Abhinav Education Society’s

VISHWABHARATI MAHAVIDYLAYA
Department of Computer Application
Academic Year (2024-25) Class/Semester: BCA TY SEM-V
Name of Subject: Computer Network Prepared by: Mr. S. M. Mokale

a) Define Application of computer network.

Ans:

Definition & Applications of Computer Network:

Definition: “Computer network is a group of two or more computers or other electronic

devices that are interconnected either by a cable or a wireless connection for the purpose of
exchanging data and sharing resources (like software or printer).”

Applications of Computer Network:

1. Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource

sharing means you can share Hardware (printers, scanner etc.) and Software applications
among multiple users in a network.

2. Information Sharing: Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the
network, and it provides Search capabilities such as WWW. Over the network, single
information can be shared among the many users over the internet.

3. Communication: Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic

funds transfer system etc.

4. Online Education: In lockdown period of pandemic we use zoom, Google meet etc.
applications to continue our study this is make possible only with computer and mobile
networks.

5. Entertainment Industry: In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks

widely. Some of the Entertainment industries are movie theatre, Video on demand, Multi-
player games, cable or dish tv, etc.

6. Access to Remote Databases: Computer networks allow us to access the Remote

Database of the various applications by the end-users. Some applications are Reservation
for Hotels, Airplane Booking, Home Banking, Automated Newspaper, Automated Library
etc.
 7. Home applications: For example, managing bank accounts, transferring money to
some other banks, paying bills electronically. A computer network arranges a robust
connection mechanism between users.

8. Business work: The cloud computing manages all resource sharing. And the purpose of
resource sharing is that without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the
data, plans, and tools can be shared to any network user. Most of the companies are
doing business electronically with other companies and with other clients worldwide with
the help of a computer network. Even most of the IT companies are allocating and
submitting their work online to employees with work from home concept.

9. Mobile users: The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices
like notebook computers and PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device
means portable device. The computer network is widely used in new-age technology like
smart watches, wearable devices, tablets to make online transactions, purchasing or selling
products online, etc.

10. Social media: Social media is also a great example of a computer network application.
It helps people to share and receive any information related to political, ethical, and social
issues.

b) Describe Data Transmission Media with diagram.

Ans:

Communication Media:

There are a many communication media that are used to interconnect computers and
form a computer network.

Types of communication media:

 Coaxial cable
 Twisted pair cable
 Fiber-Optic cable
 Magnetic Media

1) Coaxial cable:
This cable widely used in digital cable TV network. The outer black hard plastic known as
outer jacket, The jacket covers braided outer conductor shield (twisted mesh of wires),
Insulating material made up with dielectric material (which is white in colour covered with
foil paper), then appears thick copper core wire which carries actual data.
  Coaxial cabling is extremely high resistant to EMI.
 It is complex to install because of its hard to bend capacity.

 It can handle much longer distance in lengths between network devices than the
twisted pair cable.
 Types: 1) thin coaxial 2) thick coaxial.

2) Twisted Pair Cable:

Twisted pair cable is used for Telephone as well as
computer LAN networks. Twisted pair cabling is a
form of wiring in which pairs of wires are twisted
together for the purposes of cancelling out
electromagnetic interference (EMI) from other wire
pairs and from external sources.

Types of twisted pair cable:

1) Shielded twisted pair (STP):

 Extra shied is used to provide more protection from EMI.

 It is costly than UTP cable.

2) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP):

 No extra shied used, only having 4 twisted pair wires with four colors.
 The most popular widely used type is UTP.
 UTP cable include eight copper wires covered by an insulating material.
 The cable size is small, and easy to bend and install.
 The price is less than other type of network cable.
 UTP cable is install using the Registered Jack (RJ 45) connector.
 Speed: CAT5 support up to 100Mbps. Where CAT7 supports 10Gbps.

