Map of the course

1. History (of the Programming language C++)

2. Literature
3. A first example
4. Some remarks on the compilation and binding of programs
5. The programming environment Dev-C++
6. Expressions in C++
7. Formatted input and output
8. Control structures
9. Functions
10. Arrays
11. Using files
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 9. Functions
• Splitting a complex task into several simpler tasks
• Re-use of partial problem solutions, for example, an equation solver
• Test of individual modules
• Distribution of tasks to a team of developers

9.1 Structure of a function

List of parameters
(optional)

Type Function
(mandatory)

Return value (optional)

equal to the type of the function

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Its just the same as in math …

Function Call 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Result Argument(s)
Name

What does the function do?

Function Definition 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 7 𝑥 − 3

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 Function Definition
T y p e _ o f_ r e tu r n _ v a lu e F u n c t io n _ n a m e ( p a r a m e te r lis t )
{ // o p e n b lo c k ( b o d y ) : c r e a te s a lo c a l s c o p e fo r th e fu n c tio n

// im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e th e fu n c tio n

r e tu r n r e tu r n _ v a lu e ; // r e tu r n to c a llin g fu n c tio n
// th e ty p e o f th e r e tu r n v a lu e is e q u a l to th e ty p e o f th e
// fu n c tio n
} // c lo s e b lo c k

Example: Compute the Euclidean distance of two points with coordinates (x1,y1)
and (x2,y2).
double length(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2)
{
double a;
a = sqrt((x2-x1)*(x2-x1)+(y2-y1)*(y2-y1));
return a;
}
Example: 6_d
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Return value
In general, a function returns a value via the return-statement:

return return_value;
return_value can be:
 a variable
double length(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2)
{
double a;
a = sqrt((x2-x1)*(x2-x1)+(y2-y1)*(y2-y1));
return a;
}

 an arithmetic expression
double length(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2)
{
return sqrt((x2-x1)*(x2-x1)+(y2-y1)*(y2-y1));
}

 a logical expression
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A return value

can (yet must not necessarily)

be used in the calling function, for example,

1) on the right-hand side of an assignment statement

double s;
double u1, v1, u2, v2;
.....
s = length(u1, v1, u2, v2);
printf(“Length = %f\n“, s);

2) or as a parameter of another function

double u1, v1, u2, v2;

.....
printf(“Length = %f\n“, length(u1, v1, u2, v2));

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Return value void

void is a special return type, where the return-statement does not send
a value back to the calling function.

Example:

void length(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2)

{
double a;
a = sqrt((x2-x1)*(x2-x1)+(y2-y1)*(y2-y1));
printf(“Length = %f\n“, a);
return;
}

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Formal and actual parameters
Formal parameters are those given in the declaration (prototype) and definition
(implementation) of the function.
e.g. function length: x1, y1, x2, y2

Actual parameters are those used in the calling of the function.

e.g. function length: u1, v1, u2, v2

The following rules should be used:

• The sequence of parameters must be the same in the protoype and in the
calling of the function

• The datatypes of individual parameters must be the same or must be

transferable („cast“) into each other

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Function prototypes
Variables: have to be declared to the compiler
Declaration

Type_ of _ Variable Name_of_Variable;

Definition
Name_of_Variable = some_value;

Functions: have to be declared to the compiler

Declaration of a function is called a function prototype

Type_of_return_value Function_name(parameterlist);
The semicolon at the end of the declaration is mandatory!
Definition
The body of the function that was declared (i.e. the implementation)

10
Code Modularization: the include concept
Our Code
External
Source File Header File
# include <A.h>
(Implementation) (Prototypes) # include <B.h>
use # include <C.h>
A.c A.h
use
B.c B.h

Compiled Content
(Libraries) use

C.lib B.h
Example: 6e
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The include concept
• Using the #include <name> command the preprocessor inserts the file
<name> before compilation into the source file
Example:
# in c lu d e < s t d io .h >
...
p r in tf( “ % d “ , i) ;
...

