Chapter 1

Rice Straw Overview: Availability,

Properties, and Management Practices

Nguyen Van Hung, Monet Concepcion Maguyon-Detras,

Maria Victoria Migo, Reianne Quilloy, Carlito Balingbing, Pauline Chivenge,
and Martin Gummert

Abstract Managing rice straw remains a challenge in Asia where more rice, and
hence, more straw, is grown each year to meet rising demand. The widespread burn-
ing of rice straw is a major contributor to dangerously high levels of air pollution in
South- and Southeast Asia associated with health issues. At the same time, research-
ers, engineers, and entrepreneurs are developing a range of alternative uses that turn
rice straw into a commodity around which sustainable value chains can be built to
benefit rural people. The best alternative to burning rice straw in any one location
depends on context. However, available information remains scattered in different
media and no publication yet exists that helps people learn about, and decide
between, rice straw management options. This book provides a synthesis of these
options and integrates knowledge on relevant areas: sustainable rice straw manage-
ment practices, rice straw value chains, and business models. The book is also based
on new research and practice data from research organizations and innovators in
Vietnam, the Philippines, and Cambodia.

Keywords Rice · Rice straw · Residue · Sustainable · Rice straw management

N. V. Hung (*) · R. Quilloy · C. Balingbing · P. Chivenge · M. Gummert

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
e-mail: hung.nguyen@irri.org; r.quilloy@irri.org; c.balingbing@irri.org; p.chivenge@irri.org;
m.gummert@irri.org
M. C. Maguyon-Detras · M. V. Migo
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering
and Agro-Industrial Technology, University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB),
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
e-mail: mmdetras@up.edu.ph; mpmigo@up.edu.ph

© The Author(s) 2020 1

M. Gummert et al. (eds.), Sustainable Rice Straw Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32373-8_1
2 N. V. Hung et al.

1.1 Rice Straw Availability

Rice straw is a residual byproduct of rice production at harvest. The total biomass
of this residue depends on various factors such as varieties, soils and nutrient man-
agement and weather. At harvest, rice straw is piled or spread in the field depending
on the harvesting methods, using stationary threshers or self-propelled combine
harvesters, respectively. The amount of rice straw taken off the field depends mainly
on the cutting height (i.e., height of the stubble left in the field). Rice straw that
remains in the field after harvest can be collected, burned, or left to decompose (soil
incorporation). The “stubble”—the uncut portion of the rice straw after harvest—
remains, and can be burned or incorporated into the soil in preparation for the next
crop. The ratio of straw to paddy varies, ranging from 1.0 to 4.3 (Zafar 2015) and
0.74–0.79 (Nguyen-Hung et al. 2016a). We investigated biomass ratios for a com-
mon rice variety (NSIC Rc158) at IRRI in 2017 that resulted in the findings shown
in Fig. 1.1 (unpublished). Yield of the total straw biomass ranges from 7.5 to 8 t/ha
while removed straw (harvested with leftover grains) ranged from 2.7 to 8 t/ha cor-
responding to the cut portion ranging from 50% to 100% of the total straw biomass.
Figure 1.2 shows the global minimum and maximum estimate of rice straw avail-

Fig. 1.1 Biomass ratios of Stubble Straw Straw/Grain

rice production for the
10 1.5
NSIC Rc158 variety grown
at IRRI during the 2017 8

Straw/Grain ratio
dry season
1
Yield (t/ha)

4
0.5
2

0 0
40 cm 20 cm 0 cm
Cutting height of remained stubble

Fig. 1.2 Annual Rice SEA Rest-Asia Rest-World

production and rice straw 800
Rice production and straw availability

availability in SEA, the 700

rest of Asia, and the rest of
the World 600
500
(million t/year)

400
300
200
100
0
Paddy grain Min- Rice Max-Rice
straw straw
1 Rice Straw Overview: Availability, Properties, and Management Practices 3

ability based on global rice production data (IRRI 2019) and the straw:grain ratios
of 0.5 and 0.7 from the experiment.
Annual rice straw production is in the ranges of 100–140, 330–470, and 370–520
million t/year in Southeast Asia (SEA), the whole of Asia, and over the world,
respectively (Fig. 1.2).