3) Fiber optic cable:

Fiber optic cable does not use electric current but use laser light to carry data. This is
world’s fastest data transmission cable. It consists of a center glass core surrounded by
several layers of protective material. Optical fiber deployment is more expensive than
copper but offers higher speed and can cover longer distances.
 Picture Diagram

This cable consists of core, cladding and jacket. The core is made from the thin strands of
glass or plastic that can carry data over the long distance. The core is wrapped in the
cladding; and the cladding is wrapped in the jacket.

 Core carries the data signals in the form of the light.

 Cladding reflects light back to the core.
 The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.

Fiber optic cable has no current so that no EMI impact happened. This cable can transmit
data over a long distance at the highest speed. It can transmit data up to 40 km at the
speed of 100Gbps.

Types: 1) SMF (Single mode Fiber) 2) MMF

(Multi mode Fiber).

4) Magnetic Media :

One of the most convenient way to transfer data from one computer to another, even before the
birth of networking, was to save it on some storage media and transfer physical from one station
to another. Though it may seem old-fashion way in today’s world of high speed internet, but
when the size of data is huge, the magnetic media comes into play.

For example, a bank has to handle and transfer huge data of its customer, which stores a backup
of it at some geographically far-away place for security reasons and to keep it from uncertain
calamities. If the bank needs to store its huge backup data then its,transfer through internet is
not feasible.The WAN links may not support such high speed.Even if they do; the cost too high to
afford.

In these cases, data backup is stored onto magnetic tapes or magnetic discs, and then shifted
physically at remote places.
C) Wireless Transmission media – The Electromagnetic Spectrum, Radio
Transmission,Microwave Transmission,Infrared.

We are living in a world, where we can connect with friends within seconds no matter how far
they are. But this was not possible in earlier days. We all have heard and read that earlier
communication is very tough as sending a letter will require many days and sometimes months.
Today is not a case we have different types of medium which can transmit our message very
quickly. In this article, we will learn about transmission medium and after wireless
communication. Now, what is a transmission medium? Basically, it transmits signals or
messages from one computer to another computer. The transmission medium is further
divided into two types: Wired or Guided transmission media ( e.g.: Twisted pair cable, Ethernet
cable, Coaxial cable, and Optical fiber) and other is wireless or unguided transmission medium
(e.g.: Infrared, Radio link, Microwave link, Satellite link, Bluetooth, WIFI ).
In this article, we are more concerned about wireless communication. So, let’s begin
understanding wireless communication.

Wireless Communication

Wireless communication is also referred to as Unguided Media or Unbounded

transmission media. In this mode, no physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals. In wireless communication, we can transfer
our message through the air, water or vacuum i.e. Infrared, Radio wave, Microwave
wave. So, we don’t worry about the cables or any material to transfer messages, as
we can send out a message without and medium.
Wireless communication has advantages and also have disadvantages like it is less
secure if we talk about security.
Features
 No physical medium is required for transmission.
 It can carry signals through air, water, or vacuum.
 It can travel large distances but it is also less secure.
Let’s discuss some of its types:-

Infrared

Infrared is used for short-range communication like TV remotes, mobile phones,

personal computers etc. In science, the Infrared is part of a spectrum that is not
visible to the human eye. The limitation of infrared rays is that they cannot penetrate
any obstacles and can only use for short-range. Also, Infrared is used in night vision
cameras as it has thermal properties. The frequency range of infrared rays 300GHz –
400THz
Uses:
As we have already have discussed they are used in TV remotes, Pc devices like mice,
and keyboards.
Advantage and Disadvantage:
If we talk about the merit part of infrared then we can say Infrared is one of the
secure wireless communication mediums as it is used for short-range. Also, unlike
other wireless mediums, infrared is quite inexpensive, and this is some reason it is
used in many electronic devices.
Now, let’s talk about the disadvantaged part of Infrared waves so they can only be
used in short-range communication. Also, they cannot penetrate any obstacles like
walls or any building.

