UNIT-II

Cellular radio system design

2.1 Concept of Frequency Reuse Channels:

A radio channel consists of a pair of frequencies one for each direction of
transmission that is used for full-duplex operation. Particular radio channels,
say F1, used in one geographic zone to call a cell, say C1, with a coverage
radius R can be used in another cell with the same coverage radius at a
distance D away. Frequency reuse is the core concept of the cellular mobile
radio system. In this frequency reuse system users in different geographic
locations (different cells) may simultaneously use the same frequency channel
(see Fig.1.). The frequency reuse system can drastically increase the spectrum
efficiency, but if the system is not properly designed, serious interference may
occur. Interference due to the common use of the same channel is called co-
channel interference and is our major concern in the concept of frequency
reuse.

Fig.1 The ratio of D/R

Frequency reuse scheme: The frequency reuse concept can be used in the
time domain and the space domain. Frequency reuse in the time domain
results in the occupation of the same frequency in different time slots. It is
called time division multiplexing (TDM). Frequency reuse in the space domain
can be divided into two categories.
1. Same frequency assigned in two different geographic areas, such as A.M
or FM radio stations using the same frequency in different cities.
2. Same frequency repeatedly used in a same general area in one system -
the scheme is used in cellular systems. There are many co-channel cells
in the system. The total frequency spectrum allocation is divided into K
frequency reuse patterns, as illustrated in Fig. 2 for K — 4, 7, 12, and
19.
 Fig.2 N- cell reuse pattern

2.2 Frequency reuse distance in cellular radio system:

Frequency reuse distance: The minimum distance which allows the
same frequency to be reused will depend on many factors, such as the number
of co-channel cells in the vicinity of the center cell, the type of geographical
terrain contour, the antenna height and the transmitted power at each cell
site. The frequency reuse distance can be determined from Where K is the
frequency reuse pattern shown in Fig.3, then
 If all the cell sites transmit the same power, then K increases and the
frequency reuse distance D increases. This increased D reduces the chance
that cochannel interference may occur.
Theoretically, a large K is desired. However, the total number of
allocated channels is fixed. When K is too large, the number of channels
assigned to each of K cells becomes small. It is always true that if the total
number of channels in K cells is divided as K increases, trunking inefficiency
results. The same principle applies to spectrum inefficiency: if the total
numbers of channels are divided into two network systems serving in the same
area, spectrum inefficiency increases.
Obtaining the smallest number K involves estimating cochannel
interference and selecting the minimum frequency reuse distance D to reduce
cochannel interference. The smallest value of K is K = 3, obtained by setting i
= 1, j = 1 in the equation K = i 2
+ i j + j 2.

2.3 Hand-off mechanism.

Hand-off Mechanism: Hand-off is the process of automatically

changing the frequencies. When the mobile unit moves out of the coverage
areas of a particular cell site, the reception becomes weak. At this instant the
present cell site requests Hand-off, then system switches the call to a new
frequency channel in a new cell site without interrupting either call or user.
This phenomenon is known as “hand -off’ or ‘handover’. Hand -off processing
scheme is an important task for any successful mobile system.
This concept can he applied to one dimensional as well as two dimensional
cellular configurations. By the reception of weak signals from the mobile unit
by the cell site, the Hand-off is required in the following two situations. They
are
1. The level for requesting a Hand-off in a noise limited environment is at
the cell boundary say-l00 dBm.

2. In a particular cell site, when the mobile unit is reaching the signal
strength holes (gaps).
Figure 4 shows the usage of frequency F1 in two cochannel cells which arc
separated by a distance D. Now, we have to provide a communication system
in the whole area by filling other frequency channels F2,F3 and F4 between
two co-channel cells.

Fig.4 (a). cochannel interference reduction ratio 2, (b) fill in frequency

Depending on the same value of q the cells C2 ,C3 and C4 to which the above
fill-in frequencies F2, F3 and F4 are assigned respectively as shown in figure.
Initially a mobile unit is starting a call in cell with fill-in frequency F1 and then
moves to a cell with fill-in frequency F2. The mobile unit moves from cell C1 to
cell C2, meanwhile however the call being dropped and reinitiated in the
frequency channel from F1 to F2. This process of changing frequencies can be
done automatically by the system without the user’s intervention. In the
cellular system the above mentioned Hand-off process is used.

2.3.1 cochannel interference and its reduction factor

Reusing an identical frequency channel in different cells is limited by
cochannel interference between cells, and the cochannel interference can
become a major problem.

Assume that the size of all cells is roughly the same. The cell size is
determined by the coverage area of the signal strength in each cell. As long as
the cell size is fixed, cochannel interference is independent of the transmitted
power of each cell. It means that the received threshold level at the mobile
unit is adjusted to the size of the cell. Actually, cochannel interference is a
function of a parameter q defined as
q = D/R
The parameter q is the cochannel interference reduction factor. When the ratio
q increases, cochannel interference decreases. Furthermore, the separation D
is a function of K, and C/I,
D=f(K,C/I)
Where K, is the number of cochannel interfering cells in the first tier and C/I is
the received carrier-to-interference ratio at the desired mobile receiver.

