Unit – 2

Townsend’s First Ionization Process

Definition:
The Townsend first ionization process describes the generation of free electrons and
positive ions through ionization in a gaseous medium when a high electric field is applied.
It is fundamental to understanding electrical discharges in gases.

Mechanism:

 Ionization by Collision:
When an electric field is applied between two electrodes (cathode and anode), free
electrons are accelerated. These electrons collide with neutral gas molecules,
gaining sufficient energy to ionize them, resulting in the formation of a positive ion
and a free electron.
 Electron Avalanche:
The process becomes self-sustaining as newly generated electrons also accelerate,
collide, and ionize additional molecules. This leads to an avalanche effect,
exponentially increasing the number of free electrons.
 Setup:
A typical arrangement for Townsend’s discharge involves a current-limiting resistor
connected to parallel plate electrodes in a gas-filled chamber.

Townsend’s First Ionization Coefficient (α):

 Definition:
The average number of ionizing collisions made by an electron per unit length of
travel in the direction of the electric field.
 Expression:
If n0n_0 is the number of electrons leaving the cathode and nn is the number of
electrons at a distance xx, then:

dndx=αn\frac{dn}{dx} = \alpha n

o Integration gives:

n=n0eαxn = n_0 e^{\alpha x}

o At a gap distance dd, the current at the anode II becomes:

I=I0eαdI = I_0 e^{\alpha d}

Here, I0I_0 is the current leaving the cathode.

  Dependence:
The ionization coefficient α\alpha depends on:
o Electric field intensity (EE).
o Gas pressure (pp).
o Nature of the gas.

Limitations of Townsend’s First Ionization Process:

1. Pressure Dependence:
Effective only at low pressures; at higher pressures, the mean free path of electrons
decreases significantly, affecting ionization efficiency.
2. Field Strength:
Requires sufficiently high electric fields to enable ionizing collisions.
3. Secondary Processes Neglected:
Does not account for secondary ionization mechanisms like photon emission or ion
impact on the cathode.

Townsend’s Second Ionization Process

Mechanisms for Additional Electrons:

1. Positive Ion Impact:

Positive ions collide with the cathode, ejecting secondary electrons.
2. Photon Emission:
Excited atoms emit photons, which cause photoemission of electrons from the
cathode.
3. Metastable Atoms:
Metastable particles transfer energy to electrons, leading to ionization.

Townsend’s Second Ionization Coefficient (γ):

 Definition:
The net number of secondary electrons produced per incident positive ion, photon,
or metastable particle.
 Expression:
Let n0n_0 and nn represent electrons leaving the cathode and reaching the anode,
respectively. Then:

n=n0eαd+γ(n−n0)eαdn = n_0 e^{\alpha d} + \gamma (n - n_0)e^{\alpha d}

Solving for nn:

n=n0eαd1−γ(eαd−1)n = \frac{n_0 e^{\alpha d}}{1 - \gamma (e^{\alpha d} - 1)}

o Breakdown occurs when: γ(eαd−1)=1\gamma (e^{\alpha d} - 1) = 1

Townsend’s Criterion for Breakdown:

For breakdown to occur, the discharge must become self-sustaining:

γeαd=1\gamma e^{\alpha d} = 1

 Key Points:
o eαde^{\alpha d}: Represents the electron avalanche.
o γ\gamma: Represents secondary ionization effects.
 Implications:
o If γeαd<1\gamma e^{\alpha d} < 1, no breakdown occurs, and the discharge
is non-sustaining.
o If γeαd=1\gamma e^{\alpha d} = 1, breakdown occurs, leading to a self-
sustained discharge.

Limitations of Townsend’s Criterion:

1. High Pressure:
At high pressures, processes like stepwise ionization dominate, making the
Townsend model insufficient.
2. Electrode Effects:
Assumes idealized conditions without electrode surface irregularities.