Radio Waves

So we have seen the limitation of infrared waves, so here’s another wireless

communication that does not have limitations like infrared. Here we are discussing
radio waves. that can travel large distances as well as can penetrate any wall ( Omni-
directional, these waves can move in all directions). These are easy to generate and
can penetrate through buildings. The requirement of radio waves is antennas,
sending antennas where one can transmit its message and the other is receiving
antennas. The frequency range of radio waves:3KHz – 1GHz. Also, radio waves of
frequency 300KHz-30MHz can travel long distances. Moreover, they are Susceptible
to interference meaning they can penetrate any walls.
Uses:
Radio waves are used in AM and FM radios, and cordless phones. Also, some private
and government organization reserves certain radio frequencies for direct
communication.
Advantage and Disadvantage:
Radio waves have some advantages like they can travel long distances in all
directions and can pass through any obstacles, and since they are wireless
communication mediums so there is no need of digging and spreading wires. But,
yes radio waves have some disadvantages too like radio waves are not effective in
bad weather conditions, and they are less secure as they can travel large distances.

Microwaves

Microwaves are a line of sight transmission, meaning both the antennas sending and
receiving should be properly aligned. Also, the distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Microwaves have a frequency
Range between 1GHz – 300GHz. Basically, we used Microwaves in mobile phones
communication and television distribution.
Unlike radio waves, they are unidirectional, as they can move in only one direction,
and therefore it is used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication
such as radar and satellite.
Uses:
Microwaves are used in mobile phones communication and television distribution.
Advantage and Disadvantage:
If we talk about the advantages of microwaves then we say that it is a very fast way
of communication, that can carry 25000 voice channels at the same time. Also, it is a
wireless communication medium so there is no need of digging and spreading wires.
Now demerits of microwaves are the first expense, their installation and maintenance
are very expensive. that turns this into a very expensive mode of communication.
Moreover, Microwaves are also not very effective in bad weather conditions.

Comparison of Infrared, Radio waves, Microwaves

S.no Infrared Radio Waves Microwaves

Infrared is used for short-

range communication like Radio waves are the type Microwaves are a line of
TV remotes, mobile of wireless sight transmission,
phones, personal communication that can meaning both the antennas
1
computers, etc. In science, travel large distances as sending and receiving
the Infrared is part of a well as can penetrate any should be properly
spectrum that is not visible wall aligned.
to the human eye

The frequency range of The frequency range of Microwaves have a

2 infrared rays 300GHz – radio waves:3KHz – frequency Range between
400THz 1GHz. 1GHz – 300GHz.

The limitation of infrared

rays is that they cannot
They are unidirectional, as
penetrate any obstacles
they can move in only one
and can only use for short- It can travel large
direction, and therefore it is
range. Also, Infrared is distances as well as can
3 used in point-to-point
used in night vision penetrate any wall (
communication or unicast
cameras as it has thermal Omni-directional,
communication such as
properties. The frequency
radar and satellite.
range of infrared rays
300GHz – 400THz

Infrared is one of the Radio waves can travel to Advantages of microwaves

secure wireless long distances so it is then we say that it is a very
4 communication mediums used for long distance fast way of communication,
as it is used for short- communication and there that can carry 25000 voice
range. Also, unlike other is no need of digging and channels at the same time.
S.no Infrared Radio Waves Microwaves

wireless mediums, infrared spreading wires. Also, it is a wireless

is quite inexpensive, and communication medium so
this is some reason it is there is no need of digging
used in many electronic and spreading wires.
devices.

Infrared waves are used in Microwaves are used in

Radio waves are used in
TV remotes, mobile mobile phones
5 AM and FM radios, and
phones, personal communication and
cordless phones.
computers television distribution.

What is an Electromagnetic Spectrum?

Consider the electromagnetic spectrum as a wide cosmic highway that

facilitates the movement of various kinds of light. There is a vast spectrum of
energy waves present in this, ranging from extremely short waves like X-rays to long,
languid waves like radio broadcasts. This spectrum extends beyond the light that our
eyes can detect.
The tiny portion of light that we can see, known as visible light, which includes every
color in the rainbow, is located exactly in the middle of this enormous spectrum. But
there’s so much more to it than that.
On one extreme are the incredibly small and intense gamma and X-rays, which are
employed in medicine to view the body and can penetrate through solid objects. The
radio waves, on the other hand, are like the long, slow waves that carry your favorite
radio station’s music through the air to your radio.

