Mechanics

Section A: Mechanics
𝑚
● The mass of an object is the amount of matter that the object has. M = 𝑔
(kg)

● The weight of an object is a measure of the gravitational force acting on it. W = mg (N)
● The density of a substance is the substance’s mass per unit volume. It is a measure of how dense the
𝑚
substance is. p = 𝑣
(measured in kgm^3)

● The relative density, pr of a substance is the ratio of the density of the substance, ps to the density of
𝑝𝑠
another, po. pr = 𝑝𝑤
(no units)

● A vector quantity has size and direction. Eg Forces, Weight, velocity

● A scalar quantity has only a size. Eg. Time, Mass, Volume
𝑊
● A force is a push or pull (F = 𝑑
) (J)

● The moments of a force is the turning effect of the force. Moments = F x distance from pivot. (Nm)
● The principle of moments states that when a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments
about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.
● The centre of a gravity of a body is the point through which the total weight of the body is considered to
act.
● Hooke’s law states that the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force, provided that
the elastic limit is not exceeded. (Force = spring constant x extension). (e = l - lo)
(l = stretched length lo = original length)
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
● Displacement time graph: m = 𝑟𝑢𝑛
= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= velocity
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
● Velocity time graph: m = 𝑟𝑢𝑛
= 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= acceleration

● Equations of motion:
v = u + at
𝑢+𝑣
s=( 2
)𝑡
 1 2
s = ut + 2
𝑎𝑡
2 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2as

● Newton’s Law of Motion:

→ A body stays at rest or continues with uniform motion in a straight line, unless compelled by an external
force to act otherwise.
→ The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction in which the force acts.
→ For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
● Momentum (p) is the product of a body’s mass and its velocity. p = mv
● The principle of conservation of momentum states that in any interaction involving two or more objects, the
total momentum before the interaction is equal to the total momentum after the interaction, provided no
external forces act.
● Potential energy is the energy of a body that is stored due to its position or state. Ep = mgh
1
● Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body. Ek = 2
mv^2

● The principle of conservation of energy states energy cannot be created or destroyed but can change from
one form to another.
Eg.
Electrical → thermal (electric toaster oven)
Solar → electrical (photovoltaic cells)
Electrical → mechanical → sound (speaker)
Chemical → thermal → mechanical → kinetic (vehicle)
● Power is the rate at which energy is used, or the rate at which work is done in Watts (W).
𝐸 𝑚𝑔ℎ
P= 𝑡
= 𝑡

𝐹
● Pressure is defined as the force acting normally per unit area. P = 𝐴
(Pa or Nm^-2)

Fluid Pressure: P = hpg (height x density x 10)

● Archimedes’ principle states that when an object is partially or fully immersed in a fluid, it experiences an
upthrust equal to the weight of fluid displaced.
Thermal Physics & Kinetic Theory
 Section B: Thermal Physics & Kinetic Theory

Thermometer Min range Max range Advantages Disadvantages

Mercury-in-glass -39 400 Can measure high temps Cannot measure low temps
Very fast response time

Alcohol-in-glass -115 115 Can measure low temps Cannot measure high temps

Clinical 35 43 Can hold temp readings (constriction) Limited range

Resistance -200 1200 Can measure very low and high temps Bulky device

Thermocouple -200 1600 Can measure very low and high temps
Can measure rapidly changing temps
Very accurate reading since little heat
is taken from objects
Remote monitoring

● The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is made of small particles that are in random motion and
that have space between them.

Solid Liquid Gas

Retains fixed volume and shape Assumes the shape of the Assumes the shape and volume of
container it occupies the container it occupies

Not easily compressible Not easily compressible compressible

Does not flow easily Flows easily Flows easily

● Browian motion is the continuous random movement of microscopic solid particles.

● Boyles’ Law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure once the temperature
and the number of particles remains constant. P1V1 = P2V2
● Charles’ Law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature once the
𝑉1 𝑉2
pressure and number of gas molecules remains constant. 𝑇1
= 𝑇2

● Pressure Law states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature once
𝑃1 𝑃2
volume and number of gas molecules remains constant. 𝑇1
= 𝑇2

𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
● Combined Gas Law: 𝑇1
= 𝑇2
● The specific heat capacity, c of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1kg
of a substance by 1C or 1K. E = mc∆Θ
● The heat capacity, C of a substance is the quantity of heat re quired to raise the temperature of the
substance by 1C or 1K. E = c∆Θ , C = mc
● Heat capacity of liquid:
○ Heat absorbed by water = Heat supplied by heater
○ mc∆Θ = Vlt (voltage x current x time)
𝑉𝑙𝑡
○ C= 𝑚∆Θ