Applications:

 Used in gas-filled electrical devices like spark gaps and gas discharge tubes.
 Forms the basis for studying high voltage breakdown mechanisms in insulation
systems.

By studying the equations, mechanisms, and limitations, this topic provides insights into
how gaseous insulation behaves under high voltage conditions and how discharges can be
controlled or avoided.

Paschen’s Law

Paschen’s Law is a principle that relates the breakdown voltage of a gas to the product of
gas pressure (p) and the gap length (d) between electrodes under a uniform electric field.
It provides a criterion to evaluate the breakdown voltage of gases and explains the
behavior of dielectric breakdown under different pressure and gap conditions.
Townsend's Criterion

The breakdown condition for a uniform electric field is given by Townsend’s criterion:

ν(eαd−1)=1\nu \left( e^{\alpha d} - 1 \right) = 1

Here:

 ν\nu: Townsend’s second ionization coefficient (average number of secondary

electrons per incident ion).
 α\alpha: Townsend’s first ionization coefficient (average number of ionizing
collisions per unit distance).
 dd: Distance between the electrodes.

This equation helps to estimate the breakdown voltage by using the coefficients α\alpha
and ν\nu, which depend on the reduced electric field strength (E/pE/p), gas pressure (pp),
and gap length (dd).

Derivation of Paschen’s Law

To derive Paschen’s Law:

1. Ionization Coefficient Dependency: The Townsend first ionization coefficient

(α\alpha) is expressed as a function of the reduced electric field (E/pE/p) and
pressure (pp):

α=f(Ep)p\alpha = f \left( \frac{E}{p} \right) p

Substituting this into Townsend's criterion gives:

ν(ef(E/p)pd−1)=1\nu \left( e^{f(E/p) p d} - 1 \right) = 1

2. Breakdown Voltage Relation: The electric field is given by E=Vb/dE = V_b / d, where
VbV_b is the breakdown voltage. Substituting EE into the equation above:

ν(ef(Vb/(pd))pd−1)=1\nu \left( e^{f(V_b / (p d)) p d} - 1 \right) = 1

3. Simplification: For uniform fields, this simplifies to:

Vb=F(p⋅d)V_b = F(p \cdot d)

Here, F(p⋅d)F(p \cdot d) is a unique function that depends on the product p⋅dp \cdot
d (pressure times gap length).
Significance of Paschen’s Law

1. Breakdown Voltage as a Function of p⋅dp \cdot d:

o Paschen’s Law demonstrates that the breakdown voltage VbV_b is uniquely
determined by the product p⋅dp \cdot d for a given gas and electrode
material.
o This means that the same breakdown voltage can occur at different
combinations of pressure and gap length, provided the product p⋅dp \cdot d
remains constant.
2. Paschen Curve:
o A plot of VbV_b versus p⋅dp \cdot d shows a minimum breakdown voltage
for a specific value of p⋅dp \cdot d. This is due to the competing effects of
reduced collisions at low pressure and increased recombination at high
pressure.

Applications of Paschen’s Law

1. High Voltage Insulation Design:

o Helps in determining the breakdown voltage for specific gas-insulated
systems.
2. Vacuum and Low-Pressure Applications:
o Provides insights into the safe operating limits of devices like vacuum tubes
and gas discharge tubes.
3. Electrode Material Selection:
o The law aids in selecting materials and gases to optimize insulation
properties and minimize breakdown risks.

Limitations of Paschen’s Law

1. Non-uniform Fields:
o Paschen’s Law is valid only for uniform electric fields. It does not account for
field distortions due to electrode geometry or other factors.
2. Material Surface Effects:
o Surface roughness, contamination, and secondary emissions at the electrode
surfaces can cause deviations.
3. Extremely Small or Large p⋅dp \cdot d:
o At very low pressures or small gap lengths, quantum effects and field
emission may dominate, causing deviations from the predicted breakdown
voltage.

