RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design refers to the action plan and research procedures developed by
the researcher in order to successfully answer the research problem. The design also
includes the choice of the research strategy or inquiry to be used in the research (Creswell,
2009, p.3; Ardales, 2001, p. 58).

Two Types of Research Design

1. Qualitative Research Design
- Explores and understands a topic or problem through a process that
involves question and procedures, data collection, data analysis, and
data interpretation.
- Researchers are immersed in the data collected.
- The primary sources such as interview and observations are in the
form of words and images.
- Inductive Approach
- Inquiry starts with concrete and empirical data and then moves toward
the abstract or general ideas or principles.

2. Quantitative Research Design

- Objective theories as well as the hypotheses are tested through
experimentation of the relationship among concepts or variables.
- The measures are standardized and systematically created before the
collection of data.
- Data are in numerical form and based on the precise measurement.
- Deductive Approach
- Inquiry starts from abstract ideas and general principles toward more
concrete, empirical, and verifiable pieces of evidence.
Kinds of Research Design under Quantitative and Qualitative Research
A research design is the overall plan for obtaining answers to the questions
being studied and for handling some of the difficulties encountered during the
research process (Polit & Beck 2004:49). Research designs are developed to meet
the unique requirements of a study. According to De Vos (1998:123), a research
design is a blueprint or a detailed plan for how a research study is conducted. Polit
and Beck (2004:209), and Wood and Haber (1998:157) indicated that selecting a
good research design should be guided by an overarching consideration, namely
whether the design does the best possible job of providing trustworthy answers to
the research question.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental Research Design
Experimental research design primarily focuses on the cause-and-effect
relationship of variables present in a study, utilizes research principle, Methods of
Difference, and is conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. The
first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second set.

1. True Experimental
 - The researcher has the control over the variables, treatment, intervention,
and the subjects.
- There are experimental and control groups.

2. Quasi- Experimental
- It involves the manipulation of independent variables without the
random assignment of participants to condition or orders of condition.

Types of Quasi- Experimental Research Design

• Non-Equivalent Controlled Group

This design is one where the assignment of participants to groups is
not controlled by the investigator. This is also similar to the Pretest-Posttest
Control Group of True Experimental Research Design.

• Time-Series Design
This is a design in which the researcher periodically observes the
subjects. This can be done by doing multiple observations to the subjects
during the experiments.

3. Pre- Experimental
- All groups will be observed after undergoing or receiving treatment.
Types of Pre- Experimental Research Design
• One-Shot Case Study Design
A type of pre-experimental design in which a single group of test
units is exposed to an experimental treatment and a single measurement
is taken afterwards. It only measures the post-test results and does not
use a control group.

• One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

A design in which the same assessment measures are given to
groups or subjects both before and after they have received a
treatment or been exposed to a condition, with such measures used to
determine if there are any changes that could be attributed to the
treatment or condition.

Non-Experimental Research Design

According to questionpro.com, non-experimental research is the type of
research that lacks an independent variable. Instead, the researcher observes the
context in which the phenomenon takes place and analyzes it to obtain information.
Unlike experimental research, where the variables are held constant, non-
experimental research is conducted when, during the study, the researcher cannot
control, manipulate, or alter the subjects but relies on interpretation or observations
to conclude.

Type of Non-Experimental Research Design

• Descriptive Research Design

 It involves identification of attributes of a particular
phenomenon or the exploration of correlation between two or more
phenomena (Cresswell,2002).
Various Kinds of Descriptive Research

• Survey
Survey is a design used to provide quantitative or numeric
description of trends, attitude, or opinions of a population by studying
a sample of the population (Cresswell, 2003).

• Correlational
According to questionpro.com, correlational research is a type
of non-experimental research method in which a researcher measures
two variables, understands, and assesses the statistical relationship
between them with no influence from any extraneous variable.
Example: A researcher interested in the relationship
between self-esteem and school achievement could collect data on
students’ self-esteem and their GPAs to see if the two variables are
statistically related.

