THE ENIGMA OF THE HYKSOS

ERC Advanced Grant (ERC ADG Project 668640)

At the Austrian Archaeological Institute at the Austrian Academy of Sciences

The aim of the project (2016–2021), under the direction of Manfred Bietak, was to determine the
origin of the so-called Hyksos kings, a dynasty of foreign rulers being in power in Egypt in the so-
called Second Intermediate Period. We would like to thank the European Research Council (ERC) –
Horizon 2020 Programme, The Austrian Academy of Sciences and the Austrian Archaeological
Institute as hosts. For special support we are indebted to Mr. Olivier Fuchs/Frankfort.
_____________

The Hyksos (Greek rendering of the Egyptian title ‘rulers of the foreign countries’) were a dynasty of
foreign monarchs being in power in Egypt between c. 1640 and 1530 BCE. Some modern researchers,
following the ancient historian Flavius Josephus (1 st cent. AD), thought them to be ancestors of the
early Israelites. Others suggested that their appearance has to be tied to the expansion of the
Hurrian people into the Levant, starting at the end of the 18 th century BCE. Nowadays those opinions
are largely rejected. Most scholars dealing with the subject today believe, according to the existing
onomastic data, that they were western Semites. Their exact geographical origin in the Levant, the
process of their seizure of power in Egypt and their specific role in history remained, however, an
enigma, as the period is poorly represented in texts. Nevertheless, the Hyksos phenomenon has thus
far mainly been studied by text-based Egyptology, ignoring other possible sources, like archaeological
remains, burial customs, settlement patterns, not to mention biological data.
In the last decades excavations at several places in Egypt‘s eastern Delta have produced an enormous
wealth of new information and it is possible now, together with finds stored in several museums all
over the world, to resort to enormous quantities of objects reflecting the material culture as well as
physical remains, which can be attributed to the carriers of Hyksos rule and their predecessors. These
materials available were so far largely left aside in the scientific discussion, but can be utilised as first
class historical sources. The investigations of this innovative project were conducted in eight
interrelated research tracks (RTs), incorporating an array of archaeological, historical, theoretical and
analytical approaches. Archaeological analyses, cultural interference studies and new onomastic
studies played an equal role as well as most up-to-date DNA and Sr isotope analyses (bio-
archaeological research by the second host institution, the Bournemouth University – UK) as well as
gas-phase chromatography.

