CHAPTER 4 : AGRICULTURE• FOOD SUPPLY• POPULATION

GROWTH.

Classification Of Plants.
Plants can be classified into :-
1. Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials.
2. Based on their agricultural purposes.

1. Annuals, Biennials and Perennials.

Annuals.
This plants complete their entire lifecycle and die within one growing season.
Examples include rice, wheat, maize, bean, flax, jute, and sunflower.
Biennials.
This plants complete their entire lifecycle and die within two growing seasons.
Examples include Pepper, carrot, onion, ginger, radish, and turnip.
Perennials.
This plants complete their entire lifecycle and die, for a long period of time. They
include trees, shrubs, and herbs.
Examples of Perennials are ginger, onion, rubber, oil palm, cocoa, mango, coconut, and
banana.

2. Based On Agricultural Purposes.

These include :-
1. Cereals.
Examples include maize, rice, millet, guinea corn, and wheat.
2. Legumes.
They are important source of Proteins.
Examples are bean, groundnut, cowbean, soyabean, oil bean, Lima bean, and pigeon
pea.
3. Root Crops.
Examples include cassava, yam, and sweet potato.
4. Vegetables.
They supply/ are rich sources of Vitamins.
Examples include tomato, okra, onion, pepper, and spinach.
5. Fruits.
They are rich sources of Vitamin A and C.
Examples are orange, Pineapple, banana, plantain, mango, pawpaw, and native pea.
6. Beverages and drugs.
Examples include cocoa, coffee, tobacco, and quinine.
Note :—> Cocoa and coffee, are food drinks, tobacco is a stimulant, and quinine is
used as medicine.
 7. Spices.
Examples are pepper, ginger, cinnamon, and cloves.
8. Forage Crops.
These are crops that animals feed on. Examples are grasses, and legumes.
9. Latex.
It is used for making natural rubber.
10. Fibres.
They are used for making ropes and cloth. Examples are Jute, hemp, and cotton.

Soil.
Soil is made up of soil Particles, humus, water, Air, Mineral salts, and Soil organisms.
Soil is formed by the gradual breaking up of rocks into small pieces. This is known as
“Weathering”.
We shall now consider each of the soil component, one after the other :-
a. Soil Particles.
These are the Products of weathering. They include clay, sand, loamy, gravel. OR
Stone, sand (fine sand and coarse sand), silt, and clay.
The order of increasing masses / size of soil Particles, is shown below :-
Clay —> Silt —> Fine sand —> Coarse sand —> Stone.
OR
Clay —> Loamy —> Sand —> Gravel.
b. Humus.
This composition of the soil is formed from the decomposition of plants and
animals remains, thereby forming a layer of black jelly-like Organic material
called “humus”, over the soil.
It increases the water retaining ability of the soil.
They also help to enrich the soil, when they are broken down / degraded by
decomposers.
c. Air.
They help to provide oxygen for the soil, which plants or tiny soil organisms make
use of, for cellular respiration.
d. Mineral salts.
They come from soil Particles, and also, they come from the break down
(decomposition) of dead organic matter by decomposers in the soil.
They also help to enrich the soil, but they do so directly, without needing
decomposers to break them down further.

Soil Profile.
This is the vertical section of the soil. It consists of three (3) layers / sections :-
1. Top soil.
2. Subsoil.
3. Parent rock.
 Soil Characteristics.
1. Sandy Soil.
a. It has very little humus.
b. It is well are aerated.
c. Water drains through it easily / quickly.
d. It is not a good soil for crop cultivation.
e. It has large particles.

2. Loamy Soil.
a. It has plenty of humus.
b. It allows water to drain through it moderately.
c. It is well aerated.
d. It is rich in plant nutrients, therefore, it is suitable for crop cultivation.
e. Its particles are of moderate size.

3. Clayey Soil.
a. It has moderate humus content.
b. It is poorly aerated.
c. Water does not drain through it, therefore it absorbs water, making it
water logged.
d. It is not a good soil for crop cultivation.
e. It has fine particles.

Soil Erosion.
This is the wearing away and removal of fertile topsoil from an area, by wind and water
(during a heavy rainfall).
Note :—> The effects of soil erosion, is that it hinders (stops) the growth of plants.
Soil erosion is due to bad farming practices, which include :-
a. Overgrazing of Pastures.
b. Continual cropping.
c. Exposing soil surface for long period of time.
Soil erosion can be prevented by “good farming practices “, such as :-
1. Mulching.
2. Contour Ploughing or Ploughing.
3. Building Terraces (Terracing).
4. Using Wind breaks.

Soil Fertility
A naturally Fertile soil is one that :-
a. Has adequate humus and mineral salts.
b. Has the correct proportions of sand and clay particles.
c. Has a good crumb Structure.
d. Is well drained and aerated.
e. Is neutral or slightly alkaline.
Note :—> Acidic soils are not fertile, because acidity makes the mineral salts of such
soils very soluble, making it out of reach for plants use.
Note :
The main / major cause of loss of soil fertility, is called “Continuous farming “, and these
loss of fertility from soils, can be solved by adding Fertilizers, organic manures, to the
soils, and also, by practicing good farming systems, e.g crop rotation.

Effect Of Agricultural activities on an Ecosystem.

1. Tillage.
It is necessary for crop cultivation, because :-
a. It increases the ability of the soil to absorb water.
b. It prepares a seed bed for crops.
c. It allows air into the soil.
d. It removes weeds.
However, Tillage must be done in such a way to avoid damage to the soil Structure, and
and also cause land erosion.
2. Fertilizers / Organic manure.
These are substances added to soil, to maintain its Fertility. They must be added in
correct proportions, so as to prevent damage to the soil Structure.
3. Pesticides.
These include herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. They are used to kill / control
pests.
Their disadvantage is that they kill both the harmful organisms, as well as the harmless
and beneficial organisms, in an ecosystem.
4. Bush burning.
a. It leads to the destruction of plant communities in an ecosystem.
b. The animals that lives in the plant community will either be killed, or driven to
other suitable areas.
c. The important humus layer of the soil will be burnt away, leading to low soil
fertility.
Bush burning should therefore be restricted. The cleared / burnt land should be
Protected by mulch, and crop rotation should be practiced on the land. When
necessary, farmyard manure and fertilizers should be added to the land.
5. Natural and Farming Ecosystems.
These are the different ways in which farmers plant their crops. They may be both
beneficial and harmful.
Types :-
They include :-
1. Shifting Cultivation.
This is a system of farming in which a piece of land is cultivated, and then allowed to
go fallow for a minimum years of two (2). If the land is allowed to go fallow for about
15 years, it is called “Bush fallow System “.
Advantages.
1. It prevents soil erosion.
2. It helps to renew or maintain soil fertility.
3. It prevents pest and diseases of the crops, during the fallow seasons.
4. Fertilizers are usually not necessary.
Disadvantages.
1. It destroys plant communities.
2. Labour is needed to clear the fallow farmland.
3. It cannot be practiced where there is scarcity of land.

2. Crop Rotation.
This is the system of rotating crops from year to year, on a particular land.
Advantages.
1. Soil nutrients are properly used.
2. It helps to renew / restore soil fertility by the activities of the leguminous crops,
which are also used for the crop rotation.
3. It discourages the growth of crop pests, since different crops are being rotated.
Disadvantages.
1. It cannot give room for mechanized farming.
2. It may lead to the use of Fertilizers because of continuous cropping on a piece of
land.

3. Mono cropping or Mono culture.

This is the system of growing one particular crop on a piece of land, year after year.
Advantages.
1. It encourages mechanized farming.
2. It leads to a high yield of a particular crop.
3. It leads to specialization in managing a specific crop effectively.
Disadvantages.
i. It encourages the spread of Pests and diseases among the particular crops.
ii. It causes soil erosion.
iii. Large quantities of Fertilizers are needed.
iv. If diseases occur, it may lead to crop failure, i.e, spread of diseases among crops.

4. Mixed Cropping.
This is the system of mixing or cultivating different types of crops on the same land,
year after year.
Advantages.
i. It discourages the spread of Pests and diseases.
ii. It makes room for continuous harvesting.
iii. It produces plant cover, since the crops are harvested at different times.
Disadvantages.
1. It discourages mechanization (mechanized farming).

5. Pastoral Farming.
This is a system in which livestocks graze on plants.
 Advantages.
a. It provides food for livestock, hence increases their chances of survival.
Disadvantages.
a. Too much overgrazing of plants by livestocks makes the land
bare, thereby leading to soil erosion.

6. Mixed Farming.
This is the system of growing both livestocks, and crops together.

Pests and Diseases Of Agricultural Importance.

Pests are undesirable organisms that attacks crops, thereby decreasing their productivity.
Pests may be plants or animals. Plant pests are known as “Weeds”. The most important
animal Pests are “insects”. Other animal Pests include mites, nematodes, snails, birds,
and rodents.

Pests Of Crops.
Examples of Plants / Crops Pests include :-
1. Stem borers.
They are pests of cereal crops, e.g maize and rice. An example of stem borer, is the
larva of a moth.
2. Root feeders.
These pests feed on the roots of crops. An example is the yam beetle, which feeds
on the root of yam, and also the Eeelworm or nematodes.
3. Lead feeders.
These pests feed on the leaves of crops.
Examples are snails, leaf-feeding beetles, caterpillars of various moths and
butterflies, grasshoppers, and locusts.
4. Young shoot feeders.
These pests feed on the young shoot of crops. Examples are insects such as mealy
bugs[a.k.a “cassava mealy bugs”; because it feeds on the young shoot of cassava],
aphids, and scale insects.
5. Fruit and seed feeders.
These pests feed on the fruit and seed of crops. Examples include ; fruit -piercing
moths, fruits flies, cotton stainers, and certain beetles, e.g the red boll-worm, and
the larva of a moth.