Paschen’s Law is crucial for understanding and predicting gas breakdown in electrical and
high-voltage engineering systems.
Breakdown in Non-Uniform Fields

In non-uniform electric fields, such as those present in point-plane, sphere-plane, or

coaxial cylinder electrode configurations, the electric field strength varies significantly
across the gap. This variation affects the ionization and the breakdown processes, making
them different from those in uniform fields.

Key Characteristics of Non-Uniform Fields

1. Variation in Field Strength:

o The electric field (EE) is not constant across the gap. The strongest field is
typically near the electrode with the smallest radius of curvature (e.g., the
point in a point-plane configuration).
o As a result, the ionization coefficient (α\alpha) also varies along the gap.
2. Electron Multiplication:
o Electron multiplication (avalanche growth) in non-uniform fields depends on
the integral of the ionization coefficient along the electron's path: ∫α dx\int
\alpha \, dx
o This integration is performed along the path where the field strength is
highest.

Breakdown Criteria in Non-Uniform Fields

1. Townsend Criterion:

 At low pressures, the Townsend criterion for spark breakdown can still be applied:
γ(e∫0dα dx−1)=1\gamma \left( e^{\int_0^d \alpha \, dx} - 1 \right) = 1
 Here:
o γ\gamma: Townsend’s secondary ionization coefficient.
o α\alpha: Townsend’s primary ionization coefficient.
o dd: Gap length.

2. Non-Uniform Field Adjustments:

 The above criterion is valid for slightly non-uniform fields and moderate pressures.
 In strongly divergent fields, the breakdown mechanism becomes more complex as
certain regions in the gap may have α>0\alpha > 0, while others have α≤0\alpha
\leq 0.

Strongly Divergent Fields

In strongly divergent fields:

1. Critical Field Strength (EcE_c):

o Below a certain field strength (EcE_c), the integral ∫0dα dx\int_0^d \alpha \,
dx becomes zero.
 o In this case, the Townsend breakdown mechanism loses validity, especially if
the cathode field strength is low.
2. Alternative Mechanisms:
o Photo-ionization:
 Breakdown can still occur through photo-ionization, where photons
emitted by the discharge process ionize the surrounding gas.
o Streamer Mechanism:
 An avalanche may transition into a streamer if the electron
concentration reaches a critical value NcrN_{cr}, approximately
10810^8 electrons. This criterion can be expressed as:
Ncr=∫0xcα dxN_{cr} = \int_0^{x_c} \alpha \, dx
 xcx_c: Path length over which the avalanche grows to the
critical size.
 dd: Total gap length.

Breakdown in Positive Point-Plane Gaps

1. Electric Field Distribution:

o In positive point-plane gaps, the field is highly divergent near the point
electrode.
o Figure 2.9 illustrates this distribution, where the strongest field is near the
point, gradually decreasing toward the plane.
2. Breakdown Mechanism:
o The breakdown or discharge inception voltage can be calculated using the
above expressions, depending on whether direct breakdown occurs or if only
corona discharge takes place.

Conclusion

Breakdown in non-uniform fields is influenced by:

 The variation in electric field strength across the gap.

 Ionization processes governed by the integral of α\alpha over the electron's path.
 Additional mechanisms like photo-ionization and streamer formation in regions
where Townsend breakdown is not valid.

Understanding these processes is essential for designing systems with non-uniform field
configurations, such as high-voltage equipment and corona discharge systems.

Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics

Liquid dielectrics are extensively used in electrical equipment such as transformers, circuit
breakers, high-voltage cables, and capacitors. They perform dual functions: providing
electrical insulation and acting as a cooling or arc-quenching medium.
Applications of Liquid Dielectrics

1. Transformers:
o Provide insulation between live and grounded parts.
o Serve as a cooling medium by transferring heat to the atmosphere.
2. Circuit Breakers:
o Provide insulation between live parts and grounded components.
o Quench the arc formed between breaker contacts.

Common Liquid Dielectrics

 Petroleum Oils: Widely used due to availability and cost-effectiveness.

