‫اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎرات اﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺔ‬

‫‪Mechanical Failures‬‬

‫د‪ /‬وﻟﻴﺪ ﺧﻠﻴﻔﺔ‬

‫ﻗﺴﻢ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺟﻢ واﻟﺒﺘﺮول واﻟﻔﻠﺰات‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻫﺮة‬
Fracture mechanisms‫آﻟﻴﺎت اﻟﻜﺴﺮ‬

 Ductile fracture‫ﻣﻄﻴﻞ‬ ‫ﻛﺴﺮ‬

 ‫ﻳﺤﺪث ﻣﻌﻪ ﺗﺸﻮه ﻟﺪن‬
 Occurs with plastic deformation

 Brittle fracture‫ﻗﺼﻴﻒ‬ ‫ﻛﺴﺮ‬

 ‫ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺗﺸﻮه ﻟﺪن ﺿﺌﻴﻞ أو ﻻ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ‬
 Little or no plastic deformation

 Catastrophic ‫ﻛﺎرﺛﻰ‬
 ‫اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر اﻟﻤﻄﻴﻞ واﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر اﻟﻘﺼﻴﻒ ‪Ductile vs Brittle Failure‬‬

‫ﻣﻄﻴﻞ‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬ ‫ﻗﺼﻴﻒ‬

‫‪ً Ductile‬‬ ‫ً‬ ‫ﺳﻠﻮك‬
‫ﺟﺪا‬
‫‪Very‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻄﻴﻠﻴﺔ‬
‫‪Moderately‬‬ ‫‪Ductile‬‬ ‫‪Brittle‬‬
‫‪behavior‬اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر‬
‫‪Fracture‬‬

‫ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﻄﺎﻟﺔ ‪EL %‬‬

‫ﻛﺒﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬ ‫ﺻﻐﻴﺮ‬ ‫أو اﻧﺨﻔﺎض اﻟﻤﺴﺎﺣﺔ ‪AR%‬‬
‫‪large‬‬
‫ة‬ ‫‪moderate‬‬
‫ة‬ ‫‪small‬ة‬
‫اﻟﻜﺴﺮ اﻟﻤﻄﻴﻞ‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺴﺮ اﻟﻘﺼﻴﻒ ﻻ ﻳﻌﻄﻰ اﻟﻜﺴﺮ اﻟﻤﻄﻴﻞ ﻳﻌﻄﻰ‬
‫ً‬
‫دوﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻏﻮب ﺑﻪ‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺬﻳﺮ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻜﺴﺮ‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺬﻳﺮ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻜﺴﺮ‬
‫‪Desirable‬‬ ‫‪Gives warning‬‬ ‫‪No warning‬‬
 Example: pipe failure ‫ اﻧﻬﻴﺎر ﻣﺎﺳﻮرة‬:‫ﻣﺜﺎل‬
‫•اﻧﻬﻴﺎر ﻣﻄﻴﻞ‬
‫ ﻗﻄﻌﺔ واﺣﺪة‬-
‫ ﺗﺸﻮه ﻛﺒﻴﺮ‬-
Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

‫• اﻧﻬﻴﺎر ﻗﺼﻴﻒ‬
‫ أﺟﺰاء ﻋﺪﻳﺪة‬-
‫ ﺗﺸﻮه ﺻﻐﻴﺮ‬-
Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Moderately Ductile Failure‫اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ اﻟﻤﻄﻴﻠﻴﺔ‬
• Evolution to failure:‫ﻧﺸﻮء اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر‬
void void growth shearing
Necking and linkage at surface fracture
nucleation


‫ﺗﻌﻦ‬ َ ‫َﺗ ْﻨ‬

‫ﻮﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﻔﺠﻮات‬ ‫ﻗﺺ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺲ‬
‫ق‬ ‫اﻟﻔﺠﻮات‬ ‫واﺗﺼﺎﻟﻬﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻄﺢ‬ ‫ر‬
• Resulting 50
50mm
mm ،‫ﺳﻄﻮح ﻛﺴﺮ‬
fracture ‫ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ‬
surfaces ‫اﻟﺠﺴﻴﻤﺎت‬
(steel) ‫ﻛﻤﻮاﺿﻊ ﻟﻨﻤﻮ‬
‫اﻟﻔﺠﻮات‬ 100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)
Ductile vs. Brittle Failure‫اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر اﻟﻤﻄﻴﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ اﻟﻘﺼﻴﻒ‬