Electromagnetic Spectrum Definition

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of electromagnetic

radiation, which is energy that disperses and expands as it travels. This includes
everything from the visible light emitted by a household lamp to the radio
waves broadcast by radio stations, illustrating the diverse forms of electromagnetic
radiation.
Electromagnetic Waves
Waves created by the interaction of vibrating electric and magnetic fields are known
as electromagnetic waves. An oscillating electric and magnetic field makes up EM
waves.
A charged particle, in general, produces an electric field. This electric field exerts a
push on other charged particles. Positive charges accelerate in the field’s direction,
whereas negative charges accelerate in the opposite direction of the field. A
traveling charged particle creates a magnetic field.
This magnetic field exerts a push on other moving particles. Because
the force acting on these charges is always perpendicular to their movement, it only
affects the direction of the velocity, not the speed. As a result, a speeding charged
particle generates an electromagnetic field. Electromagnetic waves are nothing
more than electric and magnetic fields traveling at the speed of light c through
open space.
When a charged particle oscillates about an equilibrium location, it is said to be
accelerating. If the charged particle’s oscillation frequency is f, it creates an
electromagnetic wave of frequency f. The wavelength of this wave may be calculated
using the formula:
λ = c/f
Electromagnetic waves are a type of energy transfer that occurs in space.
Representation of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is a collection of frequencies, wavelengths, and
photon energies of electromagnetic waves spanning from 1Hz to 1025Hz,
equivalent to wavelengths ranging from a few hundred kilometres to a size
smaller than the size of an atomic nucleus.
The electromagnetic spectrum can thus be described as the range of all types of
electromagnetic radiation in basic terms. In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves
travel at the same speed as light. For different forms of electromagnetic waves,
however, the wavelengths, frequencies, and photon energy will vary.
Electromagnetic Spectrum Diagram

Terms Related to Electromagnetic Waves

The frequency (f), wavelength (λ), energy (E) of an electromagnetic wave are
related to each other as:
λ=c/f
f=E/h
E=hc/λ
where
 c=3×108m/s represents the speed of light in a vacuum
 h=6.626×10–34J.s represents Planck’s constant.
Electromagnetic Waves in Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays,
gamma rays, and cosmic rays make up the full range (electromagnetic spectrum) in
decreasing order of frequency and rising order of wavelength.
Radio Waves
 The rapid travel of charged particles across conducting wires causes these waves.
 Radio, television, and telecom signals are transmitted through them.
 These waves have a frequency range of around 3kHz to 300MHz.
 In the ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) band, cellular phones employ radio waves to
convey voice communication.
 Radio picks up radio waves that are broadcast by radio stations. Radio waves can
be emitted by gases and stars in space. The majority of radio waves are used for
TV and mobile communication.
Microwaves
 Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic radiation that has a frequency of a few
gigahertz (GHz).
 Klystrons, magnetrons, and Gunn diodes are unique vacuum tubes that produce
them.
 Microwaves are commonly utilised in aviation navigation due to their short
wavelengths.
 These rays are employed in microwaves, which aid in the heating of meals in
homes and offices. It’s also used by astronomers to figure out and understand the
structure of surrounding galaxies and stars.
Infrared Rays
 Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules and are thus referred
to as heatwaves.
 Infrared rays are near the low-frequency or long-wavelength end of the visible
light spectrum.
 The greenhouse effect caused by these rays is critical for maintaining global
warming and average temperatures.
 Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour trap these radiations
in the earth’s atmosphere.
 Night vision goggles make use of these radiations. Infrared light generated by
objects in the dark can be read and captured by these devices. Infrared light is
used to trace interstellar dust in space. Infrared radiation is emitted by electronic
devices and is commonly employed in remote switches for a variety of household
gadgets.
 d) Explain BUS, RING, TREE, STAR & MESH

Topology with diagram. Ans:

Network topologies- BUS, STAR, MESH:

Network Topology: “Network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and
connections in a network” and also called as structure or map of network.

