132 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

LESSON 21
INCOMPLETE ADVERB CLAUSES

A) Full Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause consists of a connecting word, called an adverb clause marker (or subordinate
conjunction), and at least a subject and a verb.
~

The demand for economical cars increases when gasoline becomes more expensive.
In this example, the adverb clause marker when joins the adverb clause to the main clause. The
adverb clause contains a subject (gasoline) and a verb (becomes).
An adverb clause can precede the main clause or follow it. When the adverb clause comes first, it
is separated from the main clause by a comma.
When gasoline becomes more expensive, the demand for economical cars increases.
The following markers are commonly seen in the Structure section:

u,~

because cause Because the speaker was sick, the program was
canceled.
since cause Since credit cards are so convenient, many people
use them.
although opposition Although he earns a good salary, he never saves
(contrary cause) any money.
even though opposition Even though she was tired, she she stayed up late.
(contrary cause)
while contrast Some people arrived in taxis while others took the
subway.
if condition lfthe automobile had not been invented, what
would people use for basic transportation?
unless condition I won't go unless you do.
when time Your heart rate increases when you exercise
while time Some people like to listen to music while they are
studying.
as time One train was arriving as another was departing.
since time We haven't seen Professor Hill since she returned
from her trip.
until time Don't put off going to the dentist until you have a
problem.
once time Once the dean arrives, the meeting can begin.
before time Before he left the country. he bought some traveler's
checks.
after time She will give a short speech after she is presented
with the award.
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 133

In Structure items, any part of a full adverb clause-the marker, the subject, the verb, and so on­
can be missing from the stem.

B) Clause Markers with -ever

Words that end with -ever are sometimes used as adverb clause markers. (In some sentences, these
words are actually noun-clause markers, but they are seldom used that way in Structure items.)
The three -ever words that you are likely to see in the Structure Section are given in the chart
below:

wherever any place Put that box wherever you

that ... can find room for it.
whenever any time They stay at that hotel
that ... whenever they're in Boston.
however anyway However you solve the
that. .. problem, you'll get the same
answer.

C) Reduced Adverb Clauses

When the subject of the main clause and the subject of the adverb clause are the same person or
thing, the adverb clause can be reduced (shortened). Reduced adverb clauses do not contain a main
verb or a subject. They consist of a marker and a participle (either a present or a past participle) or a
marker and an adjective.
When astronauts are orbiting the earth, they don't feel the force of gravity.
(full adverb clause)
When orbiting the earth, astronauts don't feel the force of gravity.
(reduced clause with present participle)
Although it had been damaged, the machine was still operational.
(full adverb clause)
Although damaged, the machine was still operational.
(reduced clause with a past participle)
Although he was nervous, he gave a wonderful speech.
(full adverb clause)
Although nervous, he gave a wonderful speech.
(reduced clause with an adjective)
You will most often see reduced adverb clauses with the markers although, while, if, when, before,
after, and until. Reduced adverb clauses are NEVER used after because.
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 133

In Structure items, any part of a full adverb clause-the marker, the subject, the verb, and so on-
can be missing from the stem.

B) Clause Markers with -ever

Words that end with -ever are sometimes used as adverb clause markers. (In some sentences, these
words are actually noun-clause markers, but they are seldom used that way in Structure items.)
The three -ever words that you are likely to see in the Structure Section are given in the chart
below:

wherever any place Put that box wherever you

that ... can fmd room for it.
whenever any time They stay at that hotel
that ... whenever they're in Boston.
however anyway However you solve the
that ... problem, you'll get the same
answer.