Pest Control.
The methods of controlling Pests include :-
1. Physical methods.
This involves using Physical agents (non-living) to kill pests, e.g —> using traps, burning,
flooding, and using deterrents such as bird scarers to keep away birds that feed on
grains and fruits.
2. Cultural methods.
This method involves the use of the various farm practices, to kill pests.
 3. Biological methods.
This involves using Physical agents (living), to kill pests.
4. Modern trends in pest Control.
This method involves making the male pests sterile, so as to reduce the pests
population.

Weeds.
These are undesirable plants that compete with crops, for space and nutrients. Examples
are :-
1. Grasses, e.g carpet grass, and elephant grass.
2. Members of the sunflower family, e.g goat weed, Emilia, and Tridax.
3. Others like mimosa pudica (sensitive plant), Desmodium, and Cyperus.
Weeds may be controlled :-
1. Mechanically by hand pulling, hoeing, tilling, mowing, or burning.
2. By Crop rotation.
3. Biologically, by using the natural enemies of weeds.
4. Chemically, by using herbicides.

Diseases Of Crops.
Some Crop Diseases.
a. Fungal diseases.
Examples are rice blast, maize rust, blight, root rot, and doway mildew.
b. Viral Diseases.
Examples are Banana bunchy top disease, cocoa swollen shoot disease, cassava
mosaic disease, groundnut rosette, mosaic mottling, lesions, chlorosis, stunting, and
necrosis.
c. Bacterial Diseases.
Examples are cassava wilt, bacterial blight, bacterial wilt, leaf spots, bacterial falls, and
soft rot.

Control Of Diseases Of Crops.

i. By use of Chemicals :—> [Chemical method].
ii. Cultural methods :—> i.e, through farming methods / practices.
iii. Physical methods :—> By using Physical agents (non-living), to prevent crop
diseases.

Pests and Parasites Of Farm Animals.

Examples are :-
i. Ticks.
▪ They are arthropods.
▪ They are ectoparasites.

ii. Trypanosomes.
▪ Their vectors are “tse-tse flies”.
▪ They cause a disease known as “Trypanosomiasis”.
▪ They are endoparasites.
▪ They complete their lifecycle in two hosts :-
a. Primary host :—> tse-tse fly.
b. Secondary host :—> humans, and farm animals.

iii. Liver fluke.

▪ They are endoparasites.
▪ Their larva form, are referred to as “miracidia”, while their worm-like form, is referred
to as “cerceria”.
▪ They complete their lifecycle in two hosts :-
a. Primary host :—> Farm Animals.
b. Secondary / Intermediate host :—> Water snail.

Control Of Pests and Parasites Of Animals.

1. Control Of Ticks :—> By :-
a. Using insecticides.
b. Fumigating their breeding places with insecticides, to completely eradicate
them.
2. Control Of Trypanosomes :—> By :-
a. Clearing bushes (i.e, their breeding places).
b. Using insecticides.
c. Using medications to treat infected farm animals, to prevent their spread.
3. Control Of liver flukes :—> By :-
a. By killing the water snails (their intermediate host), using chemicals like
copper sulphate.
b. Destroying the breeding places of water snails.
c. Treating infected farm animals with carbon tetrachloride, so as to prevent
their spread.

Diseases Of Farm Animals.

1. Viral Diseases.
Examples are ; Rinderpest, Newcastle disease.
2. Bacterial Diseases.
Example include “Bovine dermatophilosis”.
3. Protozoan Diseases.
An example is “Coccidiosis”.

Food Supply.
Methods Of Preserving Food.
1. Canning.
Note :—> All nutrients are not affected or destroyed, when canning method is used to
Preserve food, except Vitamin C.

2. Freeze-drying.

3. Pasteurization :-
This is used to preserve milk, by heating it to 72°C for 15 seconds, and then cooling it
rapidly.

4. Freezing :-
This prevents the spoilage of food, by preventing the growth of microorganisms.
Note :—> This method does not destroy the nutritive content of foods, but sometimes
destroys the vitamin contents in foods.

5. Refrigeration.
This method is used to slow down the spoilage of food, but does not prevent it.

6. Fermentation :-
Note :—> Fermentation is used to remove cyanide (a Poisonous substance) found in
cassava.

7. Irradiation.

8. Salting and Smoking.

a. Salting.
This is used to kill microorganisms, thereby preserving the food.
b. Smoking.
This is used to dry or remove moisture, to reduce the effects of microorganisms
by making their survival difficult, thereby preserving the food.

9. Drying.
The essence of drying, is to reduce the water content in foods, thereby preserving
(concentrating) it’s nutrients, thereby preserving the food.

10. Chemical Preservation.

This involves the use of chemicals, to preserve food, by slowing the growth of spoilage
microorganisms. Examples of such chemicals are ; salt, sugar, vinegar, chemicals in
wood smoke, Sodium benzoate, nitrites, and sulphides.

Population Growth and Food Supply.

The factors that affects population growth in developed countries, include :-
1. A high percentage of adults.
2. Long life spans.
3. Low birth rate.
4. Low infant mortality rate.
5. Low death rate.
The factors that affects Population growth in developing countries, include :-
1. A high percentage of young people (under 20 years).
2. Short life spans.
3. High birth rate.
4. High infant mortality rate.
 CHAPTER 5 : ——> BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS.
Ecology can be defined as the study of living organisms in relation to their environment.

Organization Levels in Ecology.

Population ——> Community ——> Ecosystem ——> Biosphere.

Note :-
▪ The smallest level / unit in Ecology, is called “Population”.
▪ The largest level / unit in Ecology, is called “Biosphere”.
Question.
1. Which of the following is the correct sequence in Ecology :-
(A) Biosphere > Community > Population > Ecosystem.
(B) Biosphere > Population > Ecosystem > Community.
(C) Ecosystem > Biosphere > Community > Population.
(D) Biosphere > Ecosystem > Community > Population.
Answer.
When given questions (generally also) on this form of sequence, the above sign (< or >) will
indicate how the sequence follows ;—> If it is >, it means arrange it from the largest to the
smallest, while if it is <, it means arrange it from the smallest to the largest.
:. The Correct answer is Option (D).

Definition of Basic Terms in Ecology.

1. Population.
Population refers to the number of organisms of the same kind ( species) living in
the same habitat.
2. Community.
This refers to a collection of all the populations of different kind of organisms that
exist in the same habitat.
3. Biosphere.
This is the part of the earth where life can be found.
Biosphere also refers to a collection of several Ecosystems.
Biosphere is composed of three (3) Parts :-
i. The Atmosphere —> This is the zone of the Biosphere that contains air.
ii. The Hydrosphere —> This is the zone of the Biosphere that is composed of water.
iii. Lithosphere —> This is the solid part of the Biosphere / Earth.
Note :-
The Part of the Biosphere that contains the largest / highest number of organisms, is
called the “Hydrosphere”, followed by “Lithosphere”, while “Atmosphere” has the
least number of organisms.
4. Ecosystem.
This refers to a collection of several communities.
 It is the level of organization in Ecology which is made up of Biotic Factors ( living
things), and Abiotic Factors ( non-living things).
5. Environment.
This refers to the factors ( Biotic & Abiotic) that affects an organism in its habitat.
6. Habitat.
This is the dwelling place of an organism. It can be of two forms ; “Aquatic ( water)
habitats”, or “Terrestrial (land) habitats”.
7. Ecological Niche.
This is the exact dwelling place of an organism in a habitat. E.g,
a. The Ecological niche of caterpillar is the leafs of plants.
b. The Ecological niche of aphids is the young shoot of plants.

Population Studies.
Terms in Population Studies.
1. Population Size.
This deals with how large the population is.
2. Population Density.
This is the average number of individuals of a species per unit area of the habitat.
P.D = Number of species (Population size).
Area of Habitat.

Questions.
1. The number of elephant grass species of a farmland community is 2000, at an area
of 5m2. Find the Population density?
A. 800 Per m2. B. 400/m2. C. 10,000/m2. D. 2005/m2.
Solution.
P.D = Number of species (Population size).
Area of Habitat.
P.D = 2,000
5m2
:. P.D = 400 /m2.
2. In a Fish pond, the number of tilapia fish was calculated to be 80, and the fish pond
is 10m by 5m. Calculate the Population density?.
A. 1.6/m2. B. 8/m2. C. 40/m2. D. 16/m2.
Solution.
P.D = Number of species.
Area of habitat (L× B).
P.D = 80__
10 ×5.
P.D = 80
50
:. P.D = 1.6/m2.
3. Population Frequency.
This is the number of times an organism occurs in an habitat.
 P.F = Number of species.
Number of toss.
Question.
1. Calculate the Population Frequency in an habitat consisting of 24 water leaf, after
making 20 tosses?.
Solution.
P.F = Number of species.
Number of toss.
P.F = 24
20
:. P.F = 1.2
4. Percentage cover.
This is the area of ground covered or occupied by a given species in its habitat.
P.C = Number of times a specie occurs × 100
Total number of species. 1
Question.
1. The number of plant species obtained from a Population study of a garden is as
follows : Guinea grass (15), Ipomoea spp. (5), Soda spp. (7), and Imperata spp.
(23). What is the percentage of occurrence of Imperata spp?.
Answer.
Guinea grass = 15, Ipomoea spp = 5, sida spp = 7, Imperata spp = 23.
:. Total = 15 + 5 + 7 + 23.
:. Total = 50
% of Imperata spp = 23 × 100
50. 1
:. P.C of Imperata spp = 46%.
5. Population Distribution.
This refers to the way in which individuals of a particular population are arranged /
distributed. These Population are distributed / arranged either by being clumped,
evenly spaced, or randomly spaced.

Conducting Population Studies.