Note: A node is any physical device within a network that can send, receive, or forward
information. Example- switches, routers, printers, computers, servers, etc.

 BUS Topology:

• First: This topology is the first topology among all, the bus topology is
designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single
cable known as a backbone cable.
• Simple: The configuration of a bus
topology is quite simpler as
compared to other topologies.
• The backbone cable is considered
as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the
stations. Start and end point of cable
terminator devices are used.
• Problem: The main problem faced in
implementing this topology is the fact
that only one communication
channel (cable)
exists to serve the entire network. As a result, if this channel fails, then the whole
network will go out of operation.

 STAR Topology:
• Star topology is an arrangement of
the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub or
switch networking device.
• Simple: It is simple and easy to maintenance
• Cables: Coaxial cable or UTP cables
are used to connect the computers.
• Star topology is the most popular
topology in network
implementation.
• Problem: The main disadvantage of
 this is if central device failed
suddenly complete network collapse.
 Mesh Topology
• Mesh: It is an arrangement of the
network in which computers are
interconnected with each other
through various redundant
connections. There are multiple
paths from one computer to another
computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub
or any central computer which acts
as a central point of communication.
• Wireless: Mesh topology is mainly
used for wireless networks like
satellite network.
1. RING Topology:

 Ring: Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with circle shape. The node that receives
the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node. It has no
termination (end) point like bus topology.

 Types: The data flows in one direction on one cable, i.e., it is single Ring
architecture. The data flows in both direction in two cable, it is dual Ring
architecture.
 Token: The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction. The most common
access method of the ring topology is token passing. Token is a signal which
rotates across the ring, ‘Who has token only those computer can send or receive data.’

What is Tree Topology?

A tree topology is a sort of structure in which each node is related to the others in a hierarchy. In a
topological hierarchy, there are at least three distinct levels. Sometimes it is also called hierarchical
topology as in this topology, all elements are arranged like the branches of a tree. It is a lot like the star
and bus topologies. Tree topologies are commonly used to arrange data in databases and workstations
in corporate networks. In a tree topology, any two linked nodes can only have one mutual connection,
hence there can only be one link between them.

o A tree topology combines several star topologies by connecting several components to the
centre node.
o It may define by experts as tree topology is a combination of bus and star topologies in
which all nodes are attached with the help of a single central node.
o Every node in this architecture is connected one to one in a hierarchy level, with each
neighbouring node on its lower level. Each secondary node has a point-to-point link to the
parent node, and all secondary nodes under its jurisdiction have point-to-point connections
to the tertiary nodes. When examined in a visual sense, these systems resemble a tree
structure.
The disadvantage of a tree topology is that if the primary node is damaged, the entire system can be
crippled, because all other nodes are connected to the primary node.

e) Explain LAN, MAN, WAN in

detail. Ans:

Network Types LAN, MAN, WAN :

1) LAN (Local Area Network):
 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small
area using small amount of computers such as in room, building, and office.
 LAN is structured and arranged by network topologies such as BUS, RING, STAR, etc
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a wired
communication medium such as coaxial, twisted pair, Fiber Optic cables.
 LAN can be connecting with the help of wireless media such as Bluetooth, Micro
waves, Radio waves, Wi-Fi, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, switch, and
cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.
 Example: Office, School & College computer laboratories, Cyber café network,
Small business network.

2) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
 A network which can applied on city level to provide some services all those
networks can be considered as MAN.
 It has a larger geographical area than Local Area Network (LAN).
 Example: Cable TV Network, Landline Telephone exchange line, Mobile cellular
company network, Internet Service Provider, CCTV Camera network by police
Department, etc.

3) WAN (Wide Area Network):

 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries.
 A Wide Area Network is much bigger network than the LAN and MAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
 Example: The internet that is WWW service is applied on one of the biggest type of
network in the world that is WAN.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

f) What is Protocol Hierarchies? Explain in

detail. Ans:

Protocol Hierarchies:
A Protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication.
Rules are basically defined for each and every step and process at time of communication
among two or more computers. In a network there are multiple protocols are used to
make data communication successfully in between all nodes or computers of a network.