C) Reduced Adverb Clauses

When the subject of the main clause and the subject of the adverb clause are the same person or
thing, the adverb clause can be reduced (shortened). Reduced adverb clauses do not contain a main
verb or a subject. They consist of a marker and a participle (either a present or a past participle) or a
marker and an adjective.
'When astronauts are orbiting the earth, they don't feel the force of gravity.
(full adverb clause)
'When orbiting the earth, astronauts don't feel the force of gravity.
(reduced clause with present participle)
Although it had been damaged, the machine was still operational.
(full adverb clause)
Although damaged, the machine was still operational.
(reduced clause with a past participle)
Although he was nervous, he gave a wonderful speech.
(full adverb clause)
Although nervous, he gave a wonderful speech.
(reduced clause with an adjective)
You will most often see reduced adverb clauses with the markers although, while, if, when, before,
after, and until. Reduced adverb clauses are NEVER used after because.
134 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

D) Prepositional Phrases with the Same Meaning as Adverb Clauses

There are also certain prepositions that have essentially the same meaning as adverb-clause markers
but are used before noun phrases or pronouns, not with clauses.

because of because/since He chose that university because of its fine

reputation.
due to because/since The accident was due to mechanical failure.
on account of because/since Visibility is poor today on account of air
pollution.
in spite of although/even though He enjoys motorcycle riding in spite of the
danger.
despite although/even though Despite its loss, the team is still in first place.
during when/while Her father lived in England during the war.

In structure items where the correct answer is an adverb-clause marker, one of these words often
appears as a distract or.

T Sample Items
No one knows what color dinosaurs were _ _ _ _ _ _ no sample
of their skin has survived.
(A) because of
(B) because that
(C) it is because
(D) because

Choice (A) is incorrect; because of can only be used before nouns or pronouns. In
choice (B), that is unnecessary. In (C), the phrase it is is used unnecessarily.

_ _ _ _ _ _ rises to the surface of the earth, a volcano is formed.

(A) Liquid magma
(B) Whenever liquid magma
(C) Liquid magma, which
(D) That liquid magma

Choice (A) creates two clauses, but there is no connecting word to join them. (C)
creates a sentence with a main clause and an adjective clause, but the main clause
has two subjects (liquid magma and a volcano). (D) creates a noun clause. In a
correct sentence, when a noun clause begins a sentence, the clause itself is the
subject of the verb in the main clause, but this sentence already has a subject
(volcano).
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 135

_ _ _ _ _ _ invisible to the unaided eye, ultraviolet light can be detected

in a number of ways.
(A) Although is
(B)Despite
(C) Even though it
(D) Although

The best answer completes a reduced adverb clause. In choice (A), the adverb clause
lacks a subject and is not a correct reduction because it contains a verb. In choice
(B), despite cannot be used with an adjective (only with a noun phrase or pronoun).
(C) does not supply a verb for the adverb clause and is not a correct reduction
because it contains a subject.
Because _ _ _ _ _ _ , alabaster can be easily carved.
(A) is soft
(B) softness
(C) of its softness
(D) of soft

Choice (A) lacks a subject in the adverb clause. Choice (B), a noun, could only be
used with because of In (D), because of is followed by an adjective; to be correct,
it must be followed by a noun phrase or pronoun. ...

Exercise 21

Focus: Completing structure problems involving adverb clauses, reduced adverb clauses, and related
prepositional expressions. (Note: Two or three items do not focus on one of these structures. These
items are marked in the answer key with an asterisk.)
Directions: Choose the one option-CA), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentences,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Small sailboats can easily capsize _ _ _ _ _ _ they are not handled carefully.
_ _ (A) but
_ _ (B) which
~ (C) if
_ _ CD) so
2. they are tropical birds, parrots can live in temperate or even cold climates.
_ _ (A) Despite
_ _ (B) Even though
___ CC) Nevertheless
_ _ (D) But
3. added to a liquid, antifreeze lowers the freezing temperature of that liquid.
_ _ (A) That
_ _ (B) Asis
._ _ (C) It is
_ _ (D) When
136 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

4. advertising is so widespread in the United States, it has had an enormous effect

on American life.
_ _ (A) Why
___ (B) The reason
___ (C) On account of
___ (D) Since
5. towards shore, its shape is changed by its collision with the shallow sea bottom.
___ CA) During a wave rolls
___ (B) As a wave rolls
_ _ _ (C) A wave rolls
___ (D) A wave's rolling
6. are increasingly linked over long distances by electronic communications, but
many of them still prefer face-to-face encounters.
___ CA) Although people
_ _ (B) Despite people
_ _ (C) Today people
___ CD) The fact that people
7. together in one place, they form a community.
_ _ CA) When people who live
_ _ (B) When people living
_ _ _ (C) Whenever people live
___ CD) Whenever living people
8. managed by an independent governor and board of directors, the Bank of Canada
is owned by the Canadian government.
_ _ (A) And yet
_ _ (B) In spite of it
_ _ (C) Although
_ _ (D) It is

