SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT

Introduction:
 When we are producing components by various methods of manufacturing process it is not possible to
produce perfectly smooth surface and some irregularities are formed.
 These irregularities are causes some serious difficulties in using the components. So, it is very
important to correct the surfaces before use.
 The factors which are affecting surface roughness are
1. Work piece material
2. Vibrations
3. Machining type
4. Tool, and fixtures
The geometrical irregularities can be classified as
1. First order
2.Second order
3 Third order
4.Fourth order
1. First order irregularities:
These are caused by lack of straightness of guide ways on which tool must move.
2. Second order irregularities:
These are caused by vibrations
3. Third order irregularities:
These are caused by machining.
4. Fourth order irregularities:
These are caused by improper handling machines and equipment s
SURFACE METROLOGY CONCEPTS
If one takes a look at the topology of a surface, one can notice that surface irregularities are superimposed
on a widely spaced component of surface texture called waviness.
Surface irregularities generally have a pattern and are oriented in a particular direction depending on the
factors that cause these irregularities in the first place.Surface irregularities primarily arise due to the
following factors:
1. Feed marks of cutting tools
2. Chatter marks on the work piece due to vibrations caused during the manufacturing
Operation.
3.Irregularities on the surface due to rupture of work piece material during the metal cutting Operation
4. Surface variations caused by the deformation of work piece under the action of cutting forces
5. Irregularities in the machine tool itself like lack of straightness of guideway
TERMINOLOGY
Roughness
The American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers (ASTME) defines roughness as the finer
irregularities in the surface texture, including those irregularities that result from an inherent action of the
production process.
Roughness spacing is the distance between successive peaks or ridges that constitute the predominant
pattern of roughness.
Roughness height is the arithmetic average deviation expressed in micrometres and measured
perpendicular to the centre line.
Waviness
It is the more widely spaced component of surface texture. Roughness may be considered to be
superimposed on a wavy surface. Waviness is an error in form due to incorrect geometry of the tool
producing the surface.
On the other hand, roughness may be caused by problems such as tool chatter or traverse feed marks in a
supposedly geometrically perfect machine. The spacing of waviness is the width between successive
wave peaks or valleys. Waviness height is the distance from a peak to a valley.
Lay
It is the direction of the predominant surface pattern, ordinarily determined by the production process
used for manufacturing the component. Symbols are used to represent lays of surface pattern
Flaws
These are the irregularities that occur in isolation or infrequently because of specific causes such as
scratches, cracks, and blemishes.
Surface texture
It is generally understood as the repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface that form the
pattern of the surface. Surface texture encompasses roughness, waviness, lay, and flaws.
Errors of form
These are the widely spaced repetitive irregularities occurring over the full length of the work surface.
Common types of errors of form include bow, snaking, and lobbing.
ANALYSIS OF SURFACE TRACES
It is required to assign a numerical value to surface roughness in order to measure its degree. This will
enable the analyst to assess whether the surface quality meets the functional requirements of a
component. Various methodologies are employed to arrive at a representative parameter of surface
roughness. Some of these are 10-point height average (Rz), root mean square (RMS) value, and the centre
line average height (Ra)
Root Mean Square Value
RMS value was a popular choice for quantifying surface roughness; however, this has been superseded by
the centre line average value. The RMS value is defined as the square root of the mean of squares of the
ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line.
Figure illustrates the graphical procedure for arriving at an RMS value. With reference
to this figure, if h1, h2, ..., hn are equally spaced ordinates at points 1, 2, ..., n, then
Ten-point Height Average Value
It is also referred to as the peak-to-valley height. In this case, we basically consider the average height
encompassing a number of successive peaks and valleys of the asperities. As can be seen in Fig., a line
AA parallel to the general lay of the trace is drawn. The heights of five consecutive peaks and valleys
from the line AA are noted down.
The average peak-to-valley height Rz is given by the following expression:

Centre Line Average Value

The Ra value is the prevalent standard for measuring surface roughness. It is definedas the average height
from a mean line of all ordinates of the surface, regardless of sign.
With reference to Fig., it can be shown that
Methods of measuring surface finish
The methods used for measuring the surface finish is classified into
1. Inspection by comparison
2. Direct Instrument Measurements
Inspection by comparison methods:
➢ In these methods the surface texture is assessed by observation of the surface.
➢ The surface to be tested is compared with known value of roughness specimen and finished by similar
machining process.
➢ The various methods which are used for comparison are
1. Touch Inspection.
2. Visual Inspection.
3. Microscopic Inspection.
4. Scratch Inspection.
5. Micro Interferometer.
6. Surface photographs.
7. Reflected Light Intensity.
8. Wallace surface Dynamometer