All protocols might be implemented using hardware, software, or combination of both of

them. When one computer send data towards another computer data travels from screen
of the user to physical cable and receiving from physical cable to appearing on screen of a
computer. When data travels, it goes thought various protocols, such as when data appear
on screen a particular protocols will take care and when it processes by Operating System
and send towards cable there are another some special protocols used. The working
category of protocols defined by the layers.

To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers or
levels, each one built upon the one below it. The number of layers, the name of each
layer, the contents of each layer, and the function of each layer differ from network to
network. The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers while
shielding those layers from the details of how the offered services are actually
implemented. In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services to
the layer above it.

This concept is actually a familiar one and is used throughout computer science, where it
is variously known as information hiding, abstract data types, data encapsulation, and
object-oriented programming. The fundamental idea is that a particular piece of software
(or hardware) provides a service to its users but keeps the details of its internal state and
algorithms hidden from them. When layer n on one machine carries on a conversation
with layer n on another machine, the rules and conventions used in this conversation are
collectively known as the layer n protocol.

A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture. The diagram shows
communication between Host 1 and Host 2. The data is passed through a number of
layers from one host to other. Virtual communication is represented using dotted lines
between layers. Physical communication is represented using solid arrows between
adjacent layers. Through physical medium, actual communication occurs. The layers at
same level are commonly known as peers.
 Figure-A five-layer network.

The peers may be software processes, hardware devices, or even human beings. In other
words, it is the peers that communicate by using the protocol to talk to each other. The
peer basically has a set of communication protocols.
An interface is present between each of layers that are used to explain operations and
services provided by lower layer to higher layer.

Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it,
until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which
actual communication occurs. In above Figure, virtual communication is shown by dotted
lines and physical communication by solid lines.

Advantages:
 The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks
 It increases network lifetime.
 It also uses energy efficiently.
 It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

g) Explain ISO/OSI Model in

detail. Ans:

OSI reference model:

h) The OSI model is developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

i) The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference
j) Model, we will just call it the OSI model for short.
k) This model formed in year 1983 as a first step toward international
standardization of the protocols used in the various layers.
l) The OSI model has seven layers.
7. The Application Layer:
This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user. Software applications
like web browsers and email clients rely on the application layer to initiate
communications. Application layer protocols include HTTP, FTP as well as SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that enables email communications).

6. The Presentation Layer:

This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be used by the
application layer. The presentation layer is responsible for translation, encryption, and
compression of data like MPEG, JPEG formats.

 Translation: Two communicating devices communicating may be using different

encoding methods.
 Encryption: it can present the application layer with unencrypted, readable data.
 Compression: This helps improve the speed and efficiency of communication by
minimizing the amount of data that will be transferred.

5. The Session Layer:

This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication between the two
devices. The time between when the communication is opened and closed is known as the
session. The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with checkpoints.

4. The Transport Layer:

 End-to-end communication between the two devices.
 Breaking it up into chunks called segments before sending it to layer 3.
 Reassembling the segments into data the session layer can consume.
 Flow control and error control
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are
used here.

3. The Network Layer:

The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two different
networks. If the two devices communicating are on the same network, then the network
layer is unnecessary. The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into
smaller units, called packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling these packets on
the receiving device. The network layer also finds the best physical path for the data to
reach its destination; this is known as routing. IP protocol works under this layer

2. The Data Link Layer

The data transfer between two devices on the same network. The data link layer takes data
from the network layer and breaks them into smaller pieces called frames. Like the
network layer, the data link layer is also responsible for flow control and error control in
intra-network communication (The transport layer only does flow control and error
control for inter-network communications). The point to point protocol, switch and
bridge networking devices are works under this layer.
1. The Physical Layer
This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data transfer, such as the cables
and switches. This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream,
which is a string of 1s and 0s. The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal
convention so that the 1s can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.

h) Explain TCP/IP Model in

detail. Ans:

TCP/IP Reference Model:

The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to
describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components.
 The TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by Department of Defense (DoD)
in 1960s
 It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
 It is based on standard protocols.
 The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model.
 It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model.