 Synthetic Hydrocarbons and Halogenated Hydrocarbons: Used in specific
applications.
 Silicone Oils and Fluorinated Hydrocarbons: Preferred for high-temperature
applications.

Important Properties of Liquid Dielectrics

1. Dielectric Strength:
o The maximum electric field a liquid can withstand without breaking down.
2. Dielectric Constant:
o Represents the ability to store electrical energy.
3. Electrical Conductivity:
o Indicates the liquid's ability to conduct current. Lower conductivity is
desirable.
4. Other Properties:
o Viscosity, thermal stability, specific gravity, and flash point.

Factors Affecting Dielectric Strength

1. Water Content:
o Even 0.01% water can reduce dielectric strength by 80%.
o Presence of moisture significantly degrades insulation performance.
2. Impurities:
o Fibrous or particulate impurities can drastically lower the dielectric strength.
o Pure and clean liquids are crucial for optimal performance.

Selection Criteria for Liquid Dielectrics

 Chemical Stability:
o Essential for ensuring long-term reliability and safety.
 Cost and Space Efficiency:
o Liquid dielectrics enable compact designs, such as 765 kV transformers,
which are impractical with air as the insulating medium.
 Environmental Impact:
 o Resistance to environmental influences is a key consideration.

Types of Liquids

1. Pure Liquids:
o Chemically pure and structurally simple.
o Behave predictably and are free from impurities.
2. Commercial Liquids:
o Chemically impure and contain complex organic molecules.
o Their behavior is less predictable and influenced by impurities.

Theories of Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics

Two main schools of thought attempt to explain the breakdown in liquid dielectrics:

1. Gaseous Breakdown Model (Avalanche Ionization Mechanism)

 Breakdown is caused by avalanche ionization.

 Electrons are ejected from the cathode due to:
o Field Emission: Electron release due to strong electric fields.
o Field-Enhanced Thermionic Effect (Schottky’s Effect): Electron emission due
to combined thermal and field effects.
 This theory primarily applies to pure liquids and explains the current-electric field
characteristic:
o Low Field (<1 kV/cm< 1 \, \text{kV/cm}): Conduction is ionic due to
dissociation of impurities.
o Moderate Field: Conduction saturates.
o High Field (>100 kV/cm> 100 \, \text{kV/cm}): Conduction increases rapidly,
leading to breakdown.

2. Particle and Impurity Effects

 Breakdown is influenced by foreign particles:

o Polarizable particles move toward high-stress regions and accumulate.
o The accumulation forms a bridge across the gap, initiating breakdown.
 Gaseous Bubbles:
o Bubbles have lower dielectric strength than the liquid.
o Breakdown of bubbles can trigger the total breakdown of the liquid.

Conclusion

Breakdown in liquid dielectrics is complex due to the interplay of various factors like
impurities, water content, and applied electric fields. While the gaseous breakdown model
explains behavior in pure liquids, commercial liquids require considerations of impurity
effects and particle behavior. Understanding these mechanisms is critical for designing
reliable high-voltage equipment.
Thermal Breakdown in Dielectrics

When an insulating material is subjected to an electric field, heat is generated due to two
main factors:

1. Conduction Current: Movement of charge carriers through the material.

2. Dielectric Losses: Heat generated during polarization processes.

The thermal breakdown of a dielectric occurs when the heat generated within the
material exceeds the heat it can dissipate. This imbalance causes a rapid increase in
temperature, leading to the breakdown of the material's insulating properties.

Mechanism of Thermal Breakdown

1. Heat Generation:
o Heat is produced due to dielectric losses and conductivity.
o The heat generation increases with the applied electric field strength.
2. Temperature Dependence:
o As the temperature rises, the material’s conductivity increases.
o This creates a feedback loop: higher temperature leads to higher
conductivity, which generates more heat.
3. Instability:
o Breakdown occurs when the rate of heat generation surpasses the material's
capacity to dissipate heat to the environment.