9. pieces of rope are of different thickness, the weaver's knot can be used to join
them.
_ _ (A) Two of
_ _ (B) What two
_ _ (C) Two such
_ _ CD) If two
10. , the seeds of the Kentucky coffee plant are poisonous.
___ (A) Until they have been cooked
_ _ (B) Cooking them
___ (C) They have been cooked
_ _ (D) Cooked until
11. Natural silk is still highly prized _______ similar artificial fabrics.
_ _ CA) although is available
___ (8) despite there are available
_ _ _ (C) in spite of the availability of
___ (D) even though an availability of
12. Cattle ranches are found almost _ _ _ _ _ _ in Utah.
___ CA) wherever
_ _ CB) everywhere
_ _ CC) overall
___ (D) somewhere
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 137

13. through a prism, a beam of white light breaks into all the colors of the rainbow.
___ (A) When shines
_ _ (B) It shines
_ _ _ (C) It is shone
___ (D) When shone
14. most people think of freezing as a relatively modern method of food preservation,
it is actually one of the oldest.
_ _ (A) Even
_ _ (B) As though
_ _ _ (C) However
_ _ (D) Even though
15. large bodies of water never freeze solid is that the sheet of ice on the surface
protects the water below it from the cold air.
___ (A) Because
_ _ (B) Why do
___ (C) The reason that
___ (D) For the reason
16. granted by the Patent Office, it becomes the inventor's property and he or she
can keep it, sell it, or license it to someone else.
___ (A) Once a patent is
_ _ _ (B) When a patent
___ (C) A patent, once
___ (D) A patent, whenever it
17. Owls can hunt in total darkness _ _ _ _ _ _ their remarkably keen sense of smell.
___ (A) since
___ (B) because of
_ _ _ (C) the result
_ _ (D) that
[ H. most bamboo blooms every year, there are some species that flower only two or
three times a century.
___ (A) Whenever
_ _ (B) That
_ _ (C) While
___ (D) However
138 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

LESSON 22
INCOMPLETE NOUN ClAUSES

Noun clauses are the third type of subordinate clause. They begin with noun-clause markers.
Noun clauses that are formed from statements begin with the noun-clause marker that. Noun clauses
formed from yes/no questions begin with the noun-clause markers whether or if. Those formed from
information questions begin with wh- words: what, where, when, and so on.
Dr. Hopkins' office is in this building.
(statement) I'm sure that Dr. Hopkins' office is in this building.
Is Dr. Hopkins' office on this floor?
(yes/no question) I don't know if (whether) Dr. Hopkins' office is on this floor.
Where is Dr. Hopkins' office?
(information question) Please tell me where Dr. Hopkins' office is.
Notice that the word order in direct questions is not the same as it is in noun clauses. The noun
clause follows statement word order (subject + verb), not question word order (auxiliary + subject +
main verb). Often one of the distractors for noun-clause items will incorrectly follow question word
order.
*1 don't know what is her name.
(Incorrect use of question word order)
I don't know what her name is.
(Correct word order)
*She called him to ask what time did his party start.
(Incorrect use of question word order)
She called him to ask what time his party started.
(Correct word order)
Noun clauses function exactly as nouns do: as subjects, as direct objects, or as complements after
the verb to be.
When the meeting will be held has not been decided.
(noun clause as subject)
The weather announcer said that there will be thunderstorms.
(noun clause as direct object)
This is what you need.
(noun clause after to be)
Notice that when the noun clause is the subject of a sentence, the verb in the main clause does not
have a noun or pronoun subject.
In Structure items, the noun-clause marker, along with any other part of the noun clause-
subject, verb, and so on-may be missing from the stem, or the whole noun clause may be missing.
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 139

