ENERGY

TRANSFORMANTION
By GROUP 4
 ATP-ADP CYCLE

When the cell needs to perform work, it removes a

phosphate from ATP, releasing energy. This leaves ADP and a
free phosphate left over. During cellular respiration, the cell
is able to reattach a phosphate onto the ADP molecule,
making new ATP.
ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate, and is
the energy used by an organism in its daily
operations. It consists of an adenosine
molecule and three inorganic phosphates.
After a simple reaction breaking down ATP to
ADP, the energy released from the breaking of
a molecular bond is the energy we use to keep
ourselves alive.

This is done by a simple process, in which one

of the 3 phosphate molecules is broken off,
therefore reducing the ATP from 3 phosphates
to 2, forming ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate
after removing one of the phosphates {Pi}).
When the bond connecting the phosphate is broken, energy is
released.
While ATP is constantly being used up by the body in its
biological processes, the energy supply can be bolstered by new
sources of glucose being made available via eating food which is
then broken down by the digestive system to smaller particles
that can be utilized by the body.
On top of this, ADP is built back up into ATP so that it can be
used again in its more energetic state. Although this conversion
requires energy, the process produces a net gain in energy,
meaning that more energy is available by re-using ADP+Pi back
into ATP.
Glucose and ATP
Many ATP are needed every second by a cell, so ATP is created inside
them due to the demand, and the fact that organisms like ourselves
are made up of millions of cells.
Glucose, a sugar that is delivered via the bloodstream, is the product
of the food you eat, and this is the molecule that is used to create
ATP. Sweet foods provide a rich source of readily available glucose
while other foods provide the materials needed to create glucose.
This glucose is broken down in a series of enzyme controlled steps
that allow the release of energy to be used by the organism. This
process is called respiration.
Respiration and the Creation of ATP
ATP is created via respiration in both animals and
plants. The difference with plants is the fact they attain
their food from elsewhere (photosynthesis).
In essence, materials are harnessed to create ATP for
biological processes. The energy can be created via
cellular respiration. The process of respiration occurs in
3 steps (when oxygen is present):
Glycolysis
The Kreb’s Cycle
The Cytochrome System
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway and an anaerobic energy
source that has evolved in nearly all types of organisms. Another
name for the process is the Embden-Meyerhof pathway.

Although it doesn't require oxygen, hence its purpose in

anaerobic respiration, it is also the first step in cellular
respiration. The process entails the oxidation of glucose
molecules, the single most crucial organic fuel in plants,
microbes, and animals. Most cells prefer glucose
During glycolysis, glucose ultimately breaks down into
pyruvate and energy; a total of 2 ATP is derived in the
process (Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi --> 2 Pyruvate + 2
NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O).
The Kreb’s Cycle
The Cytochrome System
cytochrome, any of a group of hemoprotein cell
components that, by readily undergoing reduction and
oxidation (gain and loss of electrons) with the aid of
enzymes, serve a vital function in the transfer of
energy within cells. Hemoproteins are proteins linked
to a nonprotein, iron-bearing component.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and
carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar.

Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis.The process is carried

out by plants, algae, and some types of bacteria, which capture
energy from sunlight to produce oxygen (O2) and chemical energy
stored in glucose (a sugar). Herbivores then obtain this energy by
eating plants, and carnivores obtain it by eating herbivores.
The process

During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide (CO2) and water

(H2O) from the air and soil. Within the plant cell, the water is
oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon dioxide is
reduced, meaning it gains electrons. This transforms the water into
oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose. The plant then releases
the oxygen back into the air, and stores energy within the glucose
molecules.
Chlorophyll
Inside the plant cell are small organelles called chloroplasts, which store the
energy of sunlight. Within the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast is a
light-absorbing pigment called chlorophyll, which is responsible for giving the
plant its green color. During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs energy from
blue- and red-light waves, and reflects green-light waves, making the plant
appear green.

The thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast is an internal system of

interconnected membranes, that carry out the light reactions of
photosynthesis.
Process
Process of photosynthesis is commonly written as: 6CO2 +
6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2. This means that the reactants, six
carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules, are
converted by light energy captured by chlorophyll
(implied by the arrow) into a sugar molecule and six
oxygen molecules, the products. The sugar is used by the
organism, and the oxygen is released as a by-product.
The Two Parts of Photosynthesis

light-dependent reactions
light-independent reactions
 The goal of the light-dependent reactions
of photosynthesis is to collect energy from
the sun and break down water molecules to
produce ATP and NADPH. These two
energy-storing molecules are then used in
the light-independent reactions.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) is an essential
electron donor in all organisms, and provides the reducing power for anabolic
reactions and redox balance.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the source of energy for use and storage at
the cellular level. The structure of ATP is a nucleoside triphosphate,
consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine), a ribose sugar, and three serially
bonded phosphate groups.
 The light-independent reactions, often
known as the Calvin cycle, describe a phase
in photosynthesis where the energy
previously stored in ATP and NADPH is used
to convert carbon dioxide into organic
carbohydrate molecules.