Thermal Stability and Instability

 Thermal Stability: At lower electric fields (e.g., E1E_1), the specimen reaches
thermal equilibrium at temperature T1T_1. Heat generated equals heat dissipated.
 Unstable Equilibrium: At moderate electric fields (e.g., E2E_2), equilibrium exists at
temperature T2T_2, but it is fragile. A slight increase in temperature can disrupt
stability.
 Thermal Instability: At higher electric fields (e.g., E3E_3), the specimen cannot
achieve equilibrium, leading to thermal breakdown.

Figure 2.13 illustrates the relationship between heat generation, dissipation, and the
electric field.

Mathematical Representation

Heat Flow in a Differential Volume

Consider a small cubical element within the dielectric:

 Side length: Δx\Delta x.

 Temperature gradient across the cube: ΔT/Δx\Delta T / \Delta x.
The heat flow through the cube is analyzed as follows:

 Heat flow across one face: KAΔTΔxK A \frac{\Delta T}{\Delta x}, where KK is the
thermal conductivity.
 Heat absorbed by the cube: Given by the difference in heat inflow and outflow.

Heat Generation and Dissipation

1. Heat Generated:

Heat generated by the electric field=σE2 (watts per unit volume)\text{Heat

generated by the electric field} = \sigma E^2 \, \text{(watts per unit volume)}

o σ\sigma: Electrical conductivity.

o EE: Electric field intensity.
2. Heat Dissipation:
o The heat dissipates into the surrounding material or raises the temperature
of the block.
3. Thermal Capacity:
o The rise in temperature is proportional to the material’s thermal capacity
(CVC_V).

Energy Balance Equation

The heat balance equation can be written as:

CV∂T∂t=σE2−∂∂x(K∂T∂x)C_V \frac{\partial T}{\partial t} = \sigma E^2 -

\frac{\partial}{\partial x} \left( K \frac{\partial T}{\partial x} \right)

 CVC_V: Thermal capacity of the material.

 KK: Thermal conductivity.
 σ\sigma: Electrical conductivity.

This equation represents the interplay between heat generation, dissipation, and
temperature rise.

Critical Temperature and Breakdown

 Critical Temperature (TcT_c): The temperature at which thermal instability occurs,

leading to breakdown.
 Time required to reach TcT_c depends on:
o Initial temperature.
o Material properties (CVC_V, KK, σ\sigma).
o Applied electric field intensity (EE).
Challenges in Solving the Equation

 Material properties like CVC_V, KK, and σ\sigma are functions of temperature.
 Electrical conductivity (σ\sigma) may also vary with the electric field.

To simplify the analysis:

 Assumptions are made based on the material’s behavior.

 Two extreme situations are considered:
1. Rapid heating with minimal heat dissipation.
2. Steady-state heating with efficient dissipation.

Thermal Breakdown Values

Thermal breakdown voltage varies based on:

1. Material properties.
2. Environmental conditions (e.g., 20°C).
3. Type of voltage applied (AC or DC).

Table 2.3 (referenced in the text) provides breakdown voltage values for various materials
under AC and DC conditions.

Conclusion

Thermal breakdown is a critical phenomenon in insulating materials, especially in high-

voltage systems. Understanding heat generation, dissipation, and material properties is
essential for designing reliable insulation systems and preventing breakdowns in practical
applications.

Breakdown in Composite Dielectrics

Composite dielectrics consist of combinations of different insulating materials, such as

solid, liquid, and gas, or even a vacuum, to achieve high dielectric strength. This section
focuses on breakdown phenomena in vacuum conditions, which are crucial in applications
like vacuum circuit breakers.

Vacuum and Its Measurement

 Definition: A vacuum system operates at a pressure below atmospheric pressure,

measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or torr.
 Pressure Standards:
o 1 atmospheric pressure (at 0°C) = 760 mmHg.
o 1 mmHg = 1 torr.
 o Pressures as low as 10−810^{-8} torr can be achieved with advanced
technology.
 Terminology:
o Micron: Another term for 10−310^{-3} torr, a common unit in vacuum
measurements.