T Sample Items
_ _ _ _ _ _ was caused by breathing (~pure'air was once a
common belief. '-----
(A) Malaria
(B) That malaria
(C) Why malaria
(D) Because malaria

Choice (A) is incorrect because there are two verbs (was caused and was) but only
one subject. Choice (C) is incorrect because Why is not the appropriate noun-clause
marker in this sentence; the noun clause is based on a statement, not on an
information question. Choice (D) is incorrect because it forms an adverb clause, but
the main clause lacks a subject. In the correct answer the noun clause itself (That
malaria was caused by breathing impure air) is the subject of the verb was in the
main clause.
One basic question psychologists have tried to answer is _ _ _ _ __
(A) people learn
(B) how do people learn
(C) people learn how
(D) how people learn

Choice (A) is incorrect; there is no connector between the first clause and the
second. Choice (B) incorrectly follows question word order. (C) is incorrect because
how is in the wrong position. ..

Exercise 22

Focus: Completing structure problems involving incomplete noun clauses. (Note: Two or three
items in this exercise do not focus on noun clauses. These items are marked in the answer key with
asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentences,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. begin their existence as ice crystals over most of the earth seems likely.
_ _ (A) Raindrops
_ _ (B) If raindrops
_ _ (C) What if raindrops
~ (D) That raindrops

2. Scientists cannot agree on _ _ _ _ _ _ related to other orders of insects.

_ _ (A) that fleas are
_ _ _ (B) how fleas are
___ (C) how are fleas
___ (D) fleas that are
3. It was in 1875 joined the staff ofthe astronomical observatory at Harvard University.
_ _ (A) that Anna Winlock
_ _ _ (B) Anna Winlock, who
_ _ _ (C) as Anna Winlock
_ _ (D) Anna Winlock then
140 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

4. is a narrow strip of woods along a stream in an open grassland.

_ _ _ (A) Ecologists use the term "gallery forest"
___ (B) What do ecologists call a "gallery forest"
_ _ _ (C) "Gallery forest" is the term ecologists use
___ (D) What ecologists call a "gallery forest"

5. developed very rapidly in Alabama primarily because of its rich natural resources.
_ _ (A) That heavy industry
___ (B) Heavy industry
_ _ _ (C) Heavy industry that was
_ _ (D) When heavy industry

6. so incredible is that these insects successfully migrate to places that they have
never even seen.
_ _ _ (A) That makes the monarch butterflies' migration
___ (B) The migration of the monach butterflies is
_ _ _ (C) Wnat makes the monarch butterflies' migration
_ _ _ (D) The migration of the monarch butterflies, which is

7. Art critics do not all agree on what _ _ _ _ _ _ a painting great.

_ _ _ (A) qualities make
_ _ _ (B) are the qualities for making
___ (C) qualities to make
___ (D) do the qualities that make

8. In order to grow vegetables properly, gardeners must know _ _ _ _ __

_ _ _ (A) what the requirements for each vegetable are
___ (B) that the requirements for each vegetable
_ _ _ (C) what are each vegetable's requirements
___ (D) that is required by each vegetable

9. When is not known.

___ (A) was the wheel invented
___ (B) the invention of the wheel
___ (C) inventing the wheel
___ (D) the wheel was invented
10. For many years people have wondered _ _ _ _ _ _ exists elsewhere in the universe.
_ _ (A) that life
_ _ (B) life which
_ _ (C) whether life
_ _ (D) life as it

11. of all modern domestic poultry is the red jungle fowl is widely believed.
_ _ _ (A) The ancestor
___ (B) The ancestor is
_ _ _ (C) How the ancestor
___ (D) That the ancestor

12. the right side of a person's brain is dominant, that person is left-handed.
_ _ (A) That
_ _ (B) If
_ _ (C)Which
_ _ (D) For
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 141