Methods used to conduct Population Studies.
1. Plants.
The main methods used to conduct population Studies for plants, are :-
a. Quadrat sampling method.
b. Transect method.
Note :
▪ The Plants conducted using Population Studies, is usually kept by drying them and
spreading them between layers of absorbent paper.
▪ Note :—> A collection of identified Plants in population Studies, is known as
“Herbarium”.
2. Animals.
The main methods used to conduct Population Studies for animals, are :-
 1. Capture & recapture method.
The population of this animals in using this method, can be calculated as :-
Population in area = A1 × A2
A3
Where :
A1 ——> Animals caught on the first attempt or on the first day.
A2 ——> Animals caught on the second attempt or on the second day.
A3 ——> Animals caught on the third attempt or on the third day.

Question.
1. The Population of a group of mouse caught and counted on the first day
was 30, second day was 20, and third day was 25. Calculate the
Population of the mouse?.
Solution.
Population = A1 × A2
A3
Population = 30 × 20
25
:. Population = 24.
2. Tullgren Funnel.
This is used for collecting soil animals ( e.g earthworm).
3. Pooter.
This is used for collecting small insects and other invertebrates.
Note :-
▪ The animals conducted using Population Studies, are usually kept
alive in “Aquari” (for animals that live in water), and in “Vivaria” (for
animals that live on land).

Abiotic Factors.
They determine the kind of organisms present in an ecosystem.
Note :-
Temperature and rainfall, are the two main factors (abiotic factors), that determines the
major Biomes of the world.

Factors Common to all Habitats.

1. Temperature.
2. Rainfall.
3. Light.
4. Hydrogen ion concentration [pH].
5. Wind.
6. Pressure.
Note :—> The main factors that affects all Habitats, are “Temperature, and rainfall “.
Factors Affecting Aquatic Habitats [Only].
1. Salinity.
 2. Density.
3. Turbidity.
4. Current or water flow.
5. Tidal movements & waves.
6. Dissolved gases.
Note :—> The main factor that affects aquatic habitat, is “light”.
Factors affecting Terrestrial Habitats [Only].
1. Relative Humidity.
2. Land surface / soil.
Note :—> The main factor which affects Terrestrial Habitats, is “land surface / soil”.

Soil.
Types of Soil / Soil Particles.
The main types of Soil / soil Particles, are :-
1. Sandy soil.
2. Loamy soil.
3. Clayey soil.

1. Sandy soil.
Characteristics :-
1. They have high air content.
2. They have high porosity.
3. They have the lowest water content, i.e, their degree of water absorption, is the
lowest.
4. They have very little humus content ; this is why they are unsuitable for farming.
5. Their soil texture ( nature / appearance) are loosely packed ; i.e, they are light soil.
6. They have low capillary action.

2. Loamy Soil.
Characteristics :-
1. They have intermediate air content.
2. They have intermediate porosity.
3. They have intermediate water content.
4. They have high humus content ; this is why they are the most suitable for farming.
5. Their soil texture are intermediate.
6. They have intermediate capillary action.

3. Clayey soil.
Characteristics :-
1. They have low air content.
2. They have low porosity.
3. They have the highest water content.
4. They have high capillary action.
 5. They have intermediate humus content ; therefore, they are also unsuitable for
farming ( crop cultivation).
6. Its particles are strongly packed together, therefore they are dense / heavy soils.

Soil Characteristics & Plant growth.

• For soils to bring about/ support plant growth, i.e, For a soil to be said to be fertile, it
must possess the following characteristics :-
1. It must have a rich humus content.
2. It must have a rich mineral content.
3. It must have a good water holding capacity.
4. It must have good soil porosity.

How to calculate % of Water, Air, and Humus in the Soil.

a. Calculating % of Water in the soil.
Mass of crucible = M1
Mass of soil sample and crucible before heating = M2
Mass of crucible and soil sample after heating [after cooling] = M3
From the above parameters [ it will be given to you in the question, or you can deduce it
from the question ], the % of water in the soil can be calculated using the formulars
below :-

% of water content = Amount or mass of water evaporated × 100

Amount of soil sample. 1
Where ;
Mass or amount of soil sample = M2 – M1
Mass or amount of water evaporated = M3 – M2
:. The above formula can also be represented as :-

% of water content = M3 – M2 × 100

M 2 – M 1. 1
Any of the above formulas, can be used to solve questions on % of water in the soil,
depending on the context / format of the question.

Questions.
1. A crucible of 5gm weighed 10gm after filling with fresh soil. It is then heated in an
oven at 100°C for 1 hour. After cooling in a desiccator, the weight was 8gm. The
percentage of water in the soil is —— ?.
Answer.
Deduce the parameters first, before using the % of water content formula, to solve :-
Weight of crucible = 5gm.
Weight of crucible + Fresh soil = 10gm.
Weight of crucible + dried soil = 8gm.
Weight of fresh soil = 10 – 5 = 5gm.
Weight of water removed / evaporated from the soil = 10 – 8 = 2gm.
 % of water in soil = weight of water removed from the soil. × 100
Weight of fresh soil. 1
= 2 × 100
5 1
= 40% or 0.4 {i.e, 40% = 40 = 0.4}
100

2. 5g of oven dried soil was heated in a furnace for 24hrs. After cooling, it weighed
4.8g. What is the amount of water in the soil?
A. 40.0g per 100g dry soil.
B. 4.4g per 100g dry soil.
C. 4.0g per 100g dry soil.
D. 0.4g per 100g dry soil.
Answer.
Weight of dried soil (i.e, before heating) = 5g.
Weight of cooled soil = 4.8g.
Amount of water = 5 – 4.8
:. Amount of water = 0.2g.
:. Amount of water in 100g of soil = Amount of water evaporated × 100
Amount of dried soil. 1
Substituting,
Amount of water in 100g of soil = 0.2
5
:. = 4.0g Per 100g dry soil.
:. The correct option is (C).

3. In an experiment to estimate the volume of air in a soil sample using a measuring

cylinder, it was found that :-
Initial volume of water = Pcm3,
Volume of soil before mixing with water = qcm3
Final volume of water after adding soil = rcm3.
From the data above, which of the following deductions is correct ?
A. r = P + q
B. r > P + q
C. r < P + q
D. q = rp
Solution .
The correct answer to the question, is option (C).
Explanation :—> “r” is less than P + q combined, because when soil is added to water, one
of the components of soil, which is air, is displaced by water. This accounts for the lower
volume of “r” when compared with volume P + q combined. The volume of air is included in
the volume of soil before mixing with water (qcm3).
 4. A Potometer with a leafy shoot weighed 18.9g initially, and 17.9g after 1 hour. From
this, it follows that ?
A. The shoot absorbed 1g of water per hour.
B. 1g of water per hour evaporates from the Potometer.
C. The shoot lost 1g of water per hour.
D. The shoot was respiring and lost weight at the rate of 1g per hour.
Answer.
The amount of water lost from the shoot is = 18.9g – 17.9g
:. The amount of water lost from the shoot = 1g.
Hence, the water lost by the shoot for every 1 hr (i.e Per hour) is 1g. Hence the correct
Option is (C).

b. Calculating % of Humus in the soil.

Mass of crucible = M1
Mass of soil sample and crucible before heating = M2
Mass of crucible and soil sample after heating (after cooling) = M3
Mass of crucible and soil sample after further heating (further cooling, or roasted
soil, or red hot soil) = M4
From the above parameters, [ it will be given in the question, or you can deduce it
from the question], the percentage of humus in the soil can be calculated using
the formulars below :-

% of Humus in soil = Weight of Humus in soil sample × 100

Weight of soil sample. 1
Where ;
Weight of Humus in soil sample = M3 – M4
Weight of soil sample = M2 – M1
:. The above formula can also be represented as ;
% of Humus in soil = M3 – M4 × 100
M2 – M1. 1

Questions.
1. In an experiment to determine the percentage of humus and water in a soil sample,
the following results were obtained :-
Weight of the evaporating basin alone = 80.5g
Weight of basin and soil = 101.59
Weight after drying the soil in the oven = 99.0g
Weight of basin and roasted soil = 95.5g.
From the above data, the percentage of humus in the soil sample is ?
Answer.
Weight of basin alone = 80.5g
Weight of basin and soil sample = 101.5g
Weight after drying the soil = 99.0g
Weight of basin and roasted soil = 95.5g
 :. Weight of soil sample = 101.5 – 80.5
:. Weight of soil sample = 21g.
Weight of Humus in soil sample = 99.0 – 95.5
Weight of Humus in soil sample = 3.5g.
Recall ;
% of humus in soil sample = M3 – M4 × 100
M 2 – M 1. 1
Substituting,
:. = 3.5 × 100
21. 1
:. % of humus in soil sample = 16.7%

2. 28g of soil sample was heated to a constant weight of 24g. When further heated to
red hot and cooled, it weighed 18g. What is the percentage of humus in the soil?.
Answer.
Weight of soil before heating = 28g.
Weight of soil on heating = 24g
Weight of soil after heating to red hot = 18g
:. Weight of Humus = 24 – 18 = 6g.
Recall ;
% of humus in soil sample = Weight of Humus × 100
Weight of soil 1
before heating.
% of humus in soil sample = 6 × 100
28. 1
:. % of humus in soil sample = 25.0%.
3. 5g of oven dried soil was heated in a furnace for 24hrs. After cooling, it weighed
4.8g. What is the amount of humus in the soil?
A. 40.0 Per 100g dry soil.
B. 4.4g Per 100g dry soil.
C. 4.0g Per 100g dry soil.
D. 0.4g Per 100g dry soil.
Answer.
Deducing the Parameters from the question, ;
Weight of dried soil = 5g
Weight of cooled soil = 4.8g
Amount of humus = 5 – 4.8
Amount of humus = 0.2
Amount of humus in 100g of soil = Amount of humus × 100
Weight of dried soil. 1
Amount of humus in 100g of soil = 0.2 × 100
5 1
:. Amount of humus in 100g of soil = 4.0g Per 100g dry soil.
:. The correct option is ( C ).
C. Calculating % of Air in a soil sample.
The formula below can be used to calculate the % of air in a soil sample ;

% of Air in soil sample = (Vs + Vw) – Vs + Vw × 100

Vs. 1
Where ;
Vs ——> Volume of soil.
Vw ——> Volume of water.