Breakdown in Vacuum

In vacuum systems, the behavior of electrical discharges differs significantly from that in
gases due to the large mean free path of particles.

Townsend-Type Discharge in Gases

 In gases, electrons collide frequently due to a small mean free path.

 These collisions result in ionization and the formation of electron avalanches,
leading to current growth before breakdown.

Vacuum Discharge

 In a vacuum (e.g., 10−510^{-5} torr), the mean free path of electrons extends
several meters.
 With electrode gaps of only a few millimeters, electrons cross the gap without
collisions.
 Key Point: In a vacuum, electron avalanches cannot form naturally, so current
growth and breakdown require alternative mechanisms.

Vacuum Arc Mechanism

1. Gas Liberation:
o If gas can be released into the vacuum (e.g., due to electrode material
evaporation), a Townsend-like discharge can occur.
2. Electrode Surface Contribution:
o In a vacuum arc, the ions, electrons, and neutral atoms come from the
electrode material rather than the medium.
o The high energy causes evaporation of electrode material, which sustains the
discharge.

Dielectric Strength of Vacuum

 High Dielectric Strength: The lack of collisions gives vacuum dielectric strength up
to 1000 times greater than gases.
 Factors Influencing Breakdown:
1. Gap Length: The distance between electrodes directly affects breakdown
voltage.
2. Electrode Surface Condition:
 Polished and Degassed Electrodes: Offer higher breakdown strength.
  Roughened Electrodes: Reduce dielectric strength, as surface
irregularities increase local field enhancement.

Improving Dielectric Strength

1. Electrode Conditioning:
o Repeated high-voltage impulses can improve vacuum strength by removing
loosely attached metal particles caused by arcing.
o While this process does not smooth the roughened surface, it eliminates
contaminants.
2. Optimal Gap Design:
o At a vacuum of 10−610^{-6} torr, certain metals (e.g., silver, bismuth-copper)
exhibit maximum breakdown strength when the electrode gap is slightly less
than 3 mm.

Applications and Advantages of Vacuum Dielectrics

 Short Gaps: Vacuum’s high dielectric strength enables the use of small electrode
gaps, which allows faster operation of vacuum switches and circuit breakers.
 Arc Interruption:
o Unlike gases, vacuum arc behavior is defined by electrode material
evaporation rather than the medium.
 Reliability: Vacuum conditions minimize contamination effects, making them ideal
for high-voltage applications.

Conclusion

Vacuum insulation offers a unique and highly efficient mechanism for preventing
breakdown, especially in high-voltage systems. The properties of vacuum arcs and
dielectric strength are influenced by factors like electrode condition and gap size, which
are carefully optimized in practical applications like vacuum circuit breakers.

Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier Circuit

The Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier, introduced in 1932, is an advanced high-voltage

DC generator based on Greinacher's earlier voltage doubler circuit. It achieves very high DC
voltages using a modular, multistage arrangement of diodes and capacitors. This circuit is
widely used in applications such as particle accelerators, X-ray machines, and high-voltage
testing equipment.

1. Structure of the Circuit

The circuit consists of multiple stages, each comprising:

  Diodes: Used for rectification.
 Capacitors: Used for voltage storage and transfer.

Each stage doubles the input AC voltage, creating a high DC voltage output. The typical
configuration includes two types of capacitor columns:

 Oscillating Column: Alternating voltage is present across capacitors as the input AC

signal oscillates.
 Smoothing Column: Provides a stable voltage.

Key Points:

 Voltage at each stage increases incrementally by 2Vmax2V_{\text{max}}.

 The total output voltage is approximately 2nVmax2nV_{\text{max}}, where nn is the
number of stages.