LESSON 23
MISSING OR INCOMPLETE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition (in, at, with, fm; until. and so on) followed by
a noun phrase or pronoun. which is called the prepositional object. Prepositional phrases often
describe relationships of time and location, among others.
In the auturnn, maple leaves turn red.
Beacon Hill is one of the most famous neighborhoods in Boston.
'With luck, there won't be any more problems.
This house was built by John's grandfather.
Often, prepositional phrases come at the beginning of sentences, but they may appear in other parts
of the sentence as well.
The correct answer for this type of item may be a preposition, its object, or both, as well as
other parts of the sentence.
You may see prepositions in distractors, especially before the subject of a sentence. Remember,
the object of a preposition cannot correctly be the subject of a sentence, as in these examples:
*111 the aullllnn is my favorite season.
*Without a pencil is no way to come to a test.

... Sample Items

_ _ _ _ _ _ the unaided eye can see about 6,000 stars.

(A) A clear night
(B) It's a clear night
(C) On a clear night
(D) When a clear night

Choice (A) is incorrect because there is no connector to join the noun phrase a clear
night to the rest of the sentence. Choice (B) consists of an independent clause, but
there is no connector to join it to the other clause. (D) seems to form a subordinate
clause, but the clause lacks a verb.
_ _ _ _ _ _ all the field crops grown in the United States are harvested
with machines called combines.
(A) Of nearly
(B) Nearly
(C) That nearly
(D) Nearly of

Choices (A) and CD) are incorrect because the subject of a sentence (all the field
crops) cannot be the object of a preposition (of). Choice (C) creates a noun clause,
but the noun clause lacks a verb. ...
142 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

Exercise 23

Focus: Completing structure problems involving prepositional phrases. (Note: One or two items in
this exercises do not focus on prepositional phrases. These items are marked in the answer key with
asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)- that correctly completes the sentence,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Dynamite is ordinarily detonated _ _ _ _ _ _ called a blasting cap.
_ _ _ (A) a device is used
_ _ _ (B) that a device
~ (C) with a device
___ (D) the use of a device
2. seed of a flowering plant is covered by a dense protective coat.
_ _ (A) On each
_ _ (B) Each
_ _ (C) Each of
_ _ (D) That each

3. 1900 there were some 300 bicycle factories in the United States, and they
produced over a million bicycles.
_ _ (A) In
___ (B) Because in
_ _ _ (C) It was in
_ _ (D) That in
4. A thick layer of fat called blubber keeps whales warm even _ _ _ _ _ _ coldest water.
_ _ _ (A) although the
_ _ (B) in the
_ _ (C) the
_ _ (D) of the
5. the United States, the general movement of air masses is from west to east.
_ _ _ (A) Across
___ (B) To cross
___ (C) They cross
___ (D) It's across
6. The bark of a tree thickens _ _ _ _ __
_ _ _ (A) with age
_ _ (B) it gets older
_ _ _ (C) as older
_ _ (D) by age

7 A substance that is harmless to a person who has no allergies can cause mild to serious reactions
in a person allergies.
_ _ (A) has
___ (B) which having
___ (C) can have
_ _ (D) with
8. In 1886 a number of national unions formed the American Federation of Labor _ _ _ _ __
_ _ _ (A) Samuel Gompers was its leader
___ (B) under the leadership of Samuel Gompers
___ (C) which, under Samuel Gompers' leadership
___ (D) Samuel Gompers led it
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 143

9. Harmonicas, autoharps, and kazoos _ _ _ _ _ _ folk instruments.

___ (A) are examples
_ _ (B) for example
___ (C) are examples of
___ (D) as examples of
10. charming shops and restaurants, Old Town is the most picturesque section
of Albuquerque.
___ (A) With its
_ _ (B) Its
___ (C) Because its
___ (D) For its
11. _ _ _ _ _ _ , such as banking and travel, in which computers are not a convenience but
a necessity.
___ (A) Where some industries
___ (B) In some industries
___ (C) Some industries
___ (D) There are some industries
12. One of the oldest large suspension bridges still _ _ _ _ _ _ today is the George Washington
Bridge between ~ewYork City and Fort Lee, New Jersey.
___ (A) uses
___ (B) is used
___ (C) the use of
___ (D) in use