Question.
1. In an experiment to determine the percentage of air in a soil sample, the following
readings were recorded :-
Volume of water in a measuring cylinder = 500cm3
Volume of soil added to water = 350cm3
Volume of water and soil after stirring = 800cm3
The Percentage of air in the soil sample is ——?.
Answer.
Vw = 500cm3
Vs = 350cm3
Vw + Vs = 800cm3 ———> *1
Vs + Vw = 500 + 350 = 850cm3 ———> *2
Recall ;
% of Air in soil sample = (Vs + Vw ) – Vs + Vw × 100
Vs. 1
Substituting *1 and *2 into the formula above,
% of Air in soil sample = 850 – 800 × 100
350. 1
:. % of Air in soil sample = 14.28%.

Measurement of Physical Factors [Abiotic Factors].

Physical Factors. Instrument used.
1. Acidity / Alkalinity. pH meter.
2. Atmospheric Barometer.
pressure.
3. Root Pressure. Manometer.
4. Temperature. Thermometer.
5. Turbidity. Secchi disc.
6. Transpiration. Potometer.
7. Rainfall. Rain gauge.
8. Wind direction. Wind Vane.
9. Wind speed / Anemometer.
Velocity.
10. Light intensity. Photometer / light meter.
 Biomes.
The following are the various types / kinds of Biomes :-
1. Mangrove swamps.
2. Tropical rainforests.
3. Montane Forests.
4. Savannah ; which include :-
a. Northern Guinea Savannah.
b. Southern Guinea Savannah.
c. Sudan Savannah.
d. Sahel Savannah.

1. Mangrove Swamps.
Characteristics :-
1. They are forests of small evergreen broad leave trees.
2. They are found in brackish water or wet soil.
3. Their trees have prop roots and breathing roots called “Pneumatophores”.
4. They are found in the following southern states of Nigeria ; Lagos, Edo, Delta, Rivers,
and Cross River state.

2. Tropical rainforests.
Characteristics :-
i. They are found in the following southern states ; Oyo, delta, Edo, Imo, Cross River,
Ogun, Ondo, and Rivers state.
ii. The forest is dense and made up of many types of broad leave trees that are mostly
evergreen.
iii. They are composed of trees, epiphytes, and climbers.

3. Montane Forests.
Characteristics :-
i. It is the biome of mountains.
ii. Their trees are tall, but few and scattered.
iii. Grasses are the most dominant (more) in montane Forests.

4. Savannah.
Characteristics :-
1. They are made up of three (3) regions ; Guinea, Sudan, Sudan, and Sahel
Savannah.
Note :—> The savannah / biome which borders the rainforest, is called “The
guinea savannah [Northern guinea Savannah to be specific]”, while the
savannah / biome, which borders the desert, is called “Sahel savannah “.
2. The savannah are found in Northern states of Nigeria, e.g
a. The guinea Savannah is found in Kaduna, Kwara, and Benue states.
 b. The Sudan Savannah is found in Kano, Borno, sokoto, Niger,
Gongole, and Bauchi state.
c. They have insufficient rainfall.
d. They are made up of few trees and grasses which are scattered.
Note :-
▪ The sequence of Biomes from the northern part of Nigeria to the
southern part of Nigeria, are :-
Desert ——> Sahel Savannah ——> Sudan Savannah ——> Northern
guinea Savannah ——> Southern guinea Savannah ——> Tropical
rainforest ——> Mangrove swamp.

▪ Note :—> “Mambila Plateau”, is a unique Nigerian Biome located in

“Taraba state “.
 CHAPTER 6 :——> FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM.
▪ The Biotic components of an ecosystem, is divided into two main components :-
i. Autotrophs.
ii. Heterotrophs.

i. Autotrophs.
These are organisms that are able to use sunlight or chemical energy, to manufacture
their own food from simple inorganic substances, such as CO2, H2O.
They form a direct link between the abiotic components (factor) and the Biotic Factors
in an ecosystem.
They are also known as “Producers”.
They include ; all green plants, Photosynthetic protists, and some bacterials :-
a. Green Plants :—> e.g maize, rice, pawpaw, yam.
b. Photosynthetic Protists :—> e.g Chlamydomonas, spirogyra, diatoms.
c. Bacterials :—> e.g Blue-green algae (Nostoc, Anabaena, Oscillatoria).
ii. Heterotrophs.
These are organisms which cannot manufacture their own food, but rather, they feed on
ready-made food of organisms.
They include ; all animals, carnivorous plants, fungi, most protists, and most bacterials.
Heterotrophs may be classified into : a. “Consumers”. b. “Decomposers”.
a. Consumers.
Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on other organisms. Examples are :-
I. All holozoic organisms, e.g herbivores, carnivores, omnivores,
and scavengers.
II. Parasites.
III. Aquatic consumers :—> e.g copepods, water fleas, tadpoles,
larvae of insects, and fishes.
IV. Terrestrial consumers :—> e.g caterpillars, cows, dogs, lions,
toads, hawks, and vipers.
b. Decomposers.
Decomposers are heterotrophs that feed by decomposing other organisms.
Examples are ; Saprophytes, and Bacterials.

Food and Energy Relationships in an Ecosystem.

▪ Food and energy relationships between autotrophs and heterotrophs in an
ecosystem, can be represented / shown through “Feeding Pathways”, which always
begins with Primary Producers (autotrophs), followed by one or more consumers,
and ends with decomposers.
Trophic Levels.
▪ Each step (position of organism) in a feeding pathway of organisms, is known as
“Trophic level “. The order in which the trophic level are arranged in a feeding
pathway, gives the pathway / direction in which energy (food) flows through the
feeding pathways.
 The Pattern in which feeding pathways, follows, is arranged as follows :-
1. Producers ; e.g Grass.
2. Primary consumers ; e.g Herbivores, omnivores, Parasitic organisms (Parasitic
plants) e.g witch weed, and ustilago.
3. Secondary consumers ; e.g carnivores or omnivores, Parasitic animals (e.g ticks and
flukes), and scavengers (e.g vultures and hyenas).
4. Tertiary consumers ; e.g carnivores, such as dogs, lions, eagles, sharks, snakes, or
omnivores, Parasitic animals (e.g ticks and flukes), and scavengers (e.g vultures and
hyenas).
5. Decomposers ; e.g Bacteria & fungi.
An example of a feeding pathway, is shown below :-

Grass ——> Zebra ——> Hyena ——> Lion ——> Bacteria

T. L : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
[Producers]. [Primary [Secondary [Tertiary [Decomposers].
Consumers]. Consumers]. Consumers].
Where T.L, represents the Trophic level of each organism, in the feeding pathway.
Note :-
▪ The Primary consumers of a feeding pathway are ; herbivores, omnivores, Parasitic
organisms [i.e Parasitic plants].
▪ The secondary / tertiary consumers of a feeding pathway are ; carnivores,
omnivores, Parasitic animals [e.g ticks and flukes], scavengers [e.g vultures and
hyenas].
▪ The decomposers of a feeding pathway, are ; Bacteria, and fungi.

Food Chains and Food Web.

Food Chain.
This is a feeding pathway, which shows the transfer of energy and nutrients, from one
organism to another, in a linear form / chain. E.g :-
Grass ——> Zebra ——> Lion.
[Producers]. [Primary [secondary
Consumers]. Consumers].
▪ A food chain begins with “Photosynthesis”, and ends with “Decay”.
▪ As we move across a Food chain, energy decreases, because as we move from one
trophic level to another, in the food chain, some energy are converted / lost as heat
and unuseful energy.
▪ Note :—> A shorter Food chain is more effective than a longer food chain, because
lesser energy is lost.
▪ Note :—> Non-biodegradable pollutants such as DDT, accumulates / magnifies /
increases, as we move across a Food chain.
▪ Note :—> The feeding pathway which shows only one food source, is called “Food
chain “.
▪ Note :—> The Biomass (size) of organisms decreases across a food chain, due to
loss of energy.

Food Web.
This is a complex network of many food chains linking and intersecting one another.
▪ Note :—> The Feeding pathway which shows more than one food source, is called
“Food Web “.

Ecological Pyramids.
These are graphical representations of feeding pathways. They are of three types :-
1. Pyramid Of numbers.
2. Pyramid Of Biomass.
3. Pyramid Of Energy.

1. Pyramid Of numbers.
This pyramid shows the number of organisms in a feeding pathway, per trophic level.
They are of two (2) types :-
I. Upright Pyramid Of numbers.
II. Inverted Pyramid Of numbers.
Upright Pyramid Of numbers has a wider base and a narrow top, e.g
Ecosystem of a grassland.

Upright Pyramid Of numbers showing the Ecosystem Of a Grassland.

Inverted Pyramid Of numbers has a narrow base and a wider top, e.g
Ecosystem of a tree.
Inverted Pyramid Of numbers showing the Ecosystem Of a Tree.
2. Pyramid Of Biomass.
This Pyramid shows the amount of dry mass (size) of organisms in a feeding pathway
per trophic level.
Pyramid Of Biomass takes into consideration per unit area covered by each trophic
level in a feeding pathway.
It may be upright or inverted. An inverted Pyramid Of Biomass, has a wider top, and
a narrower base, while the Upright Pyramid Of Biomass, has a narrower top, and a
wider base.
Examples of upright Pyramid Of Biomass include ; Ecosystem of a grassland, and
tree Ecosystem.
Example of inverted Pyramid Of Biomass, is Aquatic Ecosystem.

An Inverted Pyramid Of Biomass showing an Aquatic Ecosystem.

3. Pyramid Of Energy.
This Pyramid shows the amount of energy of organisms in a feeding pathway per
trophic level.
Pyramid Of Energy is never inverted, but upright.