Fig. The TCP/IP Reference Model

1. Link Layer –
This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI
model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows
for the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict about
declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described as
residing in layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2 protocols.
2. Internet Layer –
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using
currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number
when compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of
a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.

3. Transport Layer –
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-
end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications
from the complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of
data. It also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through flow
control mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such
features. Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such
features. It is the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable transport as
it is very cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is
connectionless.

4. Application Layer –
This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and
controls user-interface specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP,
HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window, and LPD.
Have a look at Protocols in Application Layer for some information about these protocols.
Protocols other than those present in the linked article are:
1. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS
stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL (Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate and carry
out bank transactions.
2. SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
3. NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server
records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
 i) Explain Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet in

detail. Ans:

Network Standards:

A) Ethernet:

Ethernet is a type of communication protocol that is created at Xerox PARC in 1973 by

Robert Metcalfe and others, which connects computers on a network over a wired
connection. It is a widely used LAN protocol, which is also known as Aloha Network. It
connects computers within the local area network and wide area network. Numerous
devices like printers and laptops can be connected by LAN and WAN within buildings,
homes, and even small neighborhoods.

Types of Ethernet:

10Base2:
 10Base2 is sometimes referred to as ThinNet (or “thin coax”) because it uses thin
coaxial cabling for connecting stations to form a network.
 10Base2 supports a maximum bandwidth of 10 Mbps.

10Base5:
 10Base5 is sometimes referred to as ThickNet because it uses thick coaxial cabling
for connecting stations to form a network. Another name for 10Base5 is Standard
Ethernet because it was the first type of Ethernet to be implemented.
 10Base5 supports a maximum bandwidth of 10 Mbps.
10BaseT:
 10BaseT is the most popular form of 10-Mbps Ethernet, using unshielded twisted-
pair (UTP) cabling for connecting stations, and using hubs to form a network.
 10BaseT supports a maximum bandwidth of 10 Mbps. 10BaseF
10BaseF:
 10BaseF is different from other 10-Mbps Ethernet technologies because it uses
fiber- optic cabling instead of copper unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling.
B) Fast Ethernet:
 Fast Ethernet is a version of Ethernet standards, initiated in 1995 as IEEE 802.3u.
 Fast Ethernet focused on increased network and network appliance speed over standard
Ethernet and Ethernet devices.
 Fast Ethernet provided uniform operability for data transmission at over 100 megabits
per second.
 It is designed for 100 Base T networks and is also compatible with 10 Base T networks,
allowing users to benefit from faster Ethernet speeds (with the use of compatible
switches) without having to completely upgrade their network systems.
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cabling such as Category 5 and higher rated cables can
run on Fast Ethernet devices. However, the maximum length and effectiveness of UTP
cabling is 100 meters and bandwidth can be limited.
o 100BaseTX: This is a twisted pair cable and offer a speed of 100 Mbps.
 Fiber optic transmission allows for longer distance and greater bandwidth capacity over
UTP cabling, permitting Fast Ethernet network appliances and devices to deliver at full
potential.
o 100Base FX: Fiber optic protocol which offers a speed of 100 Mbps.

C) Gigabit Ethernet
 Gigabit Ethernet is the latest version of Ethernet standards, initiated in 1999 as IEEE
802.3ab and in 2004 as IEEE 802.3ah. Gigabit Ethernet provided uniform standards for
1000 megabits per second, or 1 gigabit per second, network transmission.
 Standard IEEE 802.3ab: It defined Gigabit Ethernet’s applicability for 1000 Base T
networks and allowed use of existing UTP cabling. The IEEE 802.3ab standard certified
Gigabit Ethernet applicability for both industry and desktop users working with the
existing Category 5 cables.
 Standard IEEE 802.3ah: It certified for fiber optic transmissions.
o 1000Base SX: Fiber optic protocol which used for multimode networks.
o 1000Base LX: Fiber optic protocol which used for singlemode networks.