1.2 Rice Straw Properties and Composition

Utilization of rice straw is dependent on its characteristics, which can be divided into
three major categories: (1) physical properties, (2) thermal properties, and (3) chem-
ical composition. Physical properties include bulk density, heat capacity, and ther-
mal conductivity. Density is the most relevant to the handling and storage of rice
straw. Thermal properties, and heating value; these properties are relevant when bio-
mass is converted to energy. Chemical composition, such as lignin, cellulose, hemi-
cellulose/carbohydrates, and nutrient contents, are relevant to applications, such as
for livestock feed and soil fertility. Characterizing rice straw is helpful for life cycle
analysis and efficiency calculations. The most common methods used in the charac-
terization of rice straw can be referenced from the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

1.2.1 Physical Properties

Based on various studies, the bulk density of rice straw can vary depending on the
different forms it may take. Loose rice straw, collected directly from the field, can
range in density from 13 to 18 kg m−3 in dry matter (dm) (Migo 2019). Chopped
straw, ranging in length from 2 to 10 mm (Chou et al. 2009), can have a density
range of from 50 to 120 kg m−3 (Liu et al. 2011), depending on the equipment used.
Depending on the baler equipment used, baled straw size and the compression ratio,
and thus bulk density, will vary. A round rice straw bale with a 70-cm length and
50-cm diameter has a bulk density ranging from 60 to 90 kg m−3 dm (Nguyen-Van-­
Hung et al. 2016b). The density of rice straw briquettes with a 90-mm diameter and
7- to 15-mm thickness is 350–450 kg m−3 dm (Munder 2013). The density of rice
straw pellets with an 8-mm diameter and from 30 to 50 mm in height is 600–
700 kg m−3 dm (Nguyen-Van-Hieu et al. 2018).
As compared to rice husks, which have a density of between 86 and 114 kg m−3
(Mansarav and Ghaly 1997), unprocessed, loose rice straw has a low density. This
means a higher volume per kilogram, implying higher shipping and handling costs
as well as more complications in processing, transportation, storage, and burning
(Duan et al. 2015, Liu et al. 2011). Rice straw volume can be reduced through pro-
cessing but this will require additional energy inputs. Various size-reduction meth-
ods can increase density of the straw including using of pellet mills (Nguyen-V-Hieu
4 N. V. Hung et al.

et al. 2018), roller presses, piston presses, cubers, briquette presses, screw extrud-
ers, tabletizers, and agglomerators (Satlewal et al. 2017).
When used for bioenergy, rice straw’s bulk density influences the combustion
process as it affects the time required in the reactor (Zhang et al. 2012). Rozainee
et al. (2008), as cited by Zhang et al. (2012), reported that a low bulk density causes
poor mixing and nonuniform temperature distribution (unfavorable operating con-
ditions), which decreases energy efficiency.
The moisture content of rice straw is an important consideration when determin-
ing how to process it and what it will be used for. For example, moisture content
affects the heating value of the straw, which is important when the byproduct is
intended for use as bioenergy. In addition, if rice straw volume is to be reduced, the
moisture content before compression should be between 12 and 17% (Kargbo et al.
2010). Unfortunately, the moisture content can fluctuate greatly due to the method
and duration of the straw’s storage (Topno 2015).

