohm-meter (Ωm) where Ohm (Ω) = Volt/Ampere

4.2 OHM’S LAW:

Ohmic materials have resistivity that are independent of the applied electric field. i.e.
metals (in not too high E-field)

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4.2 OHM’S LAW: 40

Example : Consider a resistor (ohmic material) of length L and cross-sectional area A.

Electric field inside conductor:
Z
∆V = ~ · d~s = EL ⇒ E = ∆V
E
L
i
Current density: j = A
E ∆V 1 ∆V A
ρ= = =
j L i/A i L
ρL
R= (4.9)
A
where R is the resistance of the conductor.
Note: ∆V = iR is NOT a statement of Ohm’s Law. It’s just a definition for resistance.
Note: For some materials, resistivity is a linear function of temperature

ρ = ρ0 [1 − α(T − T0 )] (4.10)

where α is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity, T0 is a fixed reference tempera-

ture (usually room temperature), and ρ0 is the resistivity at temperature T0 .

Dr DJOB Physics for engineering I

4.3 ENERGY IN CURRENT: 41

4.3 ENERGY IN CURRENT:

Assuming a charge ∆Q enters with potential V1 and leaves with potential V2 . Potential

energy lost in the wire:

∆U = ∆QV2 − ∆QV1 = ∆Q(V2 − V1 )

Rate of energy lost per unit time

∆U ∆Q
= (V2 − V1 )
∆t ∆t

Joule’s heating
P = i∆V = power dissipated in conductor

For a resistor R,
2 (∆V )2
P =i R=
R

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