Laws Of Thermodynamics.
1st Law of Thermodynamics :-
It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed in an ecosystem, but can
be converted from one form to another.
2nd Law of Thermodynamics :-
It states that as energy is being converted from one form to another in a food chain,
a large proportion of it is converted to heat.
 Nutrient Cycle.
A Functioning Ecosystem deals with :-
1. Energy flow through the Ecosystem.
2. Nutrient flow through the Ecosystem.
In an Ecosystem, energy flows in a non-cyclic direction (unidirectional), whereas nutrients
flows in a Cyclic direction.
There are four basic inorganic nutrients that flows through an ecosystem :-
1. Carbon.
2. Oxygen.
3. Water.
4. Nitrogen.

Carbon Cycle.
This is the flow of carbon in the form of CO2, through an ecosystem, either by the removal
or release of it to the atmosphere.
Removal of CO2 from the atmosphere, is by “Photosynthesis”.
The release of CO2 to the atmosphere, is by :-
1. Respiration.
2. Combustion.
3. Decomposition.

Oxygen Cycle.
This is the flow of gaseous oxygen through an ecosystem, either by its release or removal
from the atmosphere.
Oxygen is removed from the atmosphere by :-
1. Respiration.
2. Combustion.
3. Decomposition.
Oxygen is released to the atmosphere by “Photosynthesis”.

Water Cycle.
This is the movement of water through an ecosystem, either by the release or removal of it
to the atmosphere.
Water is removed from the atmosphere, by “Precipitation, or Condensation “.
Water is released to the atmosphere by :-
1. Evaporation.
2. Transpiration.
3. Decay.
4. Excretion.
5. Respiration.

Nitrogen Cycle.
This is the flow of Nitrogen through an ecosystem, either by its removal or return to the soil.
Nitrogen is removed from the soil by :-
 1. Uptake by Plant roots.
2. Leaching.
3. Denitrification.
Denitrification is the conversion of nitrogenous Compounds in the soil, to Ammonia,
or free Nitrogen, which escapes the soil.
The group of bacterials that brings about denitrification, are known as denitrifying
bacterials, e.g Pseudonomia denitrifican.
Denitrification occurs in the presence of low or no oxygen.

Nitrogen is added to the soil by :-

1. Nitrification.
2. Nitrogen- fixation.
▪ Nitrification is the conversion of Ammonia and other nitrogenous Compounds to
nitrites, or the conversion of nitrite to nitrate.
▪ Examples of nitrifying bacterials that converts Nitrogenous Compounds to nitrites,
are nitrosomonas, nitrococcus, nitrosospira.

▪ Nitrogen -fixation is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen, into soil Nitrogen. It

occurs by :-
1. Thunder and lightening.
2. Nitrogen fixers.
Nitrogen fixers or Nitrogen fixing bacterials, are bacterials that brings about Nitrogen
fixation, e.g clostridium, Azotobacter, and Rhizobium.

▪ Note :—> Denitrifying bacterials are Anaerobic bacterials, while nitrifying bacterials
are Aerobic bacterials.
 CHAPTER 7 : ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT.

Association.
Association can be defined as the process whereby organisms interact with one another.

Types Of Association.
1. Mutualism [Symbiosis].
2. Commensalism.
3. Parasitism.

1. Mutualism [Symbiosis].
This is the association between two different organisms, in which both organisms
benefit.
Examples of Mutualism are :-
1. Flowers and Pollinating agents.
2. Fruits / seeds and dispersing agents.
3. Lichen [an association between fungi and algae].
4. Mycorrhizae [an association between fungi and plants / roots of plants].
5. Hermit crab and sea anemone.
6. Bacterial and plant eating termites.
7. Zoochlorellae and invertebrates (e.g mollusc).
Mutualism is also known as “+/+ Association “.

2. Commensalism.
This is an association between two different organisms in which one benefits, while the
other neither benefits nor is harmed.
It is also known as “Positive zero Association (+/0)”.
Examples :-
1. The tentacle of sea anemone, and clawn fish.
2. Remora fish and shark.
3. Algae growing on fresh water turtles.
4. Epiphytes growing on plants for support.
5. Lianans growing on plants for light.

3. Parasitism.
This is the association between two different organisms in which one called the
“Parasite” benefits, while the other called the host is harmed.
Parasitism is also known as “+/- Association “.
Examples of Parasitic plants are :-
1. Dodder.
2. Witch plant.
3. Mistletoes.
The anchorage organ of Parasitic plants, is called “Haustoria”.
Based on the location of Parasites on the host, Parasites are classified into two :-
1. Ecto-parasites.
2. Endo-parasites.
Ectoparasites are Parasites found on the surface of the host body, e.g, aphids, tick,
mite, lice, e.t.c.
Note :—> The sensory structure used by tick to detect the body heat and the CO2
released by its potential host, is known as “Haller’s Organ “.
Note :—> The Mouthpart of tick that forms a tube for sucking blood, is known as
“Hypostome”.
Endo-parasites are Parasites that are located inside the host body, e.g tapeworm,
Plasmodium, trypanosomes, e.t.c.

Based on dependency on host, Parasites are classified into two, which are :-
1. Obligate Parasites.
2. Facultative Parasites.
Obligate Parasites are Parasites that are totally dependent on their host. These
Parasites cannot survive outside their host, e.g Plasmodium.
Facultative Parasites are Parasites that can be independent and free-living of its host.
These Parasites can survive outside their hosts, e.g Clostridium tetani.

Based on the number of host needed to complete their lifecycle, Parasites are
classified into two, :-
1. Monogenetic Parasites.
2. Digenetic Parasites.
Monogenetic Parasites are Parasites that complete their lifecycle in just one host, e.g,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Treponema Pallidum.
Digenetic Parasites are Parasites that complete their lifecycle in more than one host,
e.g tapeworm, Plasmodium, Onchocerca, schistosoma, wuchereria bancrofti, loa loa.
Most Digenetic Parasites needs two (2) hosts to complete their lifecycle, which are :-
1. Primary host.
2. Secondary host.
A Primary host is the host in which the parasite reaches maturity, and reproduce
sexually. They are also known as “Definitive host”, or “Main host”.
Secondary host is a temporary Environment that the Parasite needs to complete or
undergo its lifecycle, and reproduce asexually. They are also known as “Intermediate
host”.

Digenetic Parasites :—> Hosts & Disease Caused.

Parasite. Primary host / Secondary Disease Caused.
host.
1. Tapeworm. Primary host :-> Man. Tineasis / cysticercosis.
Secondary host :-> Pig.
2. Schistosoma. Primary host :-> Man. Schistosomiasis.
Secondary host :-> Snails.
 3. Onchocerca. Primary host :-> Man. Onchocerciasis.
Secondary host :-> Blackfly.
4. Wuchereria Primary host :-> Man. Elephantiasis.
bancrofti. Secondary host :->
Mosquito (Culex).
5. Plasmodium. Primary host :-> Mosquito Malaria.
(Anopheles).
Secondary host :-> Man.
6. Yellow fever virus. Primary host :-> Mosquito Yellow fever.
(Aedes).
Secondary host :-> Man.
7. Trypanosoma. Primary host :-> tse-tse fly. Trypanosomiasis.
Secondary host :-> Man.
8. Loa-loa. Primary host :-> Man. Loa-loa Filariasis.
Secondary host :-> Crypson
fly.
Note :-
Elephantiasis is also known as “lymphatic Filariasis “.
Black fly is also known as “Simulium fly”, or “Buffalo gnat”.
Black fly lives and breeds in fast moving streams or rivers.

Plasmodium.
Plasmodium completes its lifecycle in two hosts :-
1. Man.
2. Mosquito.
Note :-
Asexual reproduction of Plasmodium occurs in man, while sexual reproduction of
Plasmodium occurs in mosquito.
Note :—> Generally, Asexual reproduction is also called “Schizogamy”, while sexual
reproduction is also called “Syngamy”.
There are two types of schizogamy of Plasmodium, which are :-
1. Exoerythrocytic schizogamy.
2. Erythrocytic schizogamy.
Exoerythrocytic schizogamy of Plasmodium occurs in the liver of humans ; it
occurs outside the red blood cells.
Erythrocytic schizogamy of Plasmodium, occurs in the red blood cells of
humans.
Note :-
• The stage at which the Plasmodium parasite invade the red blood cell of
humans is called the “Merozoite stage”.
• The stage at which the Plasmodium Parasite invade the liver of humans, is
called the “Sporozoite stage”.
• The stage at which the Plasmodium parasite leaves man, is called the
“gametocyte stage”.

Amenalism.
This is the association between two different organisms, in which one is harmed,
while the other is not affected, i.e, it is neither harmed nor benefiting.
It is also known as “– / 0 Association “.
Note :—> 0 / 0 Association is also known as “Neutralism”.
Note :—> – / – Association is also known as “Competition”.

Life Cycles Of Some Organisms.

1. Tapeworm.
Structure.
Tapeworm has a knob-like head known as “Scolex”, and large number of
segments on its body called “Proglottids”.
The scolex of the tapeworm is the region which bears / have Hooks and suckers.
Mode Of Life.
It is an endoparasite.
They have poor or no digestive systems, sense organs, and muscles.
They are haemaphroditic, and also, they produce large number of eggs.
They possess hooks & suckers, which are used by them for attachment to their
host.
They have long flattened body which results to the large surface area of their
bodies, which enables them to absorb nutrients from their hosts.
Life Cycle.
• The adult (matured) tapeworm is found in the intestine of man (Primary host).
• There are two types of tapeworms :-
i. Taenia solium, which is found in Pigs.
ii. Taenia Saginata, which is found in Cow.
Both are the secondary hosts of Tapeworm.
Note :-
An encysted tapeworm is called “Bladderworm”.
The two Structures that run throughout the body of a tapeworm, are the
“excretory system”, and the “nervous System “.