1.2.2 Thermal Properties

The calorific value is an essential parameter that shows the energy value of rice
straw, if to be used for bioenergy. Rice straw’s energy efficiency can be calculated
by dividing its energy output by its calorific value, which may be expressed as the
higher-heating value (HHV), wherein latent heat of the water is included, or lower-­
heating value (LHV). In terms of calorific value, rice straw has an HHV that ranges
from 14.08 to 15.09 MJ kg−1, as determined by different studies as shown in
Table 1.1 and is comparable to rice husks with a calorific value of around
14.2 MJ kg−1. However, the calorific value of rice straw is just one-third of that of
kerosene, which has a calorific value of 46.2 MJ kg−1.
In the proximate analysis, volatiles refer to the volatile carbon, combined water,
net hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur, which are first driven off in combustion. Rice
straw is characterized by high volatiles or volatile matter (VOM) (60.55–69.70%),
which is comparable to the biomass of other byproducts, such as sugar cane bagasse,
corn straw, wheat straw, etc. In bioenergy applications, specifically in combustion,
a high VOM has advantages, such as easier ignition and burning; but it also leads to
a rapid, more difficult-to-control combustion (Liu et al. 2011). Fixed carbon refers
to the carbon left after the volatiles are driven off. Rice straw has a fixed carbon
ranging from 11.10% to 16.75%, which is also comparable to other biomass.
The ultimate analysis reveals the elemental carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and sulfur composition of rice straw. Compared to fossil fuels, the carbon content of
rice straw biomass is less, while the oxygen and hydrogen contents are higher. As
shown in Fig. 1.3, the van Krevelen diagram shows the hydrogen-to-carbon (H:C)
and oxygen-to-carbon (O:C) ratios of various fuels. The ranges of H:C and O:C in
rice straw are 1.1–1.36 and 0.94–1.06, respectively, which place it in the biomass
region of the van Krevelen diagram, specifically in the cellulose region.
Rice straw ash content, which includes noncombustible residues, is around
18.67–29.1%. The high silica content of rice straw (Table 1.2) causes erosion prob-
 1

Table 1.1 Calorific value and proximate and ultimate analyses of rice straw
Proximate analysis (% dry
HHV MJ/kg fuel) Ultimate analysis (% dry fuel) Sources
Fix C Volatiles Ash C H O N S Cl Ash
15.09 15.86 65.47 18.67 38.24 5.2 36.26 0.87 0.18 0.58 18.67 Jenkins et al. (1996)
11.10 69.70 19.20 Braunbeck (1998)
14.57 35.94 1.18 22.00 Munder (2013)
14.08 33.70 4.0 1.71 0.16 0.32 29.10 Guillemot et al. (2014)
15.03 13.21 64.24 13.26 44.40 7.40 47.07 1.13 Duan et al. (2015)
14.39 16.75 60.55 22.70 35.35 3.91 37.35 0.71 0.03 Migo (2019)
Range 14.08 11.10 60.55 13.26 33.70 3.91 36.26 0.71 0.03 0.32 18.67
−15.09 −16.75 −69.70 −22.70 −44.40 −7.40 −47.07 −1.71 −0.18 −0.58 −29.10
Rice Straw Overview: Availability, Properties, and Management Practices
5
6 N. V. Hung et al.

Fig. 1.3 Van Krevelen diagram for various solid fuels. Source: Adapted from Mando (2013)

Table 1.2 Rice straw ash properties

SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O3 SO3 P2O5 Sources
% of ash 75.00 1.40 0.02 2.00 1.50 1.90 1.90 10.00 0.90 2.70 Liu, et al.
(d.b) (2011)
74.67 1.04 0.09 0.85 3.01 1.75 0.96 12.30 1.24 1.41 Jeng, et al.
(2012)
82.60 1.10 0.60 1.00 3.30 1.70 0.30 6.30 0.90 1.70 Guillemot
(2014)
67.78 1.54 2.08 1.11 1.48 11.87 Migo (2019)
Range 67.78 1.04 0.02 0.85 2.08 1.11 0.30 6.30 0.90 1.41
−82.60 −1.54 −0.6 −2.00 −3.01 −1.90 −1.90 −12.30 −1.24 −2.70

lems in processing machines (for example, in conveyers and grinders), boilers, and
decreases the digestibility of rice straw when used as fodder. Rice straw is also
characterized by a high volatile matter as compared to wood and coal; and a lower
fixed carbon compared than that in coal. The high ash content in rice straw decreases
its calorific value and causes problems in energy conversion. A high potassium and
alkali content in ash may increase corrosion and fouling problems in grates, since
alkali metals are known triggers for these phenomena. Table 1.3 shows the ash anal-
ysis of rice straw.
 1

Table 1.3 Chemical composition of rice straw

DM CP
% % DM Crude fiber NDF ADF ADL EBSi Ash Ca P Na K Sources
92.8 4.2 35.1 69.1 42.4 4.8 18.1 0.29 0.09 0.27 1.8 Ngi, et al. (2006)
96.3 73.0 41.6 4.8 4.3 12.1 1.58 0.12 0.13 3.4 Sarnklong et al. (2010)
90.6 4.2 73.2 44.9 3.2 Peripolli et al. (2016)
Range 90.6 4.2 35.1 69.1 41.9 3.2 4.3 12.1 0.29 0.09 0.13 1.8
−96.3 −73.2 −44.9 −4.8 −18.1 −1.58 −0.12 −0.27 −3.4
DM dry matter, CP crude protein, NDF neutral detergent fiber, ADF acid detergent fiber, ADL acid detergent lignin, EBSi extractable biogenic silica
Rice Straw Overview: Availability, Properties, and Management Practices
7
8 N. V. Hung et al.