An impact of foreign settlers can already be traced in the late 12 th and the 13th Dynasty through the
import of technologies previously unknown in Egypt. For example: the introduction of artificial
irrigation by means of the shadûf, the introduction of the fast-turning potter’s wheel, and the
introduction of a new weighing system, which at that time was used side-by-side with the Egyptian
weighing system. The innovation of a new weight system can be compared to the introduction of an
international monetary system (a modern example would be the US Dollar) and shows the
dependence and interconnectivity of the newcomers with the Near Eastern sphere, where this
weight system was in use already in the Early Bronze Age. Also of note is the introduction of new
metallurgical technologies, for instance, the use of bivalve moulds of steatite, which enabled the
production of sophisticated forms of weaponry like veined daggers, duckbill and shaft-hole axes, the
scimitar, socketed spear heads, and fine jewellery. It appears more and more likely that the military
equipment of the New Kingdom, including, of course, the use of the horse-drawn chariot and the
training and upkeep of horses, depended on the expertise of foreigners originating from the Near
East. Their expertise in highly specialised occupations was certainly the reason that the people
behind Hyksos rule were not expelled by the victorious 18 th Dynasty as some evidence from the
Eastern Delta (such as the continuity in the pottery production), suggests, but were employed,
according to their skills, by the new overlords of the country. Evidence of Canaanite religion,
especially the influence of the Syrian storm god on the character of the Egyptian storm god Seth, and
evidence of Near Eastern religious concepts, and their acceptance in Egyptian religion and literature
in the New Kingdom, can also be traced.
With the founding of the 14 th Dynasty, the start of the regionalisation of Ancient Egypt was launched
in the eastern Delta. Near Eastern palaces and Near Eastern Temples (with their nearest parallels in
northernmost Syria and northern Mesopotamia) indicate that among the elite, the decision makers
in Avaris, were people who acquired their cultural background in northernmost Syria and northern
Mesopotamia, which fits with the introduction of the artificial irrigation techniques mentioned
above. The investigation of burial customs, material culture and religious architecture points to an
origin for (at least a part of) the decision makers in Tell el-Dabʻa in northern Syria. The Hurrians too,
could have constituted (theoretically) some part of the Hyksos elite. On the other hand, the office of
a ‘Ruler of Retjenu’ established at Avaris, included names identical or very similar to the princes of
Byblos, which shows a close relationship between the two cities. Close ties between Sidon and Tell
el-Dabʻa appear to reveal commercial connections, the transmission of ideas and of specific cult
concepts. Evidence garnered from Sidon and Tell el-Dabʻa seems to suggest, according to the
affinities of material culture, and religious and funerary customs, that the region of southern
Lebanon may have been the former homeland, or at least an intermediate stopover for the people
who finally settled in Avaris.
The conflagration of the palace of the 14th Dynasty shows that the change to the 15th Dynasty, the
Hyksos, did not happen peacefully. Many changes happened at that time (±1640 BCE) in Avaris.
Significant changes are recognisable in the ceramic corpus. A new temple of Egyptian style was built.
The town grew from 100 to 250 ha. There must have been an enormous demographic influx of
people of Asiatic descent, but from within Egypt. They came most likely from the Memphitic area
where Asiatic settlements of the late Middle Kingdom are attested in papyri but can be also verified
archaeologically at Lisht. These new settlers seemed to have toppled first the 13 th Dynasty and
moved afterwards to take over Avaris. The major question is, if these new settlers who caused the
Hyksos rule had the same genes as the inhabitants of Avaris during the 13 th and 14th Dynasties or if
they have absorbed descendants of previous settlers from the Levant.
The Hyksos Enigma Project, with its eight interrelating research tracks, has attempted to recreate, in
holistic interpretations, the rise of the Hyksos in the 15 th dynasty and of their predecessors by
engaging in current theoretical and methodological thinking modes. The analysis of skeletal remains
from Tell el-Dabʻa, compared to osteological series from other sites in the Levant, offers another
avenue of evidence in the discussion of the nature and impact of the Hyksos. It is a multidisciplinary
approach, combining non-destructive macroscopic (dental nonmetric and palaeopathological traits)
and biochemical (stable isotopes and ancient DNA) analyses together with the full scope of the
archaeological record. Thus it becomes possible to construct, to some extent, the population’s
history and individual life stories. The stable isotope analysis of 75 individuals from Tell el-Dabʻa
showed that over half of all individuals (53%) spent their childhood outside the Nile Delta. Of those
individuals for whom sex estimation was possible, 78% of females and 50% of males displayed
87
Sr/86Sr values outside the local values. The wide range of values suggests that non-locals, before or
during Hyksos rule, did not come from a unified homeland, but an extensive variety of geographic
origins. This is interesting, as the population interred at Tell el-Dabʻa appears to represent a
multicultural hub throughout the site’s occupation. This is shown by the results of the Dental
Nonmetric Traits that exhibited little change in the biological affinities of the Tell el-Dabʻa population
from the end of Middle Kingdom throughout the Second Intermediate Period. The analysis of the Tell
el-Dabʻa series, compared with other sites in the Levant, suggests a strong biological affinity with
contemporary Levantine populations and is distinctly different from contemporary Egyptian
osteological remains. Palaeopathological examinations along the chronological contexts of the site
show no changes between the Hyksos and the pre-Hyksos period, showing that the population might
have been diverse but stable in itself.
One thing for certain – the Hyksos played a much greater role in the history of the Old World than
envisaged so far. They pushed Egypt back into focus of the events in the Near East in the 2 nd
millennium BCE.
For further information please refer to: http://thehyksosenigma.oeaw.ac.at/
 Publications
Already published monographs and anthologies
M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 −
ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt,
Nubia and the Levant 9, Wiesbaden 2019.
A.-L. Mourad, The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume II. Transforming Egypt into the New Kingdom: The
Impact of the Hyksos and Egyptian-Near Eastern Relations, Contributions to the Archaeology of
Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 10, Wiesbaden 2021.