2. No-Load Operation

 In the absence of a load, the capacitors in the oscillating and smoothing columns
charge alternately.
 For a single stage:
o Capacitor CC charges to 2Vmax2V_{\text{max}}.
o During subsequent cycles, other capacitors (C2,C2′C_2, C'_2, etc.) charge
progressively.
 Voltage distribution:
o Across each capacitor in the oscillating column: 2Vmax2V_{\text{max}}.
o Across the first capacitor (C1C_1): VmaxV_{\text{max}}.

The resulting voltage across the entire stack is 2nVmax2nV_{\text{max}}.

3. Loaded Operation

When a load is connected:

 The output voltage V0V_0 is less than 2nVmax2nV_{\text{max}}.

 Ripples appear in the output voltage due to the load current II.

Voltage Drop (ΔV\Delta V) and Ripple (δV\delta V):

 Voltage drop (ΔV\Delta V): Caused by charge transfer from the smoothing column
during each cycle.
 Ripple (δV\delta V): Proportional to the load current II, inversely proportional to the
capacitance CC and frequency ff.
4. Operation During Load

 When a load draws current, capacitors discharge and need to be recharged during
each cycle.
 The recharging sequence involves:
o Transfer of charge qq between stages.
o Oscillation of voltages in the oscillating column.
o Voltage stabilization in the smoothing column.

The total ripple for an nn-stage circuit is higher at the lower stages, where capacitors
experience more charge transfer. To minimize ripples:

 Increase capacitance at the lower stages (not practical for high-voltage circuits due
to insulation challenges).
 Use equal capacitance values for all stages.

5. Voltage Drop Analysis

 Theoretical no-load voltage: 2nVmax2nV_{\text{max}}.

 Actual output voltage under load: Reduced due to charge transfer inefficiencies.

For an nn-stage generator:

ΔV=IfC(3n−n(n+1)2)\Delta V = \frac{I}{fC} \left( 3n - \frac{n(n+1)}{2} \right)

 For n≥4n \geq 4, the linear term becomes negligible, simplifying the equation.

6. Optimization

 The output voltage increases with the number of stages up to an optimum point,
after which it decreases due to increased voltage drop and ripples.
 Optimum number of stages (noptn_{\text{opt}}) can be determined by
differentiating the voltage equation with respect to nn and finding its maximum.

7. Practical Considerations

 Use high-frequency input to reduce ripples and voltage drop.

 For large currents (>20> 20 mA), symmetrical cascaded rectifiers are preferred.
 Cascaded designs involve isolating transformers to manage high voltages across
different stages.

Applications

 High-voltage generation (1 MV to 2 MV).

 Particle accelerators.
 Medical imaging (X-rays, CT scans).
  Power electronics testing.

The Cockroft-Walton circuit remains a cornerstone in high-voltage engineering due to its

modularity, simplicity, and ability to generate extremely high voltages efficiently.

Cascaded Transformers

For voltages exceeding 400 kV, the cascading of two or more transformers is a preferred
method for achieving higher voltage levels. This approach offers several benefits:

1. Ease of Transport and Assembly:

o Dividing the weight into smaller units simplifies transportation and
installation.
2. Cost Reduction:
o The insulation requirements for each individual transformer are reduced,
leading to a lower cost compared to a single high-voltage transformer.
o The cost of insulation in single-unit transformers increases quadratically with
operating voltage, making cascading a cost-effective solution.

Basic Concept of Cascading

 A typical three-stage cascaded transformer setup is shown in Figure 3.9.

 The primary winding of the first-stage transformer is connected to a low-voltage
supply.
 The secondary winding of the first stage generates a voltage VV.
 The tertiary winding (excitation winding) of the first stage has the same number of
turns as the primary and feeds the primary of the second-stage transformer.

Voltage Distribution:

 The secondary winding of the second stage is connected in series with the
secondary winding of the first stage, producing a total voltage of 2V2V.
 Similarly, the third stage adds another VV, giving a total output voltage of 3V3V.