2. Blood Fluke.
It is also known as “Bilharzia, or Schistosoma “.
It causes the disease called “Bilhaziasis, or Schistosomiasis “.
Life cycle.

How to Control Blood Flukes.

It is controlled by destroying the water snails and its environment, i.e, destroying
the water weeds in which the water snails feed on, so that the water snails can
go into extinct.

Ecological Tolerance.
Tolerance is the range of condition that an organism can withstand.
Tolerance Curve.
The graph of Tolerance is a graph of Population against an abiotic factor, e.g,
Temperature.
The curve of this graph is bell shaped, and consists of three zones, which are :-
1. Zone of Intolerance.
2. Zone of Physiological stress.
3. Zone of Optimal range.

1. Zone of Intolerance.
The zone of Intolerance, is the zone where no organism can survive.
2. Zone Of Physiological stress.
This is the zone where few organisms can survive / exist. It is also the zone where
life does not Function properly, i.e, it is the zone where life is unbearable, as
such, only few organisms can survive / exist.
3. Zone of Optimal range.
The zone of Optimal range, is the zone where life is favourable, i.e, it is the zone
where a large number of organisms survive, grow, & reproduce, due to favourable
life.
Tolerance Curve.

The Following can be deduced from the Tolerance curve above :-

X [0 – 20°C, and 100°C – 150°C] = Zone of Intolerance.
Y [20°C – 40°C, and 80°C – 100°C] = Zone of Physiological stress.
Z [40°C – 80°C ] = Zone of optimal range / optimal zone.
W [20°C – 40°C ] = minimum limit of tolerance / survival of the organism.
I [80°C – 100°C] = maximum limit of tolerance / survival of the organism.
A [20°C – 100°C] = Tolerance range of the organism.
 Adaptation.
Adaptation is the modification of Structures or Functions of a specie of
organisms in order to become fitted to a particular Environment.
Note :—> Adaptation is as a result of “Evolution”, i.e, it is as a result of the
changes that occurs in a specie over a long period of time.

Adaptation Of Fish to its Environment.

1. Possession of streamline body which allows it to move through water.
2. Possession of swim bladder for buoyancy.
3. Possession of slimy body, which makes them difficult to be caught.
4. Possession of gills for respiration.
5. Possession of blended colour with its environment [Camouflaging].
6. Possession of overlapping scales for protection.
7. Possession of lateral lines for detecting temperature change, chemical
change, vibration, and enemies.
8. Possession of Paired and unpaired fins.
Note :—> The Paired fins include the Pectoral and the Pelvic fins, while the
unpaired fins include the Anal, caudal, and dorsal fins.
Note :-
Anal and dorsal fins are used for balancing and close quarter movement.
Caudal (tail) fin propels the fish forward.
Pectoral fin is used for stearing.
Pelvic fin is used for balancing and positioning.
Note :-
Fishes shows Adaptation to Fresh water, and Marine water Environment, as
follows :-
1. The body of Fresh water fish is hypertonic to its environment, hence it
is faced with the problem of absorbing more water, but losing mineral
salts, hence possess a well developed kidney for the excretion of
dilute urine, so as to conserve mineral salts, and balance / regulate
the water in its body.
2. The body of marine fish is hypotonic to its environment, hence it is
faced with the problem of losing water and gaining minerals, therefore
possess a poorly developed kidney for the excretion of concentrated
urine, so as to conserve water, and balance / regulate the mineral
salts in its body.
Note :—> One of the adaptive features of fishes, is Production of
numerous eggs, because death rate is high.

Adaptation Of Birds to Flight.

1. Possession of feathers.
2. Light weight due to numerous hollow bones.
3. Possession of air sac close to the wings, which supply oxygen for
respiration, so as to generate energy to the wings for flight.
4. Absence of Pinna, to prevent obstruction of air flow, during flight.
5. Forelimbs modified into wings.
6. Possession of thick muscles on the chest for propulsion, during flight.
7. Possession of keel on the breastbone, for the attachment of muscles.

Adaptation Of Plants to Water Availability.

Based on water availability, Plants are classified into three, which are :-
1. Hydrophytes.
2. Mesophytes.
3. Xerophytes.

1. Hydrophytes.
These are plants that grows completely or partially in water.
Adaptation Of Hydrophytes.
1. Possession of poor conducting vessels / poor vascular systems.
2. Absence of cuticle.
3. Possession of Aerenchyma.
Note :-> Aerenchyma is a modified Parenchyma, used by hydrophytes,
for buoyancy.
4. Possession of no or little roots.
Note :-> If Present, it serves for anchorage, not as an absorbing organ.
▪ Examples of Hydrophytes, are Water lily, and water weeds.
▪ Plants found in muddy soils, e.g Mangrove plants, and very wet places,
are also regarded as “Hydrophytes”.
▪ Note :-> Mangrove plants have their roots buried in soils with low
oxygen, hence possess roots which projects upwards above the soil to
search for oxygen. These roots are known as “Breathing roots”, or
“Pneumatophores”.

2. Mesophytes.
These are plants that are adapted to adequate supply of water.
If a mesophyte is exposed to dry conditions, “Wilting” occurs.
Adaptation Of Mesophytes.
1. Developed root system.
2. Large or broad or tiny leaves.
3. Possession of cuticles.
4. Possession of stomata for gaseous exchange.
• Examples of mesophytes, are ; Cassie.

• Note :—> Plants that have low tolerance for salinity, are called
“Glycophytrs”.
3. Xerophytes.
These are plants that are adapted to inadequate supply of water.
They possess protoplasm that can withstand prolonged drought. This is
their most important Adaptation.
Adaptation Of Xerophytes.
1. Well developed deep root system, to obtain adequate water &
minerals, from the soil.
2. Possession of succulent stem, for conservation of water.
3. Possession of green stem, for Photosynthesis.
4. Reduction of leaf size to needle -like shape, to prevent the loss of
water, by transpiration.
5. Shedding of leaves, to prevent loss of water by transpiration.
6. Possession of thick bark, to prevent water loss by transpiration.
7. Possession of reduced stomata, for gaseous exchange.
• Examples of Xerophytes, are ; Cacti, euphorbia, Aloe.
• Note :-> The adaptive features of xerophytes to conserve water, is
collectively known as “Xeromorphic Features “.

Pollution.
Pollution is the contamination of the environment by impurities known as
Pollutants, in such an amount that is harmful to man and natural
resources.
Types Of Pollution.
1. Air or Atmospheric Pollution.
2. Water Pollution.
3. Soil or land Pollution.

1. Air Or Atmospheric Pollution.

Atmospheric Pollutants include :-
1. Oxides of carbon.
2. Chlorofluorocarbons.
3. Particulate matter.
4. Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur.
5. Hydrogen Sulphide.
6. Hydrocarbons.
7. Noise.
8. Radiation Pollution.

1. Oxides of carbon.
There are two (2) basic oxides of carbon, :-
i. Carbon monoxide (CO).
ii. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
CO when inhaled combines with haemoglobin, to form
carboxyhemoglobin, which prevents the transport of oxygen round the
body.
CO2 in the atmosphere, leads to global warming.
Note :-> Examples of green house gases, are ozone, CO2, and methane.
Note :-> Global warming is the gradual increase of the average or overall
temperature of the earth, resulting in effects such as change in weather
pattern, Flooding (main effect).

2. Chlorofluorocarbons.
This in the atmosphere, causes depletion of the ozone layer, hence
allowing much ultraviolet light to reach the earth, which causes skin
cancer.

3. Particulate matter.
These include :-
a. Dust.
b. Lead.
c. Pollen grains.
d. Fumes.
Dust in the atmosphere, causes catar.
Lead (Pb) is released from vehicle exhaust, and it causes lead
poisoning.
Pollen grains in the atmosphere, when inhaled, can initiate
allergic response in some persons.
Fumes are particles found in the atmosphere, smaller than dust.
When inhaled, these particles can cause irritation of the
respiratory tract.

4. Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur.

Oxides of Nitrogen are formed when coal is burnt, and also, from the
exhaust of vehicles.
Oxides of Nitrogen are poisonous, and causes acid rain, and also results
in damage to the human lungs, vegetation, and buildings.
Oxides of Sulphur are gotten from low grade petroleum fuel and coal.
The main source of oxides of Sulphur, are electrical power stations,
factories, and mining centres.
Oxides of Sulphur cause acid rain, and also results in damage to the
human lungs, vegetation, and buildings.

Note :—> “Smog”, which is also an air pollutant, is caused by oxides of

Nitrogen, Sulphur, and Hydrocarbons, and its effect, is that it reduces
Visibility.
 2. Water Pollution.
Water pollutants include :-
i. Refuse and Sewage.
ii. Industrial wastes.
iii. Agricultural wastes.
iv. Crude oil.

I. Refuse and Sewage.

When refuse and Sewage are disposed into water bodies,
bacterials grow and multiply, using the oxygen content in the
water, thereby resulting to the death of organisms in aquatic life,
and also creating a smelling Environment.
Note :—> The rapid growth of algae in aquatic body, is known as
“Eutrophication”.
Note :-
When a river or lake is polluted, fishes are the first organisms to
die, because they have narrow tolerance range to oxygen.
II. Industrial wastes.
When released into water bodies, they deplete the oxygen
content, resulting in death of aquatic organisms.
III. Agricultural wastes (e.g Fertilizers).
When released into water bodies, algae begins to grow and
multiply, resulting in the depletion of the oxygen content in the
water bodies, thereby causing death of aquatic organisms.
IV. Crude oil.
It also depletes oxygen content in water bodies, resulting in the
death of aquatic organisms.
Note :-
Crude oil spills can be reduced by using chemical dispersants like
Phosphates, and also, by using Oil-heating bacterial.

Methods Of Controlling Pollution.