The Calvin cycle is a process that plants and

algae use to turn carbon dioxide from the air
into sugar, the food autotrophs need to grow.
Every living thing on Earth depends on the
Calvin cycle. Plants depend on the Calvin
cycle for energy and food.
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
There are three main steps of cellular respiration: glycolysis; the citric acid (TCA) or the Krebs cycle;
and the electron transport chain, where oxidative phosphorylation occurs. The TCA cycle and
oxidative phosphorylation require oxygen, while glycolysis can occur in anaerobic conditions.
Glycolysis is the initial breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, a three carbon structure, in the cytoplasm.
The pyruvate then moves into the mitochondrial matrix where a transition step called pyruvate
oxidation takes place. In this process, pyruvate dehydrogenase converts the three-carbon pyruvate
to the two-carbon acetyl-CoA. The TCA cycle begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon
oxaloacetate in order to form the six-carbon citrate. Because each molecule of glucose produces 2
pyruvate molecules, it takes two turns through the Krebs cycle to completely break down the original
glucose.
 Finally, the electron transport chain is a series of redox reactions
powered by high energy electrons that pumps protons across the
membrane, creating a proton gradient. Together, an
electrochemical gradient is created. At the end of the electron
transport chain, the final electron acceptor, O2, combines with
protons to produce water (H2O). Meanwhile, ATP synthase uses the
movement of protons back into the mitochondrial matrix for ATP
synthesis.
 Cellular respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and
mitochondria of each cell of the body. Glycolysis
occurs inside the cytoplasm, while the TCA cycle
occurs inside the matrix of the mitochondria.
Meanwhile, oxidative phosphorylation occurs on the
inner mitochondrial membrane, with protons diffusing
across into the membrane and later pumped back into
the matrix.
 The reactants of cellular respiration vary at each stage, but initially, it
requires an input of glucose, ATP, and NAD+. NAD+, a nicotinamide derived
from vitamin B3, is a universal electron acceptor that is crucial in the process
of cellular respiration. Another important universal electron acceptor is FAD,
a flavin nucleotide from vitamin B2. These acceptors are often used in
catabolic processes and are reduced into NADH and FADH2, respectively.
Glycolysis requires an input of glucose, two ATP, two ADP, and two NAD+.
Reactants for pyruvate oxidation are pyruvate, NAD+, and coenzyme A
(CoA). One TCA cycle requires acetyl-CoA, one ADP, three NAD+, and one
FAD. Finally, oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain use
the reactants ADP, NADH, FADH2, and O2.
The final end products of cellular respiration are ATP and H2O. Glycolysis produces
two pyruvate molecules, four ATPs (a net of two ATP), two NADH, and two H2O.
Therefore, without the presence of oxygen, glycolysis is the only process that can
occur, and only two ATP molecules may be produced for each glucose molecule.
When oxygen is present, pyruvate oxidation produces one acetyl-CoA, one NADH,
and one CO2 per pyruvate molecule. The TCA cycle then yields one GTP (i.e., an
energy-rich compound similar to ATP used primarily in lower pH environments),
three NADH, one FADH2, and two CO2. NADH and FADH2 can then be used by the
electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative
phosphorylation. Finally, oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport
chain produce 28-30 ATP and 28-30 H2O per glucose. As a result, the whole process
of cellular respiration ends up yielding 30-32 ATP per molecule of glucose.
There are three primary rate-determining enzymes in cellular respiration. These enzymes
catalyze the rate-limiting steps, which are the slowest reactions in the series.
The rate determining enzyme in glycolysis is phosphofructokinase-1, or PFK-1, which
converts fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. It is stimulated by AMP,
fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, and inhibited by ATP and citrate.
Pyruvate oxidation only uses pyruvate dehydrogenase, which is activated by increased
NAD+, ADP, or Ca2+.
In the TCA cycle, the rate determining enzyme is isocitrate dehydrogenase, which
converts isocitrate to ɑ-ketoglutarate. The specific reaction is stimulated by ADP and
inhibited by ATP and NADH.
Thank You