1.2.3 Chemical Composition

Chemical composition determines the nutritional quality of rice straw, which is

important for livestock feed, anaerobic digestion, and as a soil amendment. Rice
straw has low nutritional value and research has been done to improve it. Jenkins
(1998) indicated that the typical components of plant biomass are moisture cellu-
lose, hemicelluloses, lignin, lipids, proteins, simple sugars, starches, water, hydro-
carbon, ash, and other compounds. The concentrations of these compounds depend
on the plant species, type of tissue, growth stage, and growing conditions. Rice
straw is considered a lignocellulosic biomass that contains 38% cellulose, 25%
hemicellulose, and 12% lignin (Japan Institute of Energy 2002). Compared to the
biomass of other plants, such as softwood, rice straw is lower in cellulose and lignin
and higher in hemicellulose content (Barmina et al. 2013). Table 1.3 shows the
compositional analysis of rice straw via the work of various researchers.

1.3 Overview of Rice-Straw Management Options

1.3.1 Burning Issues and Alternative Management Options

Intensification of rice-cropping systems has been associated with the use of high-­
yielding and short-duration varieties with shorter turnaround time between crops in
multi-cropping systems. Furthermore, the rapid introduction of combine harvesters
constitutes a game changer because of the larger amounts of straw that are left
spread out on the field. Manual collection of the straw in the field is unprofitable
because of the high labor cost. Incorporation in the soil poses challenges in inten-
sive systems with two to three cropping rounds per year. This is due to the insuffi-
cient time for decomposition, leaving the straw with poor fertilization properties for
the soil and hindering crop establishment. As a result, open-field burning of straw
has increased dramatically over the last decade, despite being banned in most rice-­
growing countries because of pollution and the associated health issues. Therefore,
it is important to look for sustainable solutions and technologies that can reduce the
environmental footprint and add value by increasing the revenues of rice production
systems. Options for rice-straw management are shown in Fig. 1.4. Rice straw can
inherently be used for soil conditioning thru composting and carbonization; as well
as for bio-energy production and for materials recovery such as silica and bio-fiber
(for industrial use). It is important to note that not all the possible options are
­economically viable. This is due to the fact that the processing material and trans-
portation costs in value-adding solutions are still higher as compared to using the
other more traditional options.
1 Rice Straw Overview: Availability, Properties, and Management Practices 9

In-field Off-field options

options
Pre- Agricultural uses field
processing Carbonization (Bio-
Composting
Leaching char)
Burning
Livestock
Mushroom residue (bedding, Waste

Required depending on
Drying and fodder)
storage
Mulching

processing
Energy
Rice production

Harvesting

Thermal (combustion, Bio-chemical: AD,

Chopping
gasification, pyrolysis) Fermentation, etc.
Incorporation Densification Heat, electric power, Biogas, ethanol,
(whole bale syngas hydrogen, etc.
compaction,
briquetting and
pelletizing) Industrial uses
Ensilaging Building materials (fiber Hi-end materials
Collection,
board, brick, etc.) (silica, biofiber)
handling, and
transportation

