Steven Weinberg

Steven Weinberg (/ˈwaɪnbɜːrɡ/; May 3, 1933 – July

23, 2021) was an American theoretical physicist and Steven Weinberg
Nobel laureate in physics for his contributions with
Abdus Salam and Sheldon Glashow to the unification
of the weak force and electromagnetic interaction
between elementary particles.

He held the Josey Regental Chair in Science at the

University of Texas at Austin, where he was a member
of the Physics and Astronomy Departments. His
research on elementary particles and physical
cosmology was honored with numerous prizes and
awards, including the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics and
the 1991 National Medal of Science. In 2004, he
received the Benjamin Franklin Medal of the American
Philosophical Society, with a citation that said he was Weinberg at the 2010 Texas Book Festival
"considered by many to be the preeminent theoretical Born May 3, 1933
physicist alive in the world today." He was elected to New York City, U.S.
the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Britain's
Died July 23, 2021 (aged 88)
Royal Society, the American Philosophical Society,
Austin, Texas, U.S.
and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Resting Texas State Cemetery
Weinberg's articles on various subjects occasionally place
appeared in The New York Review of Books and other Education Cornell University (BA)
periodicals. He served as a consultant at the U.S. Arms Princeton University (PhD)
Control and Disarmament Agency, president of the
Philosophical Society of Texas, and member of the Known for Electroweak interaction
Board of Editors of Daedalus magazine, the Council of Weinberg angle
Scholars of the Library of Congress, the JASON group Weinberg–Witten theorem
of defense consultants, and many other boards and
Joos–Weinberg equation
committees.[5][6]
Asymptotic safety
Axion model

Early life Effective action

Minimal subtraction scheme
Steven Weinberg was born in 1933 in New York Technicolor
City.[7] His parents were Jewish[8] immigrants;[9] his
Unitarity gauge
father, Frederick, worked as a court stenographer,
while his mother, Eva (Israel), was a housewife.[10][11] Spouse Louise Goldwasser ​(m. 1954)​
Becoming interested in science at age 16 through a Children 1
chemistry set handed down by a cousin,[12][10] he Awards Heineman Prize (1977)
graduated from Bronx High School of Science in Elliott Cresson Medal (1979)
1950.[13] He was in the same graduating class as Nobel Prize in Physics (1979)
Sheldon Glashow,[11] whose research, independent of ForMemRS (1981)[1][2]
Weinberg's, resulted in their (and Abdus Salam's)
National Medal of Science (1991)
sharing the 1979 Nobel in physics.[14]
Andrew Gemant Award (1997)
Weinberg received his bachelor's degree from Cornell Breakthrough Prize (2020)
University in 1954. There he resided at the Telluride
Scientific career
House. He then went to the Niels Bohr Institute in
Copenhagen, where he started his graduate studies and Fields Theoretical physics
research. After one year, Weinberg moved to Princeton Institutions University of Texas at Austin
University, where he earned his Ph.D. in physics in University of California, Berkeley
1957, completing his dissertation, "The role of strong Massachusetts Institute of
interactions in decay processes", under the supervision Technology
of Sam Treiman.[3][15]
Harvard University
Columbia University