○ mlv = Pt
○ P = VI
● The specific latent heat of fusion (lf) is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg of a solid to a liquid (or
vice versa) at its melting point without any temperature change. E = mlf
● The specific latent heat of vaporisation (lv) is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg of a liquid to a
gas (or vice versa) at its boiling point without any temperature change. E = mlv
Wave Theory
 Section C: Waves
● A wave is a means of transferring energy from one point to another
● In transverse waves the particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of wave travel. Eg water
waves, em waves.
● In longitudinal waves the particles vibrate in the same direction parallel to the direction in which the
wave travels. Eg sound waves
● Egs. of em waves: visible light, radiant heat, infra-red (IR).
● The amplitude (a) of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particle from the rest position.
● The wavelength of a wave is the distance between 1 crest and 1 trough.
● The time taken from 1 cycle is called the periodic time (T).
1
● The frequency (f) of a wave is the number of cycles in 1s. 𝑓 = 𝑇

λ
● The speed (v) of a wave is the rate at which the wave moves. v = 𝑇
or v = fλ

● Loudness is the amplitude of the sound wave.

● Pitch is the frequency of the sound wave
● The human ear can hear: 20-20,000hz (average is 150hz)
● Reflection occurs when a wave encounters a plane barrier and experiences a change in its direction
only.
● The law of reflection states that the angle of incident (i) is always equal to the angle of reflection (r).
● Nature of image:
○ It is virtual
○ It is laterally inverted
○ It is upright
● Refraction deals with the change in speed (and sometimes direction) of a wave it encounters a
change in medium ( In denser medium the angle is smaller)
● The law of refraction states that the incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie on the same
plane.
● Real world observations of refraction:
○ Apparent bending of an object
○ Real depth and apparent depth
○ Mirages
● Diffraction is the spreading of waves
● Superposition is the addition of 2 or more waves
● The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves overlap, the resulting
displacement is the sum of the individual displacements.
● Ultrasound refers to anything greater than 20,000hz
● Radio - 1 λ/m
Microwaves - 10^-2 λ/m
IR - 10^-2
UV - 10^-6
X-rays - 10^-8
Y -rays 10^-12
● Evidence light moves in a straight line
○ Shadows
○ Eclipses
○ Pinhole Camera
● Uses of EM - Spectrum
○ Microwaves
■ Satellite signals
■ Cooking/heating food
○ Infrared Radiation
■ Many remote controls use IR to communicate with the device
■ IR is absorbed by all materials and causes heating (toasters)
■ Used for night vision and security cameras
● Snell’s Law: The sine of the incident angle divided by the sine of the refracted angle is a constant
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
for a medium known as its refractive index. n = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
NB: when going
1
from dense - less dense use 𝑛
● Total internal reflection takes place when the angle of incidence (i) is increased beyond the critical
1
angle and the incident ray is reflected at the boundary. c = sin-1 ( 𝑛 ) - critical angle (when i

produces r of 90◦)
● Total internal reflection occurs in:
○ Periscopes
○ Fibre optic cables
○ Endoscopes
● A real image is one in which actual light rays meet to form.
● A virtual image does not have actual light rays meeting but is formed when they appear to converge
● Diverging (Concave) Lens:

● Converging (Convex) Lens:

𝑣
● m=𝑢
1 1 1
● 𝑓
= 𝑢
+ 𝑣
(if v is negative the image is virtual)

v - image distance, u - obj. distance.

● Newton’s Corpuscular Theory
○ Light from a source was shot out as a stream of particles.
○ Light could not be a wave because light showed no diffraction
● Huygen’s Wave Theory
○ The theory assumed that the light waves are mechanical and transverse in nature.
○ The wave theory could explain reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction.
● Young’s Wave Theory
○ Thomas Young demonstrated the interference of light waves by shining light through a
screen with two slits equally separated.
○ Interference is only a wave phenomena and this proved that light existed as a wave.
Electricity & Magentism
 Section D: Electricity & Magnetism
● An electric field is the region surrounding an electrically charged body that exerts a force on other
charged objects placed in the field. NB: The electric field lines are parallel to each other, thus the
field is described as being uniform.
● A static charge is formed when two surfaces touch each other (electrons move from one obj. to
another, one obj is positive the other is negative)
● Uses of static electricity
○ Electrostatic painting
○ Photocopiers
○ Electrostatic precipitator
● Dangers of electrostatics
○ Static build-up on vehicles
○ Electronics
○ Lightning
● Electrical Conductors allow electric current to flow easily because of the outer electrons of the atom
are loosely bound and can freely move through the material when an electric charge is applied.
● Electrical Insulators are the opposite of a conductor. An insulator opposes the flow of electricity..
The electrons are tightly bound are are not free.
● Q = It
𝑄
● I= 𝑡

● The potential difference between two points is the work done per unit charge in moving from the
higher to lower potential.
E = VQ (energy = voltage x coulombs)
W = VQ
𝐸
V= 𝑄

● From Ohm’s Law: (V - voltage, I - current, t - time, r - resistance)