‫ﻛﺴﺮ ﻗﺪﺣﻰ‬ ‫ﻛﺴﺮ ﻗﺼﻴﻒ‬

‫ﻣﺨﺮوﻃﻰ‬ brittle fracture
Ductile cup-and-cone
fracture
 Brittle Failure ‫اﻧﻬﻴﺎر ﻗﺼﻴﻒ‬

‫ﺗﺸﻴﺮ اﻷﺳﻬﻢ إﻟﻰ ﻧﻘﺎط ﺑﺪء اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر‬

Arrows indicate pt at which failure originated
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces‫ﺳﻄﻮح اﻟﻜﺴﺮ اﻟﻘﺼﻒ‬
‫ﻛﺴﺮ ﺣﺪودى أو ﻛﺴﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻛﺴﺮ ﻋﺒﺮﺣﺒﻴﺒﻰ أو ﻛﺴﺮ ﻋﺒﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎت‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎت‬
• Intergranular • Intragranular
304 S. Steel (within grains)
(between grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook",
(metal)
Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials
Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Olsen,
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Oak Ridge National Lab.)
D.R. Diercks, Argonne 160 mm
4 mm ‫ﺑﻮﻟﻴﺒﺮوﺑﻴﻠﻲ‬ National Lab.)
‫أﻛﺴﻴﺪ‬
‫ن‬ ‫أﻟﻮﻣﻨﻴﻮم‬
Polypropylene
Al Oxide
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ (ceramic)
permission from R.W. Reprinted w/ permission
Hertzberg, "Defor- from "Failure Analysis of
mation and Fracture Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic Society,
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.) 3 mm
1 mm
 Ideal vs Real Materials‫اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﻤﺜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ اﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ‬
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
 perfect mat’l-no flaws TS engineering<< TS
E/10 perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
-- the longer the wire, the Hertzberg, "
Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.
-- Larger samples contain more flaws!
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators ‫اﻟﺼﺪوع ﻫﻰ ُﻣ َﺮﻛﺰات ﻟﻺﺟﻬﺎد‬

Griffith criterion ‫ﻣﺒﺪأ ﺟﺮﻳﻔﻴﺚ‬

1/ 2
a 
 m  2 o    K t o
 t 
t = radius of curvature
t ‫ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ اﻻﻧﺤﻨﺎء‬
o = applied stress
‫اﻹﺟﻬﺎد اﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮ‬
m = stress at crack tip
‫اﻹﺟﻬﺎد ﻋﻨﺪ ﻃﺮف اﻟﺸﺮخ‬
 ‫َﺗ َﺮﻛُﺰ اﻹﺟﻬﺎد ﻋﻨﺪ ﻃﺮف اﻟﺸﺮخ‬
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

‫اﻹﺟﻬﺎ‬
‫د‬
1/ 2
a 
 m  2 o    K t o
 t 
m = ‫ﺧﺮﺷﻼ ﻓﺮط دﻧﻊ داﻫﺠﺈﻻ‬
stress at crack tip

Kt = stress concentration factor

‫ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﺮﻛﺰ اﻹﺟﻬﺎدات‬
 Engineering Fracture Design ‫اﻟﺘﺼﻤﻴﻢ اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﺿﺪ اﻟﻜﺴﺮ‬

• Avoid sharp corners ! ‫ﺗﺠﻨﺐ اﻷرﻛﺎن اﻟﺤﺎدة‬

o
, ‫اﻹﺟﻬﺎدات‬ ‫ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ َﺗ َﺮﻛُﺰ‬
K
w
max
2.5 ‫زﻳﺎ‬
r, h ‫دة‬
‫ﻧﺺ‬ 2.0 increasing w/h
‫فﻗﻄﺮ‬
‫اﻻﻧﺤﻨﺎء‬
Adapted from Fig. 8.2W(c)
, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
1.5
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
‫ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ اﻧﺤﻨﺎء‬
radius of curvature
 Fracture Toughness ‫ﻣﺘﺎﻧﺔ اﻟﻜﺴﺮ‬
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C (|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5)

Callister 7e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is:
Al/Al oxide(sf)2
f = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2O 3/ZrO2(p)4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers)1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w)3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w)5
7 Al oxid/ZrO2(p)4
Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
6 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
Si carbide Glass/SiC(w)6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture Mechanics
4 Si nitride of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press (1986). pp.
PP 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
‫اﻟﻜﺴﺮ‬
‫ﻣﺘﺎﻧﺔ‬

Proc. , Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.