DIRECT INSTRUMENT MEASUREMENTS

➢ Direct methods enable to determine a numerical value of the surface finish of any surface.
➢ These methods are quantitative analysis methods and the output is used to operate recording or
indicating instrument.
➢ Direct Instruments are operated by electrical principles. These instruments are classified into two types
according to the operating principle.
➢ In this is operated by carrier-modulating principle and the other is operated by voltage-generating
principle, and in the both types the output is amplified.
➢ Some of the direct measurement instruments are
1. Stylus probe instruments.
2. Tomlinson surface meter.
3. Profilometer.
4. Taylor-Hobson Talysurf

Profilometer.
A profilometer is a compact device that can be used for the direct measurement of surface texture. A
finely pointed stylus will be in contact with the workpiece surface. An electrical pickup attached to the
stylus amplifies the signal and feeds it to either an indicating unit or a recording unit. The stylus may be
moved either by hand or by a motorized mechanism.
The profilometer is capable of measuring roughness together with waviness and any other surface
flaws. It provides a quick-fix means of conducting an initial investigation before attempting a major
investigation of surface quality.

Profilometer

Profilograph

 The surface finish to be checked work piece is placed on the table.

 The table can move either side by lead screw and the stylus is pivoted over the tested surface, so the
oscillation in the stylus due to surface irregularities are transmitted to the mirror.
 A light source sends a beam of light through lens and a precision slit to the mirror, and the reflected
beam is directed to revolving drum.
 Upon the revolving drum a sensitive film is attached. The revolving drum can be rotated by two
bevel gears and the gears are attached to the same lead screw.
 Finally, the profilogram will be obtained from the sensitive film and it is analysed.
Double microscope
 It is an optical method for measuring the surface roughness, working principle is a thin film of light
strikes the surface to be tested by an angle of 45° through the condenser and precision slit and the
observing microscope is also inclined at an angle. of 45° to the tested surface.
 The surface is illuminated by a projection tube and it is observed by an eyepiece through the
microscope.
 The eyepiece contains an eyepiece micrometer and it is used to measure the irregularities

Taylor–Hobson Talysurf
The Taylor–Hobson talysurf works on the same principle as that of the Tomlinson surface meter.
However, unlike the surface meter, which is purely a mechanical instrument, the talysurf is an electronic
instrument. This factor makes the talysurf a more versatile instrument and can be used in any condition,
be it a metrology laboratory or the factory shop floor.

The stylus is attached to an armature, which pivots about the centre of piece of an
E-shaped stamping. The outer legs of the E-shaped stamping are wound with electrical coils. A
predetermined value of alternating current (excitation current) is supplied to the coils. The coils form part
of a bridge circuit. A skid or shoe provides the datum to plot surface roughness. The measuring head can
be traversed in a linear path by an electric motor. The motor, which may be of a variable speed type or
provided with a gear box, provides the required speed for the movement of the measuring head.
As the stylus moves up and down due to surface irregularities, the armature is also displaced. This causes
variation in the air gap, leading to an imbalance in the bridge circuit. The resulting bridge circuit output
consists of only modulation. This is fed to an amplifier and a pen recorder is used to make a permanent
record. The instrument has the capability to calculate and display the roughness value according to a
standard formula.
 Bridge circuit and electronics
What is Tool Maker’s Microscope in Metrology?
Tool maker’s microscope is a multi-functional measuring instrument used in metrology for inspection and
measurement of miniature mechanical and electronic parts and tools.
Tool maker’s microscope provides a high degree of magnification, and is also a simple and convenient
means for taking readings. This enables the Tool Maker’s Microscope both absolute and comparative
measurements.