In a fully equipped hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are always six

cochannel interfering cells in the fist tier, as shown in Fig.5 ; that is, K = 6.
The maximum number of K, in the first tier can be shown as six. Cochannel
interference can be experienced both at the cell site and at mobile units in the
center cell.
If the interference is much greater, then the carrier-to-interference ratio C/I at
the mobile units caused by the six interfering sites is (on the average) the
same as the C/I received at the center cell site caused by interfering mobile
units in the six cells. According to both the reciprocity theorem and the
statistical summation of radio propagation, the two C/I values can be very
close. Assume that the local noise is much less than the interference level and
can be neglected. C/I then can be expressed as

Where is a propagation path-loss slope determined by the actual terrain

environment. In a mobile radio medium, usually is assumed to be 4. K is the
number of cochannel interfering cells and is equal to 6 in a fully developed
system, as shown in Fig. 5.
The six cochannel interfering cells in the second tier cause weaker interference
than those in the first tier. Therefore, the cochannel interference from the
second tier of interfering cells is negligible
Where qk is the cochannel interference reduction factor with Kth cochannel
interfering cell

2.4 C/I for normal case in an omnidirectional antenna

system.
There are two cases to be considered: (1) the signal and cochannel
interference received by the mobile unit and (2) the signal and cochannel
interference received by the cell site. Both cases are shown in Fig.6. Nm and
Nb are the local noises at the mobile unit and the cell site, respectively.
Usually Nm and Nb are small and can be neglected as compared with the
interference level. As long as the received carrier-to-interference ratios at both
the mobile unit and the cell site are the same, the system is called a balanced
system. In a balanced system, we can choose either one of the two cases to
analyze the system requirement; the results from one case are the same for
the others.
Assume that all Dk are the same for simplicity, then D = Dk and q = qk,

Thus

And

The value of C/I is based on the required system performance and the
specified value of is based on the terrain environment. With given values of
C/I and , the cochannel interference reduction factor q can be determined.
Normal cellular practice is to specify C/I to be 18 dB or higher based on
subjective tests.
Since a C/I of 18 dB is measured by the acceptance of voice quality from
present cellular mobile receivers, this acceptance implies that both mobile
radio multipath fading and cochannel interference become ineffective at that
level. The path-loss slope is equal to about 4 in a mobile radio environment.

The 90th percentile of the total covered area would be achieved by

increasing the transmitted power at each cell; increasing the same amount of
transmitted power in each cell does not affect the result. This is because q is
not a function of transmitted power. The factor q can be related to the finite
set of cells K in a hexagonal-shaped cellular system by

Substituting q = 4.41 in above equation yields k=7.

Fig 6 Cochannel interference from six interferers. (a).receiving at the cell site;
(b) receiving at the mobile unit.

2.5 cell splitting.

The motivation behind implementing a cellular mobile system is to
improve the utilization of spectrum efficiency. The frequency reuse scheme is
one concept, and cell splitting is another concept. When traffic density starts to
build up and the frequency channels Fi in each cell Ci cannot provide enough
mobile calls, the original cell can be split into smaller cells. Usually the new
radius is one-half the original radius. There are two ways of splitting: In Fig. 8
a, the original cell site is not used, while in Fig. 8 b, it is
New cell radius = Old cell radius/2
Then,
New cell area = Old cell area/4
Let each new cell carry the same maximum traffic load of the old cell, then
New traffic load/Unit area = 4 X Traffic load/Unit area.
There are two kinds of cell-splitting techniques:
1. Permanent splitting: The installation of every new split cell has to be
planned ahead of time; the number of channels, the transmitted power,
the assigned frequencies, the choosing of the cell-site selection, and the
traffic load consideration should all be considered. When ready, the
actual service cut-over should be set at the lowest traffic point, usually
at midnight on a weekend. Hopefully, only a few calls will be dropped
because of this cut-over, assuming that the downtime of the system is
within 2 h.
 2. Dynamic splitting: This scheme is based on using the allocated
spectrum efficiency in real time. The algorithm for dynamically splitting
cell sites is a tedious job, as we cannot afford to have one single cell
unused during cell splitting at heavy traffic hours.

2.5.1 SECTORING
Cell splitting achieves capacity improvement by essentially rescaling the
system. By decreasing the cell radius R and keeping the co-channel reuse ratio
D/R unchanged, cell splitting increases the number of channels per unit area.
However, another way to increase capacity is to keep the cell radius
unchanged and seek methods to decrease a D/R ratio. as we now show
sectoring increases SIR so that the cluster size may be reduced In this
approach.
First the SIR is improved using directional antennas, then capacity
improvement is achieved by reducing the no of cells in a cluster, thus
increasing the frequency reuse. However in order to do this successfully. It is
necessary to reduce the relative interference without decreasing the
transmitted power.
The co-channel interference in a cellular systems may be decreased by
replacing a single Omni directional antenna at the base station by several
directional antennas each radiating within a specified sector. By using
directional antennas, a given cell will receive interference and transmit with
only a fraction of the available co-channel cells. The technique for decreasing
co-channel interference and thus increasing system performance by using
directional antennas is called sectoring. The factor by which the co-channel
interference is reduced depends on the amount of sectoring used. A cell is
normally partitioned into three 120˚ sectors or six 60˚ sectors as shown in
below figure.