Fig. 1.4 Rice-straw management options

1.3.2  calable Solutions for Sustainable Rice-Straw

S
Management
1.3.2.1 Incorporation

Rice straw incorporation into soil is another common management option, but ade-
quate time must be allowed for its decomposition to ensure effectiveness and pro-
duction efficiency (Mandal et al. 2004; Yadvinder-Singh et al. 2004; Dobermann
and Fairhurst 2002). Additionally, careful straw management considerations have to
be made after soil incorporation for greenhouse gas emission (GHGE) (Sander et al.
2014). Rice straw is characterized by a slow decomposition rate; thus, some farmers
avoid rice straw soil incorporation especially in intensive cropping systems with
3 weeks interlude. In terms of total carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) per ha con-
verted from CH4 and N2O, recent researches at IRRI showed that rice straw soil
incorporation emitted about from 3500 to 4500 kg CO2-eq ha−1 (Rosamanta 2017)
which is about 1.5–2.0 times higher than when rice straw was removed. In response
to this, researchers have conducted studies to evaluate using fungal inocula to speed
up the decomposition rate (Goyal and Sindhu 2011, Ngo-T-T-Truc et al. 2012). Rice
straw is chopped with combine harvesters and then sprayed with an inoculum to
foster its decomposition in the soil. This management option is discussed in more
detail in Chap. 9.
10 N. V. Hung et al.

1.3.2.2 Mechanized Collection

Combine harvesters are known to spread rice straw across the field. Therefore, since
rice straw collection is energy intensive, it is only economically viable and practical
thru mechanical collection by use of balers. Collection plays a critical role in the
rice straw supply chain. A discussion on different rice straw balers used in Asia is
presented in Nguyen-V-Hung et al. (2017). Mechanized collection technologies are
discussed in more detail in Chap. 2.

1.3.2.3 Mechanized Composting

Rice straw composting is done by adding animal manure and enzymes to rice straw
and mixing by a turner and ensilage, in order to homogenize the mixture. The bio-
physical processes of decaying matter can drastically improve thru mechanized
composting. In turn, the compost can serve as fertilizer for growing vegetables and
other crops, or can be used directly as soil conditioner. As soil conditioner, it
improves the nutrient and organic matter content of the soil. This technology is
described in more detail in Chap. 3.

1.3.2.4 Mushroom Production

The species of rice-straw mushrooms, Volvariella volvacea, is commonly used

because of it grows easily and has a short growth duration of 14 days. The species
grows in tropical weather at around 30–35 °C for the mycelia development stage,
and at around 28–30 °C for the fruiting body production stage. The main inputs for
mushroom growing are rice straw, spawn, labor, and water. The mushroom harvest
usually starts during the third week after inoculation and ends 1 week later. Outdoor
mushroom production is a common practice in Vietnam’s Mekong River Delta
(MRD). The low investment cost is an advantage of this income-generating enter-
prise. It produces a yield of 0.8 kg of mushrooms per 10 kg of dried straw and gener-
ates a net profit of USD 50–100 t−1 of straw. Indoor production is a less common
practice because of higher investment costs and the necessary strict control of the
growing conditions. On the other hand, indoor mushroom growing produces about
a 2-kg higher yield per 10 kg of dried straw. See Chap. 7 for more details on mush-
room production.

1.3.2.5 Rice-Straw Silage for Cattle Feed

Rice straw is of poor quality to serve as a livestock feed. It has a low C:N ratio and
high NDF and ADF, which affects its nutritive value. Nevertheless, it is considered
as a potential feed additive for increasing the energy and protein content. The pre-
scribed consumption limit of rice straw by ruminants is 1.0 to 1.5 kg per 100 kg
1 Rice Straw Overview: Availability, Properties, and Management Practices 11

live-weight per day (Drake et al. 2002). Urea treatment of straw, which is rice straw
ensilaged with 2–4% urea can improve consumption and digestibility of the rice
straw as fodder. This technology is discussed in more detail in Chap. 7.

1.4 Conclusions and Recommendations

Upgrading the value chain of rice straw-byproducts and employing sustainable

straw-management practices are the key to influencing farmers not to do open-field
burning and thus avoid the negative environmental and health consequences.
Incorporating rice straw into the soil is an option; however, it needs to be considered
carefully to ensure timely decomposition and to minimize GHGE. Mechanized col-
lection with balers plays a critical role in the sustainable use of rice straw. Alternative
straw management options, such as straw-based mushroom and feed production,
mechanized composting to produce organic fertilizer, etc., are discussed in the
remaining chapters of the book.
This book focuses on the scalable options that will add economic value to rice
production in Asia. Reviewed and updated information as well as scientific evidence
on sustainable rice-straw management will be useful for further developments and
related policies. Topics for another publication could be how rice straw can be used
to produce biofuel and high-end materials, such as bioplastics, biofibers, and silica.

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