S. Prell, The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume III. Ausländische Bestattungssitten im Ostdelta Ägyptens –
eine Spurensuche, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 11, Wiesbaden
2021.

M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume IV. Changing Clusters and Migration in
the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in Vienna 4 th–6th of December
2019, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 12, Wiesbaden 2021 (in
print).

E. Priglinger, The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume V. Zwischen den Zeiten Überlegungen zum Ende der
drei Reiche im alten Ägypten, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 13,
Wiesbaden 2021 (in print).
(Four more volumes are in preparation)

Articles
2016

M. Bietak, E. Czerny & S. Prell, Ahmose in Avaris?, in: H. Franzmeier, Th. Rehren & R. Schulz (eds.),
Mit archäologischen Schichten Geschichte schreiben. Festschrift für Edgar B. Pusch zum 70.
Geburtstag, Forschungen in der Ramses-Stadt 10, Hildesheim 2016, 79−93.

M. Bietak, The Egyptian Community at Avaris during the Hyksos Period, Egypt and the Levant 26,
Vienna 2016, 263−274.

M. Bietak, Les sanctuaires cananéens dans le delta oriental du Nil, in: P. Matthiae & M. D’Andrea
(eds.), L’archeologia del sacro e l’archeologia del culto. Sabratha, Ebla, Ardea, Lanuvio. Ebla e la
Siriadall’età del bronzo all’età del ferro, Atti dei Convegni Lincei 304, Rome 2016, 223−256.
K. Kopetzky & M. Bietak, A Seal Impression of the Green Jasper Workshop from Tell el-Dab‘a, Egypt
and the Levant 26, Vienna 2016, 357−375.

2017
D.A. Aston & M. Bietak, Nubians in the Nile Delta: à propos Avaris and Peru-Nefer, in: N. Spencer & A.
Stevens (eds.), The New Kingdom in Nubia: Lived Experience, Pharaonic Control and Indigenous
Traditions, British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan 3, Leuven 2017, 489−522.

M. Bietak, Harbours and Coastal Military Bases in Egypt in the 2 nd Millennium BC: Avaris – Peru-nefer
– Piramesse, in: H. Willems & J.-M. Dahms (eds.), The Nile: Natural and Cultural Landscape in Egypt,
Bielefeld 2017, 53−70.

A.-L. Mourad, Asiatic and Levantine (-influenced) Products in Nubia: Evidence from the Middle
Kingdom to the Early Second Intermediate Period, Egypt and the Levant 27, Vienna 2017, 381−402.

2018
M. Bietak, The Giparu of Ur as a Paradigm for Gender-Related Temple Types in the Ancient Near East,
Eretz Israel 33, The Lawrence Stager Memorial Volume, Jerusalem 2018, *9−*24.

M. Bietak, Introduction to Palaces in Egypt: What they tell us about the Ruler, Administration and
Culture, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), Palaces in Ancient Egypt and the Ancient Near East Volume I:
Egypt, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 5, Vienna 2018, 23−38.

M. Bietak, A Thutmosid Palace Precinct at Peru-Nefer/Tell El-Dab‘a, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.),
Palaces in Ancient Egypt and the Ancient Near East Volume I: Egypt, Contributions to the Archaeology
of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 5, Vienna 2018, 231−257.

M. Bietak, The Many Ethnicities of Avaris: Evidence from the Northern Borderland of Egypt, in: J.
Budka & J. Auenmüller (eds.), From Microcosm to Macrocosm: Individual Households and Cities in
Ancient Egypt and Nubia, Leiden 2018, 73−92.

M. Bietak, “The Enigma of the Hyksos” (review article): Anna-Latifa Mourad, Rise of the Hyksos, Egypt
and the Levant from the Middle Kingdom to the Early Second Intermediate Period, Oxford 2015, in:
Bibliotheca Orientalis 75/3−4, Leuven 2018, 227−247.

M. Bietak & C. von Rüden, Contact Points: Avaris and Pi-Ramesse, in: J. Spier, T. Potts & S. Cole (eds.),
Beyond the Nile: Egypt and the Classical World, Los Angles 2018, 18−23.