Career and research Thesis The role of strong interactions in

decay processes (http://www.worl
After completing his Ph.D., Weinberg worked as a dcat.org/oclc/81937779) (1957)
postdoctoral researcher at Columbia University (1957– Doctoral Sam Treiman[3]
59) and University of California, Berkeley (1959) and advisor
then was promoted to faculty at Berkeley (1960–66).
Doctoral Orlando Alvarez (1979)[3]
He did research in a variety of topics of particle
students Claude Bernard (1976)[3]
physics, such as the high energy behavior of quantum
field theory, symmetry breaking,[16] pion scattering, Clifford Burgess (1985)[3]
infrared photons and quantum gravity (soft graviton Kanokkuan Chaicherdsakul
theorem).[17] It was also during this time that he (2006)[3]
developed the approach to quantum field theory Lay Nam Chang (1967)[3]
described in the first chapters of his book The
Raphael Flauger (2009)[3]
Quantum Theory of Fields[18] and started to write his
Gerald Gilbert (1986)[4]
textbook Gravitation and Cosmology, having taken up
an interest in general relativity after the discovery of Bob Holdom (1981)[3]
cosmic microwave background radiation.[10] He was Jun Liu (1988)[3]
also appointed the senior scientist at the Smithsonian W. Vincent Liu (1999)[3]
Astrophysical Observatory.[10] The Quantum Theory of Rafael Lopez-Mobilia (1995)[3]
Fields spanned three volumes and over 1,500 pages,
John LoSecco (1976)[3]
and is often regarded as the leading book in the
John Preskill[3][4] (1980)
field.[10]
Fernando Quevedo[3][4] (1986)
In 1966, Weinberg left Berkeley and accepted a Mark G. Raizen[4] (1989)
lecturer position at Harvard. In 1967 he was a visiting
Bernard Roth (1987)[3]
professor at MIT. It was in that year at MIT that
Ubirajara Van Kolck (1993)[3]
Weinberg proposed his model of unification of
electromagnetism and nuclear weak forces (such as Todd West (1994)[3]
those involved in beta-decay and kaon-decay),[19] with Scott Willenbrock (1986)[3]
the masses of the force-carriers of the weak part of the Weinberg's voice
interaction being explained by spontaneous symmetry 0:00 / 0:00
breaking. One of its fundamental aspects was the
While joking with Richard Dawkins over his view
prediction of the existence of the Higgs boson. on the existence of God
Recorded July 2008
Weinberg's model, now known as the electroweak
unification theory, had the same symmetry structure as Website utphysicshistory.net
that proposed by Glashow in 1961: both included the /StevenWeinberg.html (https://utp
then-unknown weak interaction mechanism between hysicshistory.net/StevenWeinber
leptons, known as neutral current and mediated by the g.html)
Z boson. The 1973 experimental discovery of weak
neutral currents[20] (mediated by this Z boson) was one verification of the electroweak unification. The
paper by Weinberg in which he presented this theory is one of the most cited works ever in high-energy
physics.[21]

After his 1967 seminal work on the unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions, Weinberg
continued his work in many aspects of particle physics, quantum field theory, gravity, supersymmetry,
superstrings and cosmology. In the years after 1967, the full Standard Model of elementary particle
theory was developed through the work of many contributors. In it, the weak and electromagnetic
interactions already unified by the work of Weinberg, Salam and Glashow, are made consistent with a
theory of the strong interactions between quarks, in one overarching theory. In 1973, Weinberg proposed
a modification of the Standard Model that did not contain that model's fundamental Higgs boson. Also
during the 1970s, he proposed a theory later known as technicolor, in which new strong interactions
resolve the hierarchy problem.[22][23][24]

Weinberg became Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics at Harvard University in 1973, a post he held
until 1983.[14] In 1979 he pioneered the modern view on the renormalization aspect of quantum field
theory that considers all quantum field theories effective field theories and changed the viewpoint of
previous work (including his own in his 1967 paper) that a sensible quantum field theory must be
renormalizable.[25] This approach allowed the development of effective theory of quantum gravity,[26]
low energy QCD, heavy quark effective field theory and other developments, and is a topic of
considerable interest in current research.[27]

In 1979, some six years after the experimental discovery of the neutral currents—i.e. the discovery of the
inferred existence of the Z boson—but after the 1978 experimental discovery of the theory's predicted
amount of parity violation due to Z bosons' mixing with electromagnetic interactions,[28] Weinberg was
awarded the Nobel Prize in physics with Glashow and Salam, who had independently proposed a theory
of electroweak unification based on spontaneous symmetry breaking.[10][14]

In 1982 Weinberg moved to the University of Texas at Austin as the Jack S. Josey-Welch Foundation
Regents Chair in Science,[14] and started a theoretical physics group at the university that now has eight
full professors and is one of the leading research groups in the field in the U.S.[10]

Weinberg is frequently listed among the top scientists with the highest research effect indices, such as the
h-index and the creativity index.[29] The theoretical physicist Peter Woit called Weinberg "arguably the
dominant figure in theoretical particle physics during its period of great success from the late sixties to
the early eighties", calling his contribution to electroweak unification "to this day at the center of the
Standard Model, our best understanding of fundamental physics".[30] Science News named him along
with fellow theorists Murray Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman the leading physicists of the era,
commenting, "Among his peers, Weinberg was one of the most respected figures in all of physics or
perhaps all of science".[31] Sean Carroll called Weinberg one of the “best physicists we had; one of the
best thinkers of any variety” who “exhibited extraordinary verve and clarity of thought through the whole
stretch of a long and productive life”,[32] while John Preskill called him "one of the most accomplished
scientists of our age, and a particularly eloquent spokesperson for the scientific worldview".[32] Brian
Greene said that Weinberg had an “astounding ability to see into the deep workings of nature” that
“profoundly shaped our understanding of the universe".[32] Upon the awarding of the Breakthrough Prize
in 2020, one of the founders of the prizes, Yuri Milner, called Weinberg a “key architect” of “one of the
most successful physical theories ever”, while string theorist Juan Maldacena, the chair of the selection
committee, said, “Steven Weinberg has developed many of the key theoretical tools that we use for the
description of nature at a fundamental level".[33]