• If the function protype is missing, the compiler generates an error message:

undeclared identifier ....

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Important header files

Header file Contents

stdio.h Input and output

math.h Mathematical functions:

e.g.: sin, cos, fabs, sqrt
string.h Functions to manipulate character strings

time.h Date and time

limits.h Limit values of different data types

stdlib.h or cstdlib Standard functions like, for example, exit

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 The Call Stack

function calls Recursive function calls

calls myLastFunction() myRecursiveFunction()
returns

calls returns
mySecondFunction() myRecursiveFunction()
calls returns
myFirstFunction() myRecursiveFunction()
calls returns
main() main()
calls returns
Operating System Operating System

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 6th Assignment: Trapezoidal rule
y
e.g. f ( x )  x
2

f (x)
f (xi )
f (xi+1 )
b

I   f ( x ) dx
a

a xi xi+1 b x
1
Ai   f ( x i 1 )  f ( x i )  ( x i 1  xi )
2

1 n 1
1 
 T  h  f ( x0 )   f ( x j )  f ( xn )
2 
 j 1 2 

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Input number of subintervals n
interval a,b

Computation step size h=(b-a)/n

trapezoidal rule
1 n 1
1 
T  h  f (x0 )   f (x j )  f ( x n )
2 j 1 2 

T = 0.5 * ( f(a) + f(b) ); // x(0) und x(n)

for(i=1; i<n; i++) // loop x(1)...x(n-1)
{
T += f( a + i*h );
}
T = T * h;

Output of T approximating the definite integral

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Variables, pointers and addresses
Motivation: Call by value

Change of the values of parameters

is performed within the but not

called function within the calling function

reason

When a function is called, a (local) copy of all parameters

Function call is made and only this copy is modified. This transfer of
parameters is a call by value.

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Call by value

in t q u a d ( in t i)
{
i = i * i;
r e t u r n i;
}

v o id m a i n ( )
{
in t n , q ;
n = 3;
q = q u a d ( n ) ; / / n is c o p ie d t o a n e w v a r ia b le a n d g iv e n t o q u a d
/ / v a lu e o f n is s t ill 3
p r in t f ( “ b a s is % d , s q u a r e % d \ n “ , n , q ) ;
}

Example: 7_b
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Call by value

v o id m a i n ( )
{ in t q u a d ( in t i)
in t n , q ; {
n = 3; i = i * i;
q = q u a d (n ); r e t u r n i;
p r in t f ( “ b a s is % d , s q u a r e % d \ n “ , n , q ) ; }
}

n Copy i
At the call: 3 3
Computation
In the Function: 9
Copy
n q
At the return: 3 9

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Question: How can we get that a function returns more than one value?

Function Function
??
o.k.

Answer: Use memory adresses (so-called pointers).

Using memory addresses as parameters, it is yet possible to change the value
of more than one variable.
This is possible, since a modification in the contents of a memory address does
not change the address itself.
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How are variables stored in memory?
Remember this … ? Memory is like a shelf!

Every variable has a unique identifier specifying its place in the memory:
the address!

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Variables, pointers and addresses

A variable has the following characteristics:

• A memory address, where

• the value of the variable is stored, and
• a name, allowing to access the memory contents of the variable.

• The data type defines, how many bits are reserved for the data and
how the sequence of bits has to be interpreted.

C++ (like C) can control all these aspects of a variable (within certain limitations).

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Different operators are defined for accessing variables
Reference operator (&)
A reference operator can be used to obtain an address of a variable.

Given following example:

Int andy;
Int fred;
Int ted;

andy = 25;
fred = andy;
ted = &andy;

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Different operators are defined for accessing variables
Dereference operator (*)
A dereferencing operator gets the value of a given address.
See the following example:

Int beth;
beth = *ted;

“beth equal to value pointed

by ted"

Notice the difference between the reference and dereference operators:

• & is the reference operator and can be read as "address of"
• * is the dereference operator and can be read as "value pointed by”

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Definition of a new Datatype called „Pointer“

A pointer is a variable type that is designed to store addresses (references).