E. Priglinger, The Role of Migration Theory in Egyptology, Journal of Ancient Egyptian

Interconnections 19, Tucson 2018, 22−42.

S. Vilain, Imitations et productions locales influencées par la céramique chypriote White Painted
Pendent Line Style à Tell el-Dab’a, Egypt and the Levant 28, Vienna 2018, 487−505.

2019

M. Bietak, Bubastis: A Palace for a King or a Provincial Administrative Centre?, in: M. Bietak, P.
Matthiae & S. Prell (eds.), Palaces in Ancient Egypt and the Ancient Near East Volume 2,
Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 8, Wiesbaden 2019, 204−238.

M. Bietak & D. Aston, Middle Bronze Age II Local and Imported Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware, in: S. Gitin
(ed.), The Ancient Pottery of Israel and its Neighbours from the Middle Bronze Age through the Late
Bronze Age, Vol. 3, Jerusalem 2019, 137−143, 420.
M. Bietak, The Obelisk-Temple in Byblos and its Predecessors, in: T. Waliszewski, D. Szeląg & A.
Pieńkowska (eds.), Stories Told Around the Fountain. Papers Offered to Piotr Bieliński on the Occasion
of his 70th Birthday, Warsaw 2019, 165−185.

M. Bietak, The Spiritual Roots of the Hyksos Elite: An Analysis of their Sacred Architecture, Part I, in:
M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 –
ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt,
Nubia and the Levant 9, Wiesbaden 2019, 45−64.

S. Gómez-Senovilla, Urban Morphology and Urban Syntax at Tell el-Dab’a, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell
(eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 – ICAANE Conference
Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9,
Wiesbaden 2019, 397−414.

E.S. Marcus, A Maritime Approach to Exploring the Hyksos Phenomenon, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell
(eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 − ICAANE Conference
Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9,
Wiesbaden 2019, 149−164.
N. Maaranen, H. Schutkowski, S. Zakrzewski, Ch. Stantis & A. Zink, The Hyksos in Egypt: A
Bioarchaeological Perspective in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I.
ASOR Conference Boston 2017 – ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions
to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9, Wiesbaden 2019, 315−320.
N. Maaranen, H. Schutkowski & S. Zakrzewski, Hidden in Bones: Tracking the Hyksos Across the
Levant in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston
2017 – ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of
Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9, Wiesbaden 2019, 339−352.
A.-L. Mourad, On Cultural Interference and the Egyptian Storm God, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.),
The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 – ICAANE Conference Munich
2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9,
Wiesbaden 2019, 225−238.

S. Prell, Macrolithics and the Ongoing Use of Stone Tools in Qantir-Piramesse and Tell el-Dabʿa-
Avaris, Eastern Delta/Egypt, in: A. Squitieri & D. Eitam (eds.), Stone Tools in the Ancient Near East and
Egypt. Ground Stone Tools, Rock-cut Installations and Stone Vessels from the Prehistory to Late
Antiquity, Oxford 2019, 225−235.

S. Prell, A Ride to the Netherworld − Bronze Age Equid Burials in the Fertile Crescent, in: M. Bietak &
S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 − ICAANE
Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and
the Levant 9, Wiesbaden 2019, 107−123.

S. Prell, Burial Customs as Cultural Marker – a “Global” Approach, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds .), The
Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 – ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 –
Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9, Wiesbaden
2019, 125−147.
S. Prell, ‘Buckle up and Fasten that Belt!’ Metal Belts in the Early and Middle Bronze Age, Egypt and
the Levant 29, Vienna 2019, 301−327.
S. Prell & L. Rahmstorf, Im Jenseits Handel betreiben. Areal A/I in Tell el-Dab’a/Avaris – die
hyksoszeitlichen Schichten und ein reich ausgestattetes Grab mit Feingewichten, in: M. Bietak & S.
Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 − ICAANE Conference
Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9,
Wiesbaden 2019, 165−197.
E. Priglinger, “One Ticket to Egypt, Please!” Migration from Western Asia to Egypt in the Early Second
Millennium BCE, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference
Boston 2017 − ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology
of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9, Wiesbaden 2019, 209−224.
E. Priglinger, Different Aspects of Mobility and Migration during the Middle Kingdom, Egypt and the
Levant 29, Vienna 2019, 331–353.
Ch. Stantis, G. Nowell, S. Prell & H. Schutkowski, Animal Proxies to Characterize the Strontium
Biosphere in the Northeastern Nile Delta, Bioarchaeology in the Near East 13, 2019, 1–13.