The basic principle of Microscope

 There will be two stages of magnification coupled in the microscope. The first magnification is at the
Objective lens and the second magnification s at the eyepiece. The objective lens forms an image of
the workpiece at I1 at the stop. The stop frames the image so that it can be enlarged by the eyepiece.
Viewed through the eyepiece, an enlarged virtual image I2 is obtained. The magnification at each
stage will be multiplied. Thus, a highly effective magnification can be achieved in the microscope
with only moderate magnification at each stage.
 In metrology we use many microscopes, Among them, the tool maker’s microscope is the most
familiar one. The tool maker’s microscope is a multifunctional device that is primarily used for
measurement on factory shop floors. range.
 Designed with the measurement of workpiece contours and inspection of surface features in mind, a
tool maker’s microscope supports a wide range of applications from shop-floor inspection, and
measurement of tools and machined parts to precision measurement of test tools in a measuring
room.
 The main use of a tool maker’s microscope is to measure the shape, size, angle, and position of small
components that fall under the microscope’s measuring
Construction and Working of Tool Maker’s Microscope
 It features a vertical supporting column, which is robust and carries the weight of all other parts of
the microscope.
 It provides a long vertical working distance.
 The work piece is loaded on an XY stage, which has a provision for translator y motion in two
principal directions in the horizontal plane.
 Micrometers are provided for both X and Y axes to facilitate linear measurement to a high degree of
accuracy.
 The entire optical system is housed in the measuring head.
 The measuring head can be moved up and down along the supporting column and the image can be
focused using the focusing knob.
 The measuring head can be locked into position by operating the clamping screw.
 An angle dial built into the eyepiece portion of the optical tube allows easy angle measurement.
 A surface illuminator provides the required illumination of the object so that a sharp and clear image
can be obtained.
 The element that makes a microscope a measuring instrument is a reticle.
 When the image is viewed through the eyepiece, the reticle provides a reference or datum to facilitate
measurement.
 Specialized reticles have been developed for precise settings.
 A typical reticle has two ‘crosswires’, which can be aligned with a reference line on the image of the
workpiece.
 In fact, the term ‘cross-wire is a misnomer, because modern microscopes have cross-wires etched on
glass
Alignment of cross-wires with the measuring point
(a) Reading R1
(b) Reading R2
The above schematic diagram illustrates the procedure for linear measurement.
 A measuring point on the workpiece is aligned with one of the cross-wires and the reading R1 on the
microscope is noted down.
 Now, the XY table is moved by turning the micrometre head, and another measuring point is aligned
with the same cross-wire. The reading, R2 is noted down.
 The difference between the two readings represents the dimension between the two measuring points.
 Since the table can be moved in two mutually perpendicular directions (both in the longitudinal as
well as transverse directions) using the micrometres, a precise measurement can be obtained.
 In some tool maker’s microscopes, instead of a micrometre head, vernier scales are provided for
taking readings.
 The reticle is also inserted into the eyepiece mount.
 A positioning pin is provided to position the reticle accurately.
 A dioptre adjustment ring is provided in the eyepiece mount to bring the cross-wires of the reticle
into sharp focus.
 The measuring surface is brought into focus by moving the optical tube up and down, with the aid of
a focusing knob.
 Looking into the eyepiece, the user should make sure that the cross-wires are kept in ocular focus
during the focusing on the operation.
 The positioning of the workpiece on the table is extremely important to ensure accuracy in
measurement.
 The measuring direction of the workpiece should be aligned with the traversing direction of the table.
 While looking into the eyepiece, the position of the eyepiece mount should be adjusted so that the
horizontal cross-wire is oriented to coincide with the direction of the table movement.
 Now, the eyepiece mount is firmly secured by tightening the fixing screws.
 The workpiece is placed/clamped on the table and the micrometre head is turned to align an edge of
the workpiece with the centre of the cross-wires.
 Then, the micrometre is operated and the moving image is observed to verify whether the workpiece
pavement is parallel to the measuring direction.
 By trial and error, the user should ensure that the two match perfectly. Most tool makers microscopes
are provided with a surface illuminator.
 This enables the creation of a clear and sharp image. Out of the following three types of illumination
modes that are available, an appropriate model can be selected based on the application.

Applications of Tool Maker’s Microscope

1. It is used in shop floor inspection of screw threads, gears, and other small machine
parts.
2. Its application includes precision measurement of test tools in tool rooms.
3. It helps determine the dimensions of small holes, which cannot be measured with
micrometres and callipers.
4. It facilitates template matching inspection. Small screw threads and involute gear teeth
can be inspected using the optional template reticles.
5. It enables inspection of tapers on small components up to an accuracy of 6.

Optical projector:
The profile projector, also called the optical projector, is a versatile comparator, which is widely used for
the purpose of inspection. It is especially used in tool room applications. It projects a two-dimensional
magnified image of the work piece onto a viewing screen to facilitate measurement. A profile projector is
made up of three main elements: the projector comprising a light source and a set of lens housed inside an
enclosure, a work table to hold the work piece in place, and a transparent screen with or without a chart
gauge for comparison or measurement of parts.
3.2.1 Optical Squares
An optical square is useful in turning the line of sight by 90° from its original path. Many optical
instruments, especially microscopes, have this requirement. An optical square is essentially a pentagonal
prism (pentaprism). Regardless of the angle at which the incident beam strikes the face of the prism, it is
turned through 90° by internal reflection. Unlike a flat mirror, the accuracy of a pentaprism is not affected
by the errors present in the mounting arrangement. This aspect is illustrated in Figs 3.4 and3.5. It can be
seen from Fig. 3.4 that a mirror is kept at an angle of 45° with respect to the incident ray of light, so that
the reflected ray will be at an angle of 90° with respect to the incident ray. It is observed that any error in
the mounting of the mirror or in maintaining its base parallel, in a fixed reference, to the beam is greatly
magnified by the optical lever effect. These two errors in combination may even be greater than the work
piece squareness error.