Other contributions
Besides his scientific research, Weinberg was a public spokesman
for science, testifying before Congress in support of the
Superconducting Super Collider, writing articles for The New York
Review of Books,[34] and giving various lectures on the larger
meaning of science. His books on science written for the public
combine the typical scientific popularization with what is
traditionally considered history and philosophy of science and
atheism. His first popular science book, The First Three Minutes:
A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe (1977), described the
start of the universe with the Big Bang and enunciated a case for Steven Weinberg in December 2014

its expansion.[12]

Although still teaching physics, in later years he turned his hand to the history of science, efforts that
culminated in To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science (2015).[35] A hostile review[36] in
the Wall Street Journal by Steven Shapin attracted a number of commentaries,[37] a response by
Weinberg,[35] and an exchange of views between Weinberg and Arthur Silverstein in the NYRB in
February 2016.[38]

In 2016, Weinberg became a default leader for faculty and students opposed to a new law allowing the
carrying of concealed guns in UT classrooms. He announced that he would prohibit guns in his classes,
and said he would stand by his decision to violate university regulations in this matter even if faced with
a lawsuit.[39] Weinberg never retired and taught at UT until his death.[10]

Personal life and archive

In 1954 Weinberg married legal scholar Louise Goldwasser and they had a daughter, Elizabeth.[13][40]

Weinberg died on July 23, 2021, at age 88 at a hospital in Austin, where he had been undergoing
treatment for several weeks.[40][41]
Weinberg's papers were donated to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas.[42]

Worldview
Weinberg identified as a liberal.[43]

Views on religion
Weinberg was an atheist.[44] Before he was an advocate of the Big Bang theory, Weinberg said: "The
steady-state theory is philosophically the most attractive theory because it least resembles the account
given in Genesis."[45]

Views on Israel
Weinberg was known for his support of Israel, which he characterized as "the 'most exposed salient' in a
war between liberal democracies and Muslim theocracies."[46] He wrote the 1997 essay "Zionism and Its
Adversaries" on the issue.[47][43]

In the 2000s, Weinberg canceled trips to universities in the United Kingdom because of the British
boycotts of Israel. At the time, he said: "Given the history of the attacks on Israel and the oppressiveness
and aggressiveness of other countries in the Middle East and elsewhere, boycotting Israel indicated a
moral blindness for which it is hard to find any explanation other than antisemitism."[48]

Honors and awards

Honorary Doctor of Science
degrees from eleven
institutions: University of
Chicago, Knox College,
University of Rochester, Yale
University, City University of
New York, Dartmouth College,
Weizmann Institute, Clark
University, Washington
College, Columbia University,
Bates College.[49]
American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, elected 1968[49]
Fellow of the American
Queen Beatrix meets Nobel laureates in 1983. Weinberg is third
Physical Society, elected
from the left of the photo
1971[50]
National Academy of Sciences,
elected 1972[49]
J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize, 1973[51][52][49]
Richtmyer Memorial Award (1974)[49]
Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, 1977[49]
 Steel Foundation Science Writing Award, 1977, for writing The First Three Minutes[49]
Elliott Cresson Medal (Franklin Institute), 1979[49]
Nobel Prize in Physics, 1979[13][53]
Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1981[1][2]
Elected to American Philosophical Society (1982)[49]
James Madison Medal of Princeton University, 1991[49]
National Medal of Science, 1991[49]
President of the Philosophical Society of Texas, 1992[54]
Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science, 1999[55]
Humanist of the Year, American Humanist Association, 2002[56]
Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences, American
Philosophical Society, 2004[57]
James Joyce Award, University College Dublin, 2009[58]
Breakthrough Prize, 2020[59][60]

Selected publications
A list of Weinberg's publications can be found on arXiv[61] and Scopus.[62]

Bibliography: books authored / coauthored

Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity
(1972)
The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe (1977, updated with
new afterword in 1993, ISBN 0-465-02437-8)
The Discovery of Subatomic Particles (1983)
Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures (1987;
with Richard Feynman)
Dreams of a Final Theory: The Search for the Fundamental Laws of Nature (1993), ISBN 0-
09-922391-0
The Quantum Theory of Fields (three volumes: I Foundations 1995, II Modern Applications
1996, III Supersymmetry 2000,[63] Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-67053-5,
ISBN 0-521-67054-3, ISBN 0-521-66000-9)
Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries (2001, 2003, HUP)
Glory and Terror: The Coming Nuclear Danger (2004, NYRB)
Cosmology (2008, OUP)
Lake Views: This World and the Universe (2010), Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press, ISBN 0-674-03515-1.
Lectures on Quantum Mechanics (2012, second edition 2015, CUP)
To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science (2015), Harper/HarperCollins
Publishers, ISBN 978-0-06-234665-0
Third Thoughts (2018), Belknap Press, ISBN 978-0-674-97532-3
Lectures on Astrophysics (2019, CUP, ISBN 978-1-108-41507-1)
 Foundations of Modern Physics (2021, CUP, ISBN 978-1-108-84176-4)