2.6 General view of telecommunication and functioning of

the each unit:
The components of cellular systems are mobile radios, antennas, cell-site
controller, and MTSO. They would affect the system design if they are not
chosen rightly. The general view of the cellular system is shown in Fig.7. The
issues affecting choice of antennas, switching equipment, and data links are
briefly described.

Antenna: Antenna pattern, antenna gain, antenna tilting, and antenna height
6 all affect the cellular system design. The antenna pattern can be
omnidirectional, directional, or any shape in both the vertical and the horizon
planes. Antenna gain compensates for the transmitted power. Different
antenna patterns and antenna gains at the cell site and at the mobile units
would affect the system performance and so must be considered in the system
design. The antenna patterns seen in cellular systems are different from the
patterns seen in free space.
If a mobile unit travels around a cell site in areas with many buildings, the
omnidirectional antenna will not duplicate the omnipattern. In addition, if the
front-to-back ratio of a directional antenna is found to be 20 dB in free space,
it will be only 10 dB at the cell site. Antenna tilting can reduce the interference
to the neighboring cells and enhance the weak spots in the cell. Also, the
height of the cell-site antenna can affect the area and shape of the coverage in
the system.

Fig.7. A general view of cellular telecommunications system

Switching Equipment: The capacity of switching equipment in cellular

systems is not based on the number of switch ports but on the capacity of the
processor associated with the switches. In a big cellular system, this processor
should be large. Also, because cellular systems are unlike other systems, it is
important to consider when the switching equipment would reach the
maximum capacity. The service life of the switching equipment is not
determined by the life cycle of the equipment but by how long it takes to reach
its full capacity. If the switching equipment is designed in modules, or as
distributed switches, more modules can be added to increase the capacity of
the equipment. For decentralized systems, digital switches may be more
suitable. The future trend seems to be the utilization of system handoff. This
means that switching equipment can link to other switching equipment so that
a call can be carried from one system to another system without the call being
dropped.

Data Links: The data links are shown in Fig 7. Although they are not directly
affected by the cellular system, they are important in the system. Each data
link can carry multiple channel data (10 kbps data transmitted per channel)
from the cell site to the MTSO. This fast-speed data transmission cannot be
passed through a regular telephone line. Therefore, data bank devices are
needed. They can be multiplexed, many-data channels passing through a
wideband T-carrier wire line or going through a microwave radio link where the
frequency is much higher than 850 MHz. Leasing T1-carrier wire lines through
telephone companies can be costly. Although the use of microwaves may be a
long-term money saver, the availability of the microwave link has to be
considered.

2.7 Maximum number of frequency channels per cell.

The maximum number of frequency channels per cell N is closely related to an
average calling time in the system. The standard user’s calling habits may
change as a result of the charging rate of the system and the general income
profile of the users If an average calling time T is 1.76 min and the maximum
calls per hour per cell is Qi, then the offered load can be derived as

A = Qi*T/60 (Erlangs)

If the blocking probability is given, then it is easy to find the required number
of radios in each cell. If a large area is covered by 28 cells, Kt = 28; the total
number of customers in the system increases. Therefore, we may assume that
the number of subscribers per cell Mi is somehow related to the percentage of
car phones used in the busy hours and the number of calls per hour per cell Qi
as
Where the value Qi is a function of the blocking probability B, the average
calling time T, and the number of channels N.

Qi= f(B, T, N)

If the K = 7 frequency reuse pattern is used, the total number of required

channels in the system is Nt = 7

importance of

For hexagonal cells i.e. with “honeycomb” cell layouts commonly used in
mobile radio with possible cluster sizes are

Where i, j — Non negative integers

The integers i, j determine the relative location of co channels. The main
reason for obtaining the above expression is to calculate the smallest number
K which can still meet our system performance requirements. This process
involves estimating co-channel interference and selecting the minimum
frequency reuse distance D to reduce cochannel interference. Thus, the
smallest possible value for K is 3, obtained by putting i=1,j=1 in above eq.

The nearest co-channel neighbor cell can be obtained by the following two
steps.
(i) Moving i cells along any chain of hexagons.

(ii) Turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells.

The method of locating cochannel cells in a 7-cell reuse pattern with i=2 and
j=1 is shown figure
The equation for frequency reuse pattern can also be used to
measure the following.

I. The distance between co-channel cells in adjacent clusters is given by

The number of cells in a cluster, K is obtained by .

The frequency reuse factor, Q is obtained by