• Ex-Post Facto or Causal Comparative

Investigates causal relationships between events and
circumstances.
For example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences
self-esteem levels in adults. Hence, the participants would be separated
into differing groups (underweight, normal weight, overweight) and
their self-esteem levels measured. This is an ex post facto design
because a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the
groups.
• Evaluative
Assesses/judges a program, organization, and policy, among others. It
also provides feedback and pieces of evidence.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Kinds of Qualitative
Defining features
Research
1. Phenomenology It is both an approach to and a method of understanding the behavioral
and social meanings of lived experiences of individuals.
Example:
• Exploring the lived experiences of women undergoing breast biopsy
or the lived experiences of family members waiting for a loved one
undergoing major surgery.
2. Ethnography It focuses on studying shared practices and belief systems (i.e., culture)
of a group of people in their natural context over a prolonged period of
time
Examples:
• Observing a group of children playing
• Observing employees in a corporate office
• Observing medical personnel in a high-volume hospital
3. Grounded Theory It refers to a set of inductive data collection and analytic methods with
the purpose of constructing theories grounded in the data themselves
 Examples:
• Grounded theory is often used by the HR department. For instance,
they might study why employees are frustrated by their work.
Employees can explain what they feel is lacking. HR then gathers
this data, examines the results to discover the root cause of their
problems and presents solutions.
• Grounded theory is used by marketing departments by letting
marketing executives express their views on how to improve their
product or service in a structured way.
4. Case Study It allows the in-depth investigation of complex issues within a specific
context, based on a small geographical area or a limited number of
individuals as the subjects of study
Example:
• A group of individuals might be watched over an extended period
of time to observe the progression of a particular disease.
5. It studies naturally occurring discourse and extract shared meanings
Discourse/Conversati from such discourse.
onAnalysis Example:
• A speaker points out that two sentences taken together as a single
discourse can have meanings different from each one if taken
separately.
6. Narrative Analysis It focuses on the narratives (storytelling) used as source of data.
Examples:
• Stories, interviews, life histories, journals, photographs, and other
artifacts.

DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is a process of gathering important data to test the hypothesis or
evaluate outcomes. It is an important part of the research process as it helps in providing
evidence to answer the research problem. But how can we make sure that we are using the
right instrument in our data collection? To do this, it is important to choose the appropriate
research instrument in your study. Below are some of the most common types of research
instruments that we use in research.

TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION TOOLS FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Data collection in quantitative research is presented in numbers and requires
mathematical calculation. The answers of the participants are measured and analyzed based
on the mathematical tools used in the study.
1. Standardized Questionnaire- It is also known as structured questionnaires. This
type of questionnaire aims to collect quantitative data which can be used in
mathematical calculations or statistical analysis.
A. When to use questionnaire as your research instrument:
a. when numerous data is needed but your resources are restricted
b. when you want to know about the beliefs, opinions, attitude, and
behavior of your target respondents
c. when you want to anonymously get your data

2. Structured Interview- This type of interview is extremely rigid in structure and

allows very little or no intention of prompting the participants.

A. When to use interviews as your research instrument:

 a. when you want to explore the experiences and views of your
respondents
b. when you deal with sensitive issues
c. when you want to expound a problem and explain its statistical data
d. few information are given

3. Experiment- It is a powerful design for testing hypothesis of causal relationships

among variables.
A. When to use experiments as your research instrument:
a. when you need to lessen the errors in your results
b. when you want to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
c. when you need to control your variable

B. Types of Experiments

a. Laboratory Experiment- It is an experiment conducted in a highly

controlled condition.
b. Field Experiment- It is independent and is still manipulated but in a
real-life setting.
c. Natural Experiment- It occurs naturally in real life and experimenter
has no control over the independent variable.

4. Observation- Instruments are used to systematically record and observe the

behavior of the respondents.
A. When to use observation as research instrument:
a. when you want to understand a situation through monitoring or
watching the respondents
b. when you are gathering data on interactions between people
c. when you want to know about the physical setting
d. when data collection is not a possible option

B. Types of Observation
a. Controlled Observation- It is a structured observation that is done in
a controlled environment.
b. Naturalistic Observation- The behavior of the participants is
observed in a natural setting.