Scholarly articles
Weinberg, Steven (November 20, 1967). "A Model of Leptons" (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fp
hysrevlett.19.1264). Physical Review Letters. 19 (21). American Physical Society (APS):
1264–1266. Bibcode:1967PhRvL..19.1264W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967PhRv
L..19.1264W). doi:10.1103/physrevlett.19.1264 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrevlett.19.1
264). ISSN 0031-9007 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007).
Feinberg, G.; Weinberg, S. (April 1, 1961). "Law of Conservation of Muons". Physical
Review Letters. 6 (7). American Physical Society (APS): 381–383.
Bibcode:1961PhRvL...6..381F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961PhRvL...6..381F).
doi:10.1103/physrevlett.6.381 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrevlett.6.381). ISSN 0031-
9007 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007).
Pais, Abraham; Weinberg, Steven; Quigg, Chris; Riordan, Michael; Panofsky, Wolfgang
K.H.; Trimble, Virginia (April 1, 1997). 100 years of elementary particles [Beam Line, vol. 27,
issue 1, Spring 1997] (Report). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI).
doi:10.2172/790903 (https://doi.org/10.2172%2F790903).
Weinberg, S (2010). "Pions in Large N Quantum Chromodynamics". Phys. Rev. Lett. 105
(26): 261601. arXiv:1009.1537 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1009.1537).
Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105z1601W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhRvL.105z1601
W). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.261601 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.105.261
601). PMID 21231642 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21231642). S2CID 46210811 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46210811).
Weinberg, S (2012). "Collapse of the State Vector". Phys. Rev. A. 85 (6): 062116.
arXiv:1109.6462 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1109.6462). Bibcode:2012PhRvA..85f2116W (https://
ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PhRvA..85f2116W). doi:10.1103/physreva.85.062116 (http
s://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysreva.85.062116). S2CID 119273840 (https://api.semanticschola
r.org/CorpusID:119273840).

Popular articles
A Designer Universe? (http://www.physlink.com/Education/essay_weinberg.cfm), a
refutation of attacks on the theories of evolution and cosmology (e.g., those conducted
under the rubric of intelligent design) is based on a talk given in April 1999 at the
Conference on Cosmic Design of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
in Washington, D.C. This and other works express Weinberg's strongly held position that
scientists should be less passive in defending science against anti-science religiosity.
Beautiful Theories (http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/7992), an article
reprinted from Dreams of a Final Theory by Steven Weinberg in 1992 which focuses on the
nature of beauty in physical theories.
The Crisis of Big Science (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/may/10/crisis-big-
science/), May 10, 2012, New York Review of Books. Weinberg places the cancellation of
the Superconducting Super Collider in the context of a bigger national and global socio-
economic crisis, including a general crisis in funding for science research and the provision
 of adequate education, healthcare, transportation, and communication infrastructure, and
criminal justice and law enforcement.

See also
List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References
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ts/topcites/2015/alltime.html)
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3-1).
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External links
Steven Weinberg (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/115) on Nobelprize.org including the
Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1979, "Conceptual Foundations of the Unified Theory of Weak
and Electromagnetic Interactions"
Appearances (https://www.c-span.org/person/?29934) on C-SPAN
"Model physicist" (https://cerncourier.com/a/model-physicist/). CERN Courier. October 13,
2017.
Preskill, John (September 3, 2021). "Steven Weinberg (1933–2021)" (https://doi.org/10.112
6%2Fscience.abl8187). Retrospective. Science. 373 (6559): 1092.
Bibcode:2021Sci...373.1092P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Sci...373.1092P).
doi:10.1126/science.abl8187 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abl8187). PMID 34516845
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34516845). S2CID 237506142 (https://api.semanticschola
r.org/CorpusID:237506142).
"Steven Weinberg, Nobel laureate in physics and Bulletin board member, dies at 88" (https://
thebulletin.org/2021/07/steven-weinberg-nobel-laureate-in-physics-and-bulletin-board-memb
er-died-at-88/). Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. July 27, 2021.

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