Generally, all forms of Pollution can be controlled by :-
1. Legislation, i.e, by enforcing laws.
2. Education, which is the most effective way to control all forms of Pollution.

How to reduce / control Air Pollution.

1. By proper maintenance of machineries, motor vehicles, boilers, furnaces,
and chimneys.
2. Removing Sulphur Compounds from coal low grade oil (low grade Petroleum)
before use.
3. Fitting chimneys with filters, to remove its pollutants.
4. Using other substitutes (chemicals) that do not affect the ozone layer,
instead of using CFC’s.
 How to reduce Soil Pollution.
1. By preventing soil erosion.
2. By preventing overgrazing of Pastures.
3. By good farming practices such as manuring, and crop rotation.

How to reduce Water Pollution.

1. Ensuring that maximum precautions are taken to prevent oil spillage.
2. Ensuring that organic manures is used as far as possible in farms, instead of
inorganic Fertilizers, so that when they are washed into water bodies, they will not
have any harm in aquatic life.
3. By treating industrial wastes before emptying them into water bodies.
4. By treating sewage before emptying them into water bodies.

Conservation Of Natural Resources.

Natural Resources that needs to be conserved, are :-
1. Natural forest.
2. Soil.
3. Animal / wild life.
4. Air.
5. Water.
6. Mineral resources.

1. Natural Forest.
Methods Of Conservation.
I. Reforestation, or encouraging tree planting.
II. Perverting or combating Plant pests and Diseases.
III. Preventing bush burning or careless forest fire.
IV. Educating the public on the importance of Forests.

2. Animal / Wild life.

Methods Of Conservation.
I. Establishment of game or forest reserve.
II. Controlling hunting.
III. Prohibiting killing or poaching of animals in game reserves.
IV. Prohibiting Pilfering (stealing of animals).
V. Prohibiting of bush burning.
VI. Educating the public on the value of wild life.

3. Soil.
Methods Of Conservation.
I. By mulching.
II. By practicing shifting Cultivation and crop rotation.
III. By avoiding bush burning which destroys the humus content of the soil.
 Note :-
• Examples of renewable resources are Air, water, Forest, Animal / Wild life,
and Soil.
• Examples of non-renewable resources, are “Mineral resources “.
• Note :—> The largest game reserve in Nigeria, is the Yan Kari game reserve
in Bauchi state.
• Non-renewable resources are conserved by “Recycling”.
• Note :—> Wildlife are conserved, so as to prevent their extinction.
 CHAPTER 8 :——> MICROORGANISMS 1.
• The simplest and smallest microorganisms, are called “Viruses”.
• Microorganisms survive unfavorable conditions, by “Spore-Formation”.
Types Of Microorganisms.
1. All viruses. 2. All bacterials and Blue-green algae. 3. All Protists.
4. Certain fungi and algae.

Culture.
This is the technique / methods used in growing Micro-organisms.
The instrument used to culture Micro-organisms, is called “Test tubes”, or “Petri-
dishes”.
Types Of Culture Media.
1. Nutrient agar.
This is the culture media used to culture most bacterials. Its main constituents are:-
a. Agar.
It is a jelly-like material obtained from sea weed. Its function is that it acts as
a solidifying agent in the nutrient agar culture media.
b. Beef extract.
The serve as a source of vitamins and salts for the nutrient agar culture
media.
c. Peptone.
They serve as a source of energy, Carbon, and Nitrogen for the nutrient agar
culture media.
d. Water.
2. Enriched media.
This is the culture media used for most disease -causing Micro-organisms.
An example is “Blood agar” [an enriched culture media made by adding blood to
nutrient agar].

Note :-
• The main components of the culture media of Fungi, are “nutrient agar,
vegetable juice, and water “.
• The culture media used for growing viruses, are “bacteria culture media,
tissue cells culture media, and Fertile hen’s eggs”.
• The main components of the culture media of Protists and Algae, are
“Calcareous garden soil, and water”.
• A biological agent with anti-viral property, is called “Interferon”.
• The technique of growing Micro-organisms in such a way of preventing
microbial contaminants from coming in contact with their culture media, is
called “Aseptic techniques “.
• Liquid culture media containing beef extract and peptone, without agar, is
referred to as “Nutrient broth”.
 Techniques / Methods used to Identify Microorganisms.
i. Using a microscope.
Note :—> The microscope used to identify most Micro-organisms, [except viruses], is
called the “light microscope “.
Note :—> The microscope used to identify viruses, is called “Electron microscope “.

ii. By Staining techniques / methods.

There are two types of staining techniques used to identify Micro-organisms :-
a. Simple stain [e.g methylene blue, and crystal violet].
They bring out the size, shape, and cell arrangements of the Micro-organisms.
b. Differential stain.
They bring out the structures [e.g flagella, capsules, and spores] of the Micro-
organisms.
An important Differential stain is the “Gram’s stain”.
Note :—> Bacterials which a purple colour to gram’s stain, are called “gram-positive
bacterials “, while those which give a red colour to gram’s stain, are called “gram-nega-
tive bacterials “.

iii. Based on Oxygen Requirements.

Note :-
• Microorganisms that requires oxygen, are called “Aerobes”, while vice-versa, are
called “Obligate Anaerobes “.
• Microorganisms that can grow in the presence of absence of oxygen, are called
“Facultative Anaerobes “.

iv. Biochemical tests.

v. Based on the form / type of colonies formed in their culture media.

Shapes Of Bacterials.
1. Cocci :—> round / spherical shaped bacterials.
2. Bacilli :—> Rod-like shaped bacterials.
3. Spirillae :—> cockscrew -shaped rigid bacterials.
4. Spirochetes :—> cockscrew -shaped flexible bacterials.
5. Vibrios :—> comma-shaped bacterials.
6. Streptococci :—> Bacterials in long chains.
7. Staphylococci :—> Bacterials in grape-like clusters.
8. Diplococci :—> Bacterials in pairs.

Note :-
• Microorganisms [harmless Micro-organisms] found on / in the human body, are
called “Normal microflora “.
• Microorganisms found in the intestines of vertebrates, are called “Coliform”.
Note :-
▪ The Micro-organism which causes Bacteria dysentery, is called “Shigella so.”.
 ▪ The Micro-organism which causes Botulism, is called “Clostridium botulinum”.
▪ The Microorganism which causes Salmonella food poisoning, is called “Salmonella
enteriditis”.
▪ The Microorganism which causes Amoebic dysentery, is called “Entamoeba
histolytica”.
▪ The Microorganism which causes Paralytic shellfish poisoning, is called “Gonyaulax
sp. [Dinoflagellate]”.
▪ The Microorganism which causes Fungal food poisoning, is called “Aspergillus
Flavus”.
▪ The Microorganism which causes Staphylococcal food poisoning, is called
“Staphylococcus aureus”.
Note :-
▪ Disease -causing Micro-organisms are called “Pathogens”, while Organisms that
spread / carry Pathogens, are called “Vectors”. The table below shows some
important Pathogens and Vectors, and the disease they cause :-

Vector. Pathogen. Disease Caused.

1. Tse-tse fly. Trypanosoma. Sleeping sickness.
2. Aedes mosquito. Plasmodium. Malaria.

Growth Curve Of Micro-organisms [Bacterials] in a Culture Medium.

The growth curve of Micro-organisms, is shown below :-

The following can be deduced from the growth curve of Micro-organisms shown above :-
i. I [Lag Phase] :—> This is the stage at which the Micro-organism grows at a slow
pace. This is because it is newly adapting to its new environment.
 ii. II [Exponential Phase] :—> This is the stage at which the Micro-organism grows at a
fast rate / maximum rate.
iii. III [Stationary Phase] :—> This is the stage at which the Micro-organism ceases to
grow. This is due to competition for food and space by the Micro-organisms.
iv. IV [Decline Phase] :—> This is the stage at which the Micro-organisms begins to die /
show decline in growth rate. This is due to the accumulation of toxic wastes, and
reduced food supply in their culture medium.

Methods used to Measure the growth Of Micro-organisms.

The main methods used to measure the growth of microorganisms, are as follows :-
1. Turbidity method. 2. Serial dilution method.
Note :——> The instrument used to measure turbidity in the laboratory, is called
“Spectrophotometer”.