1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass6
<111>
0.7 Glass-soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete
0.5
 Loading Rate ‫ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﺘﺤﻤﻴﻞ‬

High loading rate causes: :‫ارﺗﻔﺎع ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺘﺤﻤﻴﻞ ﻳﺆدى إﻟﻰ‬

- Increase in y and TS TS ‫ وﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﺸﺪ‬y ‫ ارﺗﻔﺎع ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﺨﻀﻮع‬-
- Decrease in %EL
EL% ‫ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﻄﺎﻟﺔ‬-

 ‫ﻟﻤﺎذا ؟‬
TS  ‫ﻷﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﻮﻗﺖ ﻛﺎﻓﻰ ﻟﻜﻰ‬
y larger .‫ﺗﺘﺨﻄﻰ اﻻﻧﺨﻼﻋﺎت اﻟﻌﻮاﺋﻖ‬

TS 
smaller Why?
Because little time is available
y for dislocations to overcome the ostacles.


 ‫‪Impact testing‬‬ ‫اﺧﺘﺒﺎر اﻟﺼﺪم‬
‫اﻟﺼﺪﻣﻰ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺤﻤﻴﻞ ‪‬‬
‫ﺷﺪﻳﺪة‬
‫ﻇﺮوف اﺧﺘﺒﺎر ‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺪري‬
‫ﻗﺼﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻳﺠﻌﻞ اﻟﻤﺎدة أﻛﺜﺮ ‪‬‬
‫ج‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﺎﻧﺔ‬
‫ﻳﺨﻔﺾ ‪‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﻴﻦ‬ ‫وﺿﻊ‬
‫ة‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺪاﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺆش‬ ‫ﻣﻄﺮق‬
‫ر‬ ‫‪ Impact loading‬ة‬
‫ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ‬ ‫‪-severe test conditions‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮﺟﺢ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻴﻦ‬
‫‪- makes the material‬‬
‫ة‬ ‫‪more brittle‬‬
‫‪-Decrease toughness‬‬

‫‪final height‬‬ ‫‪initial height‬‬

‫َﺳ ْﻨﺪا‬
‫اﻻرﺗﻔﺎع‬ ‫اﻻرﺗﻔﺎع‬
‫ن‬
‫اﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻰ‬ ‫اﻻﺑﺘﺪاﺋﻰ‬
 Temperature ‫درﺟﺔ اﻟﺤﺮارة‬
DBTT ‫درﺟﺔ ﺣﺮارة اﻟﺘﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ﻣﻄﻴﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻗﺼﻴﻒ‬
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)

Cu, Ni (FCC)
eneregy absorbed at impact

Fe, polymers, (BCC)

‫اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﻤﺘﺼﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ‬

‫ﻗﺼﻲ‬ ‫ﻣﻄﻴﻞ أﻛﺜﺮ‬

‫ف‬ More Ductile
‫اﻟﺼﺪم‬

Brittle
(y > E/150 )
‫درﺟﺔ اﻟﺤﺮارة‬
‫درﺟﺔ ﺣﺮارة اﻟﺘﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ﻣﻄﻴﻞ إﻟﻰ‬ temperature
‫ﻗﺼﻴﻒ‬
Ductile to brittle transition
temperature
Effect of temperature on fracture type
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ درﺟﺔ اﻟﺤﺮارة ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ اﻟﻜﺴﺮ‬
 ‫اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺼﻤﻴﻢ ‪Design Strategy:‬‬
‫اﺑﻘﻰ أﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ‪Stay Above The DBTT‬‬

‫ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﺤﺮب اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‪ :‬اﻟﺘﻴﺘﺎﻧﻴﻚ‬ ‫أﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺤﺮب اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‪ :‬ﺳﻔﻦ‬
‫‪Pre-WWII: The Titanic‬‬
‫اﻟﺤﺮﻳﺔ‬
‫‪WWII: Liberty ships‬‬