Ch. Stantis & H. Schutkowski, Stable Isotope Analyses to Investigate Hyksos Identity and Origins, in:
M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume I. ASOR Conference Boston 2017 −
ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt,
Nubia and the Levant 9, Wiesbaden 2019, 321−338.
S. Vilain, The Foreign Trade of Tell el-Dab’a during the Second Intermediate Period: Another Glance
at Imported Ceramics under Hyksos Rule, in: J. Mynářová, M. Kilani & S. Alivernini (eds.), A Stranger
in the House – the Crossroads III. Proceedings of an International Conference on Foreigners in Ancient
Egyptian and Near Eastern Societies of the Bronze Age held in Prague, September 10−13, 2018,
Warsaw 2019, 387−404.

S. Vilain, Is Imitation the Sincerest Form of Flattery? New Light on Local Productions Inspired by
Cypriot Wares at Tell el-Dab’a, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Vol. I. ASOR
Conference Boston 2017 – ICAANE Conference Munich 2018 – Collected Papers, Contributions to the
Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 9, Wiesbaden 2019, 305−314.

2020

M. Bietak, Why Radiocarbon Dates from Egyptian Funerary Contexts are Approximately Accurate
while those from Stratified Settlements are Precisely Wrong, in: J. Kamrin, M. Bárta, S. Ikram, M.
Lehner & M. Megahed (eds.), Guardian of Ancient Egypt, Essays in Honor of Zahi Hawass, Prague
2020, 235–245.

S. Prell, Hard to Pin Down – Clothing Pins in the Eastern Delta of Egypt and their Diffusion in the
Middle Bronze Age, Egypt and the Levant 30, Vienna 2020, 495–533.

C. Stantis, A. Kharobi, N. Maaranen, G. Nowell, M. Bietak, S. Prell & H. Schutkowski, Who were the
Hyksos? Challenging Traditional Narratives Using Strontium Isotope ( 87Sr/86Sr) Analysis of Human
Remains from Ancient Egypt, Plos ONE 15.07.2020, e0235414,
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235414.

Ch. Stantis & A.-L. Mourad, The Foreigner as Scapegoat: Lessons from Ancient Egypt and Today (Chris
Naunton Blog 2020) https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/the-foreigner-as-scapegoat-
lessons-from-ancient-egypt-and-today.

2021

M. Bietak, Recent Discussions about the Chronology of the Middle and the Late Bronze Ages in the
Eastern Mediterranean, Part II, The End of High Chronology in the Aegean and the Levant?
Bibliotheca Orientalis 77/3–4, Leuven 2021, 20–56.
M. Bietak, Did the Temple of Serabit el-Khadem Originate from an Earlier Canaanite Shrine?, in: Y.
Tristant & N. Buchez (eds.), Égypte Antérieure. Mélanges de préhistoire et d'archéologie offerts à
Béatrix Midant-Reynes par ses étudiants, collègues et amis, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 304,
Leuven 2021, 59–80.

M. Bietak, The Spiritual Roots of the Hyksos Elite: An Analysis of their Sacred Architecture, Part II, in:
M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume IV. Changing Clusters and Migration in
the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in Vienna 4 th–6th of December
2019, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 12, Wiesbaden 2021, 121–
147.

M. Bietak, “Willem Van Haarlem – An Appreciation,” in: B.J.L. van den Bercken (ed.), Egyptian Delta
Archaeology. Short Studies in Honour of Willem van Haarlem, Leiden 2021, 23–26. (deals with the
Temple of Tell Ibrahim Awad undergoing a change from a broad-room to a bent axis temple) and its
parallels in Jordan).

A. Kharobi, Ch. Stantis, N. Maaranen, C. Doumet-Serhal & H. Schutkowski, Once were Warriors:
Challenging Occupation Preconceptions in Lebanese Weapon-associated Burials (Middle Bronze Age,
Sidon), Journal of Osteoarchaeology 2021, 1−14, https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.3027.