V = IR
2
E = 𝐼 Rt
2
𝑉
E= 𝑅
𝑡

● Power is defined as the rate at which work is done

𝐸
P= 𝑡
 P = IV
2
P=𝐼 R
2
𝑉
P= 𝑅

● Ways to conserve energy

○ Using solar rather than electrical or gas water heaters
○ Turning off equipment and unplugging chargers when not in use to eliminate phantom
energy
● Circuit Symbols

● Metallic Conductor at Constant Temperature

● The resistance of a material is a measure of its opposition to the flow of an electric current in a
circuit. V = IR
● Resistors in parallel:
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡
= 𝑅1
+ 𝑅2
+…

● To determine current across any 1 resistor in a 2 resistor arrangement:

𝑅2
I1 = ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) x I
𝑅1
I2 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
xI

● Homes are wired in parallel so that all appliances can:

○ Access 120V
○ Operate independently
○ Draw different currents as needed
● Earthing:
○ The earth wire provides a path for current to flow from the case of the device to the ground
if there is any electrical fault.
● A fuse is made up of a tin-coated copper wire. When current exceeds its design rating value, the
wire will overheat and melt, thus opening the electrical circuit.
● A circuit breaker is usually made up of a reusable spring-loaded type of switch. The function of the
circuit breaker is similar to that of the fuse. The device can be reused
● The fuse or circuit breaker is connected at the live wire before the appliance.
● A semiconductor diode is useful because it allows a current to flow only in one direction.
● Rectification involves converting an ac voltage to dc voltage. There are two methods:
○ Half wave rectification
○ Full wave rectification
● Logic Gates:
○
Physics of the Atoms
 Section E: Physics of the Atoms
● Model of the Atom

Plum Pudding model Planetary Model Bohr Model

Positive particles make up a Protons located in a dense core Protons located in a dense core
spherical body called nucleus called nucleus

Negative particles spread out Negative particles orbit nucleus Negative particles orbit nucleus
throughout the body in specific orbits/shells

● The Geiger- Marsden Experiment -

○ In the experiment alpha-particles are fired at a thin piece of gold foil. The presence of the vacuum
ensures that the only particles present are the alpha and the gold foil’s atoms.

Labels: alpha source

Rotatable microscope
Vacuum
Gold foil
Fluorescent screen

Summary of experiment:

Observation Conclusion

Most alpha-particles passed through the foil Atoms is composed of mostly free space

Very few alpha-particles were deflected Alpha-particles were repelled and deflected by
backwards very small dense regions of strong positive
charge

● The atomic number of an element is the total number of protons in one atom of an element
● The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of one atom of an element
● An isotope is an element that has atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
● Radioactivity is the random phenomenon of the spontaneous disintegration of unstable atomic nuclei to
form more energetically stable atomic nuclei via the emission of ionizing radiation (alpha, beta, gamma)
● History - Marie Curie
○ Created ‘Atomic Physics’
○ Coined the phrase ‘radioactivity’
○ Discovered isolated radium and polonium
○ Made advances in the field of medicine
■ Accurate and stronger X-rays using Radium
■ Smaller and portable X-ray machines
● Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomena i.e it involves the nucleus

Alpha - decay Beta - decay Gamma - emission

Mass number Decreases by 4 - -

Atomic number Decreases by 2 Increased by 1 -

● Radioactive properties

● Alpha is the most dangerous internal hazard

Gamma is the most dangerous external hazard

● The half-life of a radioactive sample is the time taken for either the active mass, the active number or the
activity to be reduced to half of the previous value
● The active mass (M) of a radioactive sample is the mass of that portion of the sample that is actually
radioactive (In grams)
● The active number (N) of a radioactive sample is the number of nuclei of the sample that is actually
radioactive.
● The activity (A) of a radioactive sample is the rate of disintegration of the sample. It is measured in Bq or
counts/sec.
● Half Life equations;
𝐴𝑜
○ A= 2𝑛

𝑀𝑜
○ M= 2𝑛

𝑁𝑜
○ N= 2𝑛

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
○ N= 1 𝑇1/2

● Uses of radioisotopes
○ Tracers/Nuclear imaging
○ Radiotherapy
○ Carbon-14 dating
● Nuclear Energy
2
○ E = 𝑚𝑐
○ m = mass before - mass after
○ E - energy released in Joules, m - mass defect in kg, c - speed of light
● Nuclear fusion reactions involve smaller nuclei combining to form larger nuclei and releasing energy in the
process
● Nuclear fission reactions involve larger nuclei breaking up into smaller nuclei and releasing energy in the
process.
● The Pros and Cons of Nuclear Power
○ Pros
■ The reserves of Uranium, although not limitless are many times those of the fossil fuels
■ Uranium produces many times more energy than the same mass of any fossil fuel
○ Cons
■ High levels of radioactive waste are associated with nuclear wastes.
■ Workers at nuclear plants may be damaged by radiation
● Dangers of Radiation
○ Radiation dama` ges biological tissue by
■ Killing cells
■ Causing cancer cell production
■ Causing mutations
● Safety around radiation
○ Handle all radioactive sources with tongs.
○ Point all sources away from you
○ Replace or store sources in their special containers