1 — Reflected ray without errors

2 — Reflected ray due to mounting error
2 — Reflected ray due to base error
Fig. 3.4 Mirror reflecting light by 90°

Fig. 3.5 Optical square Fig. 3.6 Use of an optical square to test squareness
This problem may be overcome by using an optical square. Figure 3.5 illustrates the optical path through
an optical square. The incident ray is reflected internally from two faces and emerges from the square at
exactly 90° to the incident light. This is a remarkable property. Any slight deviation or misalignment of
the prism does not affect the right angle movement of the light ray.
Optical squares are of two types. One type is fitted into instruments like telescopes, wherein an optical
square is factory-fitted to ensure that the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertex. The second type
comes with the necessary attachments for making adjustments to the line of sight. This flexibility allows
optical squares to be used in a number of applications in metrology. Figure 3.6 illustrates the use of an
optical square to test the squareness of machine slideways. Squareness of the vertical slideway with
respect to a horizontal slideway or bed is of utmost importance in machine tools. The test set-up requires
an autocollimator, plane reflectors, and an optical square. It is necessary to take only two readings, one
with the reflector at position A and a second at position B, the optical square being set down at the
intersection of the two surfaces when the reading at B is taken. The difference between the two readings
is the squareness error.
Optical Flats
The most common interference effects are associated with thin transparent films or wedges bounded on at
least one side by a transparent surface. Soap bubbles, oil films on water, and optical flats fall in this
category. The phenomenon by which interference takes place is readily described in terms of an optical
flat, as shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10 Fringe formation in an optical flat

An optical flat is a disk of high-quality glass or quartz. The surface of the disk is ground and lapped to a
high degree of flatness. Sizes of optical flats vary from 25 to 300 mm in diameter, with a thickness
ranging from 25 to 50 mm. When an optical flat is laid over a flat reflecting surface, it orients at a small
angle θ, due to the presence of an air cushion between the two surfaces. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.10.
Consider a ray of light from a monochromatic light source falling on the upper surface of the optical flat
at an angle. This light ray is partially reflected at point ‘a’. The remaining part of the light ray passes
through the transparent glass material across the air gap and is reflected at point ‘b’ on the flat work
surface. The two reflected components of the light ray are collected and recombined by the eye, having
travelled two different paths whose length differs by an amount ‘abc’.
If ‘abc’ = λ/2, where λ is the wavelength of the monochromatic light source, then the condition for
complete interference has been satisfied. The difference in path length is one-half the wavelength, a
perfect condition for total interference. The eye is now able to see a distinct patch of darkness termed a
fringe. Next, consider another light ray from the
same source falling on the optical flat at a small distance from the first one. This ray gets
reflected at points ‘d’ and ‘e’. If the length ‘def’ equals 3λ/2, then total interference occurs again and a
similar fringe is seen by the observer. However, at an intermediate point between the two fringes, the path
difference between two reflected portions of the light ray will be an even number of half wavelengths.
Thus, the two components of light will be in phase, and a light band will be seen at this point.
To summarize, when light from a monochromatic light source is made to fall on an optical flat, which is
oriented at a very small angle with respect to a flat reflecting surface, a band of alternate light and dark
patches is seen by the eye. Figure 3.11 illustrates the typical fringe pattern seen on a flat surface viewed
under an optical flat. In case of a perfectly flat surface, the fringe pattern is regular, parallel, and
uniformly spaced. Any deviation from this pattern is a measure of error in the flatness of the surface
being measured

Fig. 3.11 Interference fringes

Fringe patterns provide interest-ing insights into the surface being inspected. They reveal surface
conditions like contour lines on a map. Figure 3.12 illustrates typical fringe
patterns, and Table 3.2 offers useful hints about the nature of surfaces corresponding to the patterns. Once
we recognize surface configurations from their fringe patterns, it is much easier to measure the
configurations.

Fig. 7.12 Fringe patterns reveal surface conditions