5. Content Analysis- It is an instrument used to quantify and analyze the meanings

and relationships of certain words, phrases, or concepts.
A. When to use content analysis as research instrument:
a. when you want to describe the substance and form characteristics of a
message content
b. when you want to make inferences about the content
c. when you want to predict the effects of the content

B. Types of Content Analysis

a. Conceptual Analysis- It is an analysis that involves quantifying and
counting the occurrence of selected terms in the data.
b. Relational Analysis- It is an analysis that involves exploring the
relationships between concepts.

TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION TOOLS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Data collection in qualitative research focuses more on the non-quantifiable elements
such as feelings, emotions, or opinions of the subjects. Patterns are derived based on the
answers of the participants rather than the number deduced through mathematical
calculation.
1. Exploratory Questionnaire- It is also known as unstructured questionnaire. This
type of questionnaire is used to collect qualitative data which can be categorized
but is not quantifiable. Moreover, it allows participants to respond freely and
express their thoughts regarding a certain topic.

2. Unstructured Interview- This type of interview is one of the most common

qualitative data collection tools. It has the least number of questions as they focus
more on the conversation regarding the topic. Moreover, it gains a richer and
detailed context from the participants because questions are open-ended and
conversational.

3. Focus group discussion- It is quite similar to interviews, except that they are
conducted in a group discussion setting. Usually, researchers identify a particular
group based on the topic or issues to be discussed. Through the answers of the
participants, the data are collected and analyzed. Patterns or variations in their
responses can be examined.

4. Observation- It is one of the most common qualitative data collection tools used
to gather data by observing people in their natural setting. Researchers take
detailed notes and records of their subjects. This is also useful when there is an
ongoing situation and present reactions on specific issues are needed.

Factors to Consider in Choosing the Right Data Collection Tools

Choosing the right data collection tool is a very critical process in conducting your
research. There are different factors that you should consider before choosing your data
collection tools. Below is a list of these factors:

• Research Goal
• Nature of Data
• Number of Participants
• Statistical Significance
• Validity and Reliability
• Time and Resources

Questions to ask in identifying your research instrument:

✓ How much time do you have?
✓ How much is your budget?
✓ Is it reliable and valid?
✓ Will the instrument be available for use?

Guidelines in Writing the Data Collection Tool

In your research paper, it is important to describe and explain the data collection tool
that you used in your study. Here are the things that you should include in the research
paper:

• Describe the instruments that you plan on using to gather your data.
• Identify the source or developers of your instrument.
• Determine the validity and reliability of the instrument.
• Identify how it was normed.
 • Include other important information like the number of items, type of scale, and
so on.

STATISTICAL METHODS

Statistics is a term that pertains to your acts of collecting and analyzing numerical data. Doing
statistics means performing some arithmetic procedures like addition, division, subtraction,
multiplication, and other mathematical calculations.

STATISTICAL METHODOLOGIES

1. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show, or
summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data.
Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we have
analyzed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made. They are simply a
way to describe our data.
Descriptive statistics are very important because if we simply presented our raw data, it
would be hard to visualize what the data was showing, especially if there was a lot of it.
Two general types of statistic that are used to describe data:
o Measures of central tendency: These are ways of describing the central position of a frequency
distribution for a group of data. In this case, the frequency distribution is simply the distribution
and pattern of marks scored by the 100 students from the lowest to the highest. We can describe
this central position using a number of statistics, including the mode, median, and mean.
o Measures of spread: these are ways of summarizing a group of data by describing how spread out
the scores are. For example, the mean score of our 100 students may be 65 out of 100. However,
not all students will have scored 65 marks. Rather, their scores will be spread out. Some will be
lower and others higher. Measures of spread help us to summarize how spread out these scores are.
To describe this spread, a number of statistics are available to us, including the range, quartiles,
absolute deviation, variance, and standard deviation.

2. Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics use statistical models to help you compare your sample data to other samples
or to previous research. Most research uses statistical models called the Generalized Linear model
and include Student’s t- tests, ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), regression analysis and various other
models that result in straight-line (“linear “) probabilities and results.