Gigabit Ethernet network appliances and devices can transfer data packets at rates
much faster than Fast Ethernet. A Fast Ethernet switch can transfer data packets at a
rate of 10 to 100 megabits per second where a Gigabit Ethernet switch can transfers
data packets at relatively higher speeds of one gigabit per second.
 In comparison, a Gigabit Ethernet switch can transfer data packets at around 100 times
faster than a Fast Ethernet switch. Gigabit Ethernet can meet increasingly complex
network demands such as connecting multiple bandwidth-intensive devices and
broadband internet connections for video streaming.
 Gigabit Ethernet applications include gigabit switches that can manage data transfer
between multiple IP security cameras and network appliances, and gigabit switches that
support video and other high-quality signal transfer between home servers and high-
 definition televisions and monitors.

J)Explain Wireless LAN

What is Wireless LAN in computer networks?

A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), also known as a Wireless LAN, is a network comprising
two or more computing devices that communicate through radio waves without the need for
physical connections. This stands in contrast to a local area network (LAN) that employs wired
connectivity, whereby every computer within the network is physically linked to the network
switch or hub via an Ethernet cable

The majority of WLANs

are established on the IEEE 802.11 standard.

Wireless LANs are further classified into two categories, these are:

1. Ad-hoc Wireless LANs

Ad hoc networks are formed by a group of wireless nodes that establish peer-to-peer
communication. The ad-hoc mode has been designed to allow communication only among
clients within the transmission range, i.e., within the same cell.
If a client wants to communicate outside the cell, then it’s a must that one of the cells acts as the
gateway and performs routing.

2. Wireless LANs with Infrastructure

Wireless LANs with infrastructure are equipped with a backbone that operates at high speeds
and can be wired or wireless. Access points serve as the intermediary between wireless nodes
and the wired backbone. The utilization of access points allows the proficient transfer of network
resources among wireless nodes.
Before transmitting information, wireless devices such as clients and access points are required to
establish a relationship or association. Data exchange between two wireless stations can only
occur once an association has been established.

K) Explain Bluetooth :

Bluetooth wireless technology is a short range communications technology intended to replace

the cables connecting portable unit and maintaining high levels of security. Bluetooth technology
is based on Ad-hoc technology also known as Ad-hoc Pico nets, which is a local area network
with a very limited coverage.

History of Bluetooth

WLAN technology enables device connectivity to infrastructure based services through a wireless
carrier provider. The need for personal devices to communicate wirelessly with one another
without an established infrastructure has led to the emergence of Personal Area Networks
(PANs).

 Ericsson's Bluetooth project in 1994 defines the standard for PANs to enable
communication between mobile phones using low power and low cost radio interfaces.
 In May 1988, Companies such as IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba joined Ericsson to form the
Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) whose aim was to develop a defacto standard for
PANs.
 IEEE has approved a Bluetooth based standard named IEEE 802.15.1 for Wireless Personal
Area Networks (WPANs). IEEE standard covers MAC and Physical layer applications.

Bluetooth specification details the entire protocol stack. Bluetooth employs Radio Frequency
(RF) for communication. It makes use of frequency modulation to generate radio waves in
the ISM band.

The usage of Bluetooth has widely increased for its special features.

 Bluetooth offers a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and
communicate with each other.
  Bluetooth technology has achieved global acceptance such that any Bluetooth enabled
device, almost everywhere in the world, can be connected with Bluetooth enabled devices.
 Low power consumption of Bluetooth technology and an offered range of up to ten
meters has paved the way for several usage models.
 Bluetooth offers interactive conference by establishing an adhoc network of laptops.
 Bluetooth usage model includes cordless computer, intercom, cordless phone and mobile
phones.

L) Explain internet- Internet Service Provider(ISP),internet

addressing system : IP Address, DNS, URL ?

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With the
Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in the
world, and do much more.

You can do all of this by connecting a computer to the Internet, which is also
called going online. When someone says a computer is online, it's just another way of saying it's
connected to the Internet.