It is defined as follows:

<type>* <name>;
e.g.
int* points_to_integer;

With the help of pointers you can directly store addresses instead of
dereferencing variables to retrieve the address.

For more complex data tyes (like arrays) it is a lot easier to pass the starting
address than to copy each element into one function.

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Summary and Examples

int a; Declaration of an int-variable named a

This defines that adequate memory space for one int-variable
named a is available.

int* pointer_a; Declaration of a pointer variable which can store

the address of an integer variable
(dereference operator *)

pointer_a = &a; assigns the actual address of a to the pointer variable

pointer_a.
b = *pointer_a; the contents of the address stored in pointer_a is read and
copied to the memory space reserved for b
(* is called de-reference operator)
*pointer_a = 3; Insert the value 3 in that memory address which is indicated by
the pointer pointer_a.

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Exercise for practicing referencing and dereferencing operators

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Concept of a reference

A reference is a declaration of a synonymous name for an object.

int d; Declaration of an int-variable named d

int& r_d=d; everything that will be done with reference r_d

refers to the object d

r_d=10; modifies the contents of variable d (and only

this) to fit into the int-value 10

Example: 7_c
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Transfer of parameters to functions

Call by Value Call by Reference

v o id m a in ( )
{
in t i ;
in t j ; v o id f ( in t v a l, in t& r e f)
i = 1; {
j = 2; v a l+ + ;
f ( i, j) ; r e f+ + ;
} }

ref
i j val
Memory at call: 1 2 1

Example: 7_d, 7_e Copy

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Call by value for pointers
To modify a value it is sufficient to indicate the address where the contents of the
memory are to be changed:

void polar(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2, double* l, double* w)
{
*l = length(x1, y1, x2, y2);
*w = angle(x1, y1, x2, y2);
return;
}

void main()
{
double l,w;
double u1, v1, u2, v2;
….
polar(u1, v1, u2, v2, &l, &w);
….

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Summary – Different possibilities for function calls

There are three different possibilities to transfer your variables to

functions:
• call by value: pass the value of a variable
• call by reference: pass the address of a variable
• call by value for pointers: pass the value of a pointer  pass
the address of a variable the pointer points to

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Example of the three different ways
Call by value :
void polar_value(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2, double l, double w)
{
l = length(x1, y1, x2, y2); Call to this function :
w = angle(x1, y1, x2, y2); polar(u1, v1, u2, v2, l, w);
return;
}

Call by reference :
void polar_ref_2(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2, double& l, double& w)
{
l = length(x1, y1, x2, y2); Call to this function :
w = angle(x1, y1, x2, y2); polar(u1, v1, u2, v2, l, w);
return;
}

Call by value for pointers : Example:

void polar_ref(double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2, double* l, double* w) 7_f
{
*l = length(x1, y1, x2, y2); Call to this function :
*w = angle(x1, y1, x2, y2); polar(u1, v1, u2, v2, &l, &w);
return;
}
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 7th Assignment
// bubble sort
for( k=1; k<n; k++ ) Example with n=4
{ a0 a1 a2 a3
for( j=n-1; j>=k; j-- ) 17 3 30 12
{
if( ar[j-1]>ar[j] ) k=1, j=3 17 3 12 30
{
// swap j=2 17 3 12 30
temp=ar[j-1]; j=1 3 17 12 30
ar[j-1]=ar[j];
swap(...)
ar[j]=temp; k=2, j=3 3 17 12 30
}
j=2 3 12 17 30
// output of each step
printf("\nK=%d, J=%d ",k,j);
for(i=0; i<n; i++) k=3, j=3 3 12 17 30
printf("%2d ",ar[i]);
}
}
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