Benefits Of Micro-organisms.
1. They help to maintain soil fertility [e.g Saprophytes].
2. They help to bring about recycling of nutrients in an ecosystem [e.g Saprophytes].
3. They are used in sewage disposal [e.g Aerobic and Anaerobic bacterials].
Note :—> The solid matter left behind, when sewage components are separated, is
called “Sludge”.
4. They used in Fermentation industries, to produce important food products, by
Fermentation processes. Examples of useful products made by Fermentation
processes, and the starting materials & Microorganism used to bring about them, is
as follows :-
a. Cheese, Yogurt and butter :——> The Micro-organism used for their
manufacture, is called “Lactic acid bacteria, and some species of
streptococci “, while the starting materials used to make them, is called
“Milk”.
b. Silage [cattle feed] :—> The starting materials used to make them, is called
“Fresh grass”, while the Micro-organisms used to manufacture them, are
“Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus “.
c. Soy sauce :—> The starting materials used to make them, are “cooked soya
bean, and crushed wheat”, while the Micro-organisms used to manufacture
them, are “Aspergillus oryzae (mould), lactic acid bacterial, and yeast”.
d. Bread :—> The starting materials used to make them, is called “Dough (e.g
moistened wheat flour, and cornflour)”, while the Micro-organisms used to
make them, is called “yeast”.
e. Wine :—> The starting materials used to make them, are the “sugars in fruit
juices”, while the Micro-organisms used to make them, is called “Yeast”.
f. Beer :—> The starting materials used to make them, are the “sugars in
malted barley “, while the Micro-organisms used to make them, are called
“yeast”.
 g. Palm wine :—> The starting materials used to make them, are the “Sap of
palm trees “, while the Micro-organisms used to make them, is called
“Yeast”.
h. Burukutu :—> The starting materials used to make them, is called “Guinea
corn”, while the Micro-organisms used to make them, is called “Yeast”.
i. Vinegar :—> The starting materials used to make them, is called “Alcohol”,
while the Micro-organisms used to make them, is called “Acetobacter”.
5. They are used to manufacture single cell proteins [e.g bacterial, yeast, and blue
green algae].
6. They are used in the biological control Of Pests.
7. They are used to improve soil fertility [e.g Azotobacter and Rhizobium].
8. They are used in the biodegradation of pollutants.
Note :—> The group of Micro-organisms / bacteria’s used to clean up oil spills, are
called “Hydrocarbon-feeding bacterials “.
9. They are used to carryout genetic engineering, e.g manufacture of insulin from
bacterial culture media.
10. They are used to produce Food additives such as Vitamins, amino acids, and
nucleotides. E.g, Yeast is used to produce B-group vitamins.
11. They are used to produce Syrup, clear cloudiness in fruit juices, and also, for the
tenderizing of meat, by the aid of the enzymes present in them. These Processes are
shown below :-
a. Syrup Production :—> The Microorganism used in syrup Production, is called
“Aspergillus”, while the enzyme used in syrup Production, is called
“Amylase”.
b. Tenderizing of meat :—> The Microorganism used to tenderize meat, are
“Bacillus, and Aspergillus “, while the Microorganism used to tenderize meat,
is called “Proteases”.
c. Clearing cloudiness in fruit juices :—> The Microorganism used to clear
cloudiness in fruit juices, is called “Aspergillus”, while the enzyme used to
clear cloudiness in fruit juices, is called “Pectinase”.
12. They are used in industries to produce substances, antibiotics, and enzymes, such
as citric acid, dextrans, cellulose, Proteases, Amylase, Penicillin, and Streptomycin.
These Products / Microbial Products, the Microorganisms used to make them, and
the use of the microbial products, are as follows :-
a. Citric acid.
Microorganism used :—> Aspergillus Niger.
Use :-—> Citric acid is used to make Food acids, cosmetics, and also used to
clear water clogged pipes in oil industry.
b. Cellulose.
Microorganism used :—> Acetobacter xylinium.
Use :—> It is used to make Filters and fibers that are used to spin cotton.
c. Proteases, Amylase.
Microorganism used :—> Bacillus.
Use :—> They are used in detergents, to dissolve biological stains.
 d. Penicillin.
Microorganism used :—> Penicillium notatum.
Use :—> They are used as antibiotics.
e. Streptomycin.
Microorganism used :—> Streptomyces griseus.
Use :—> They are used as antibiotics.

Spread Of Diseases.
▪ Examples of Air-borne diseases, are ; Pneumonia, tuberculosis, Influenza,
mumps, smallpox, measles, chickenpox, common cold, Diphtheria, whooping
cough.
▪ Examples of water-borne diseases, are ; Typhoid, cholera, Polio, Hepatitis A,
Typhoid, Bacteria dysentery.
▪ Examples of Food borne diseases, are ; Bacillary dysentery, Amoebic dysentery,
salmonella food poisoning, cholera, Hepatitis A [Infective Hepatitis], Typhoid,
Bacteria dysentery, and Polio.
▪ Examples of skin-borne diseases, are ; Leprosy, ringworm, yaws, syphilis,
gonorrhoea, scabies [caused by “itch mites”], Onu madu, Athletes foot,
Measles, mumps, chickenpox, Polio, influenza or flu, AIDS, Yaws.

Important Diseases Of Humans.

a. Bacterial Diseases.
1. Cholera.
Causative agent :—> Vibro cholerae.
2. Typhoid.
Causative agent :—> Salmonella typhi.
3. Bacteria dysentery.
Causative agent :—> Shigella dysenteriae.
4. Food Poisoning.
Causative agent :—> Salmonella sp.
5. Tetanus or lockjaw.
Causative agent :—> Clostridium tetani.
6. Diphtheria.
Causative agent :—> Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
7. Tuberculosis.
Causative agent :—> Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Note :—> Tuberculosis can be cured / prevented by using a vaccine
called “BCG vaccine “.
8. Whooping cough.
Causative agent :—> Bordetella pertussis.
9. Gonorrhoea.
Causative agent :—> Neisseria gonorrhoae.
10. Syphilis.
 Causative agent :—> Treponema Pallidum.
11. Yaws.
Causative agent :—> Treponema pertenue.

b. Protozoa Diseases.
1. Amoebic dysentery.
Causative agent :—> Entamoeba histolytica.
2. Sleeping sickness.
Causative agent :—> Trypanosoma gambiense.
Vector :—> tse-tse fly.
3. Malaria.
Causative agent :—> Plasmodium sp.
Vector :—> Anopheles mosquito.

c. Fungi Diseases.
1. Onu madu, Athletes foot, Tinea versicolor [Eczema, or Ugwa].
Causative agent :—> They are all caused by “Dermatophyte filamentous
fungi “.

d. Viral Diseases.
1. Small pox.
Causative agent :—> Pox virus.
2. Measles.
Causative agent :—> Paramyxovirus.
3. Mumps.
Causative agent :—> Paramyxovirus.
4. Chickenpox.
Causative agent :—> Herpesvirus.
5. Poliomyelitis [Infantile Paralysis].
Causative agent :—> Picornavirus.
6. Influenza or flu.
Causative agent :—> Orthomyxovirus.
7. Yellow fever.
Causative agent :—> Arbovirus.
8. Rabies [Hydrophobia].
Causative agent :—> Rhabdovirus.
9. Hepatitis A [Infective Hepatitis].
Causative agent :—> RNA virus.
10. Hepatitis B [Serum Hepatitis].
Causative agent :—> DNA virus.
11. AIDS.
Causative agent :—> Retrovirus [HIV].
▪ Note :—> The major cells of the human body, which gets infected with HIV, is called
“T-helper cells, or CD-4 cells”.
 CHAPTER 9 : MICRO-ORGAMISMS AND HEALTH.

Control Of Micro-organisms.
The methods / ways of controlling disease-causing Micro-organisms / agents, include :
1. By isolation of infected persons.
2. By immunization / vaccination.
3. Practicing Personal hygiene.
4. Through General Cleanliness.
5. Use of Refrigeration or freezing, or cold treatment.
6. High Salinity.
7. Dehydration.
8. Antibiotics.
9. Antiseptics.
10. High temperature.

Vectors and Their Control.

1. Mosquitoes.
• The three (3) main groups of mosquitoes that spread diseases, are ; “ Anopheles,
Culex, and Aedes”. They spread diseases like malaria, yellow fever, dengue,
encephalitis, and Filariasis.
• Mosquitoes undergo complete metamorphosis.
• Female mosquitoes feed on blood, while male mosquitoes feed on plant juices.
• Most mosquitoes are active between sunset and sunrise.

Control of Mosquitoes.
They can be controlled by :
a. Environmental methods.
b. Chemical methods.
c. Biological methods.
d. Genetic methods.
e. Education.

a. Environmental methods :
This method is aimed at destroying the breeding and resting places of mosquitoes.
b. Chemical methods :
This method involves the use of insecticides, to kill mosquitoes.
c. Biological methods :
This method uses the Physical agents, such as Predators, Parasites, Pathogens,
mosquito -eating fishes like the guppies, to kill / reduce mosquitoes.
d. Genetic Control / methods :
This method involves sterilizing the male mosquitoes, so as to prevent/ reduce
mosquitoes population.
e. Education :
This is the best method of preventing the spread of mosquitoes.
 Other methods include :
f. Sleeping under mosquito nets.
g. Applying Physical attack to kill mosquitoes.

2. Houseflies.
• They undergo complete metamorphosis.
• They spread diseases such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery, and Poliomyelitis.
Control of Houseflies.
a. Through environmental methods.
b. Through chemical methods.
c. Fitting the doors and windows of houses with wire-netting.
d. Applying Physical attack to kill houseflies directly.

3. Rodent Vectors.
• Examples are rats, and mice.
• Rats spread diseases like Plague, and typhus.
• Rats are omnivorous animals.
• Rats are nocturnal animals.
Control of Rats.
a. Through environmental methods.
b. Through chemical methods (i.e, use of rat poisons).
c. Through Biological methods (e.g using cats to catch rats).

Note :
▪ Water can best be purified by “Boiling”, or use of “chlorine tablets [germicide]”.

▪ Refuse (solid wastes), can best be gotten rid of, by the following methods :
a. By burning in incinerators.
b. Sanitary landfill, or controlled tipping.
c. Dumping.
d. Emptying them into the sea.
e. Recycling ; The best method.

▪ Sewage (liquid waste), can best be gotten rid off, by :

a. Use of pit latrine, or Bucket latrines.
b. Use of chemical latrines.
c. Use of Water-carriage system.
d. Use of septic tanks.
e. Use of sewers and sewage works.

Global Warming ( Green house effect).

This is the gradual increase of the average or overall temperature of the earth.
Examples of Green house gases, are :
 1. Carbon monoxide.
2. Carbon (IV) oxide.
3. Methane.
4. CFC’s.
5. Lead.
6. SO2
7. Oxides of N2 (e.g NO, and NO2 ).

Effects / Consequences of Global Warming.

1. Health problems / diseases.
2. Expansion of oceans
3. Melting of polar ice / Flooding.
4. Reduction in biodiversity.
5. Change in weather pattern, i.e, increase in weather conditions.
6. Change in food production.
7. Reduction in water supply in some areas.
8. Change in the makeup and location of many of the world’s forests.

Control Of Global Warming.

1. By Education.
2. By slowing / reducing population growth.
3. Through planting of trees.
4. By using perpetual and renewable energy resources that do not emit CO 2.
5. Reduction in the use of Coal.
6. Cutting / reducing current use of fossil fuel.
7. Recycling CO2 released during industrial processes.