S. Prell & L. Rahmstorf, Implications for Trade – Weights from Tell el-Dabʿa as Indicators of Eastern
Mediterranean Influence on Egypt, in: A. Kilian & M. Zöller-Engelhardt (eds.), Excavating the Extra-
Ordinary. Challenges and Merits of Working with Small Finds. Proceedings of the International
Egyptological Workshop at Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, 8–9 April 2019, Heidelberg 2021,
133−153.

H. Charaf, Looking for Cultural Borders during the Middle Bronze Age in Lebanon: Preliminary
Observations, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume IV. Changing Clusters
and Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in Vienna 4 th–6th
of December 2019, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 12, Wiesbaden
2021, 175−222.

S. Gómez-Senovilla, Duration or Cessation? Dealing with Temporal Uncertainty in the Study of

Ancient Settlements, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume IV. Changing
Clusters and Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in
Vienna 4th–6th of December 2019, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant
12, Wiesbaden 2021, 417−436.

A. Kharobi, N. Maaranen, C. Stantis, S. Zakrzewski & H. Schutkowski, Contribution of Bioanthropology

to Defining the Tell el-Dabʻa Population in the Eastern Delta: Preliminary Findings, in: M. Bietak & S.
Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume IV. Changing Clusters and Migration in the Near
Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in Vienna 4 th–6th of December 2019,
Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 12, Wiesbaden 2021, 477−490.

E.S. Marcus, The Functional and Social Role of the Levantine Painted Ware at Middle Bronze Age Tel
Ifshar, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume IV. Changing Clusters and
Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in Vienna 4 th–6th of
December 2019, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 12, Wiesbaden
2021, 333−364.

A.-L. Mourad, Transforming Egypt into the New Kingdom: The Movement of Ideas and Technology
across Geopolitical, Cultural and Social Borders, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the
Hyksos Volume IV. Changing Clusters and Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers
of a Workshop held in Vienna 4 th–6th of December 2019, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt,
Nubia and the Levant 12, Wiesbaden 2021, 457−476.

S. Prell, L. Rahmstorf & N. Ialongo, Weights and Weight Systems in Tell el-Dab‘a in the Middle and
Late Bronze Age, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume IV. Changing
Clusters and Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in
Vienna 4th–6th of December 2019, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant
12, Wiesbaden 2021, 437−456.

Ch. Stantis, A. Kharobi, N. Maaranen, C. Macpherson, M. Bietak, S. Prell & H. Schutkowski, Multi-
isotopic Study of Diet and Mobility in the Northeastern Nile Delta, Archaeological and
Anthropological Sciences 13, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01344-x.

S. Vilain, A Crisis? What Crisis? Challenging Times at Tell el-Dabʻa during the Second Intermediate
Period, in: M. Bietak & S. Prell (eds.), The Enigma of the Hyksos Volume IV. Changing Clusters and
Migration in the Near Eastern Bronze Age. Collected Papers of a Workshop held in Vienna 4 th–6th of
December 2019, Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 12, Wiesbaden
2021, 315−332.

(This list comprises only articles relevant to the ERC Advanced Grant Project ‘The Enigma of the
Hyksos’, many more articles are in press and in preparation).

The staff of the ERC Advanced Grant ‘The Enigma of the Hyksos’
Vienna Group Bournemouth Group
Manfred Bietak (PI, RT 1, 3) Holger Schutkowski (deputy PI, RT 7−8)
Silvia Prell (Coordinator, RT 3) Arwa Kharoby (RT 6, 8)
Rosa Matic (Administration) Nina Maraanen (RT 7−8)
Patrick Aprent (Plans and illustrations) Chris Stantis (RT 7−8)
Dominik Pascal Fill (Plans and illustrations)
Anna-Latifa Mourad (RT 5)
Elisa Priglinger (RT 2) External Researchers
Silvia Gómez-Senovilla (RT 4) Hanan Charaf (RT 3)
Sarah Tiphaine-Vilain (RT 6) Ezra S. Marcus (RT 3)