‫اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ‪ :‬اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ُﺻﻠﺐ ﻟﻪ درﺟﺔ ﺣﺮارة ﺗﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ﻣﻄﻴﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻗﺼﻴﻒ ~ درﺟﺔ‬
‫ﺣﺮارة اﻟﻐﺮﻓﺔ‬
‫‪Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.‬‬
 Fatigue ‫اﻟﻜﻼل‬
Fatigue = failure under cyclic ‫اﻟﻜﻼل = اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر ﺗﺤﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ إﺟﻬﺎد دورى‬
.stress
specimen compression on top

motor counter
bearing bearing

flex coupling
tension on bottom


max S = ‫داﻫﺠﺈﻻ ةﻋﺲ‬
S
m
min time
 ‫اﻟﺘﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﺿﺪ اﻟﻜﻼل‬
‫داﻫﺠﺈﻻ ةﻋﺲ‪S = stress amplitude‬‬

‫‪Fatigue limit,‬‬ ‫‪ :‬ﺣﺪ اﻟﻜﻼل‪Sfat‬‬ ‫ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬

‫ﻧﻤﺂ رﻳﻎ‪Unsafe‬‬
‫اﻟﺼﻠﺐ‬
‫ُ‬
‫‪ S‬ﻻ ﻳﺤﺪث ﻛﻼل إذا ﻛﺎن اﻹﺟﻬﺎد‬
‫‪Steel‬‬
‫‪ fat‬اﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺎدة أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺂ‪Safe‬‬
‫اﻟﻜﻼل‬
‫‪no fatigue if S < Sfat‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪10‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪10‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪10‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫راﻳﻬﻨﺎﻻ ﯨﺘﺢ ﺗﺎرودﻻ ددع‪N = Cycles to failure‬‬

‫داﻫﺠﺈﻻ ةﻋﺲ‪S = stress amplitude‬‬

‫ﻧﻤﺂ رﻳﻎ‪Unsafe‬‬
‫ً‬
‫أﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ ﻻ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺣﺪ ﻛﻼل‪.‬‬ ‫ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫‪Sometimes, the‬‬ ‫اﻷﻟﻮﻣﻨﻴﻮم‬
‫ﻧﻤﺂ‪Safe‬‬
‫!‪fatigue limit is zero‬‬ ‫‪Aluminum‬‬
‫‪10 3‬‬ ‫‪10 5‬‬ ‫‪10 7‬‬ ‫‪10 9‬‬
‫راﻳﻬﻨﺎﻻ ﯨﺘﺢ ﺗﺎرودﻻ ددع‪N = Cycles to failure‬‬
 ‫ﺳﻄﻮح ﻛﺴﺮ اﻟﻜﻼل‬
fatigue fracture surfaces
fatigue fracture surfaces ‫ﺳﻄﻮح ﻛﺴﺮ اﻟﻜﻼل‬
 Improving Fatigue Life ‫ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﻋﻤﺮ اﻟﻜﻼل‬
1. Impose a compressive
surface stress ‫اﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺑﺈﺟﻬﺎد ﺿﻐﻂ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ‬
(to suppress surface
cracks from growing) (‫)ﻟﻤﻨﻊ اﻟﺸﺮوخ اﻟﺴﻄﺤﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ‬

‫اﻟﺪق‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺮﺑﻦ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺮﻳﺎت‬ ‫ة‬
--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing
shot
C-rich gas
‫ﺗﺠﻌﻞ‬
ً
‫ﻣﻀﻐﻮﻃﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻄﺢ‬

2. Remove stress ‫ﺳﻲ‬ ‫أف‬

concentrators. ‫ئ‬ ‫ﺿﻞ‬ Adapted from
‫إزاﻟﺔ ُﻣﺮﻛﺰات‬ Fig. 8.25, Callister 7e.

‫اﻹﺟﻬﺎد‬ bad better

 Creep ‫اﻟﺰﺣﻒ‬
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs. time

 

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.

Secondary Creep: steady-state

i.e., constant slope.
 Creep ‫اﻟﺰﺣﻒ‬
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Figs. 8.29,

Callister 7e.
‫اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎر ﺑﺎﻟﺰﺣﻒ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺣﺪود اﻟﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎت‬
creep failure occurs
at grain boundaries

‫ﻋﻨﺪ ﺧﻔﺾ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺣﺪود‬

‫اﻟﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎت ﻳﻘﻞ اﻟﺘﺸﻮه‬
‫اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺰﺣﻒ‬
When grain
boundary area
decreases the
creep deformation
decreases
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic  and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic :
- cycles to fail decreases as  increases.
- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to fail decreases as  or T increases.
‫ﺷﻜﺮاً‬