Key Points for Cascaded Transformers

1. Transformer Construction:
o Each transformer except the uppermost stage has three windings: primary,
secondary, and tertiary.
o The uppermost transformer requires only two windings (primary and
secondary).
2. Tank Insulation:
o The tank of the first stage is grounded.
 o The tanks of the second and third stages are at potentials of VV and 2V2V,
respectively.
o Solid insulation is required between the tanks and the ground.
3. Voltage Connections:
o High-voltage leads from the tertiary and secondary windings are brought out
through high-tension bushings for connection to the next stage.
o In some designs, mid-point potential type windings are used to halve the
insulation requirements.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

 Economical Design: The construction requires lower insulation costs per

transformer.
 Transportability: Dividing the weight into smaller units makes handling easier.

Disadvantages:

 Uneven Loading:
o The lower-stage transformers carry a greater load compared to the upper
stages.
o For a three-stage system, the loading pattern is as follows:
 Stage III: PP (power handled by secondary).
 Stage II: 2P2P (including tertiary load).
 Stage I: 3P3P (including primary, secondary, and tertiary loads).

Impedance Characteristics

1. Impedance Calculation:
o The total short-circuit impedance of a cascaded transformer is determined
using the leakage impedances of each stage:
 ZpsZ_{ps}: Leakage impedance (primary short-circuited, tertiary open).
 ZptZ_{pt}: Leakage impedance (primary short-circuited, secondary
open).
 ZstZ_{st}: Leakage impedance (secondary short-circuited, primary
open).
2. Total Impedance:
o For a cascaded system:
 Two-Stage Transformer: Impedance is 3–4 times that of a single unit.
 Three-Stage Transformer: Impedance is 8–9 times that of a single
unit.
o To reduce total impedance, it is crucial to minimize the impedance of
individual units.
Practical Insights

 Cascaded transformers are widely used in high-voltage applications to achieve

voltages between 1 MV and 2 MV.
 To reduce impedance and ripples:
o Smaller individual transformer impedances are desirable.
o Using higher frequency input reduces ripple effects and improves efficiency.

This approach allows reliable and cost-effective high-voltage generation in systems like
high-voltage testing equipment and power transmission networks.

Electrostatic Generator

Electrostatic generators convert mechanical energy directly into electrical energy. Unlike
electromagnetic generators, which rely on current-carrying conductors moving through a
magnetic field, electrostatic generators operate by moving electric charges against the
force of an electric field to increase their potential energy.

Principle of Operation

The fundamental working principle is as follows:

 An insulated belt moves at a uniform velocity ν\nu through an electric field of

strength E(x)E(x).
 The belt has a charge density ζ\zeta.
 For a length dxdx of the belt:
o The charge dq=ζbdxdq = \zeta b dx, where bb is the belt's width.
o The force experienced by this charge is proportional to the field strength EE.

The mechanical energy used to move the belt is converted into electrical energy as charges
are moved against the electric field.

Van de Graaff Generator (1931)

The Van de Graaff generator is the most well-known example of an electrostatic

generator. It uses an insulating belt to transport charges, generating high voltages.

Construction and Operation

1. Insulating Belt and Pulleys:

o The belt, made of insulating material, runs over pulleys at a speed of 15–30
m/s.
o The lower pulley is connected to a motor, driving the belt.
o
 2. Charging the Belt:
o At the lower pulley, an excitation arrangement sprays electric charge onto
the belt.
o This is achieved using needles connected to a high voltage source (10–100
kV), which ionizes the surrounding air to transfer charge to the belt.
3. Charge Collection at Upper Electrode:
o At the upper pulley, the belt passes through an insulated metal electrode.
o Discharging points (connected to the electrode) collect the charge from the
belt.
o The charge raises the potential of the electrode.
4. Insulation and Design:
o The system is enclosed in a tank filled with insulating gas (e.g., SF₆) to
prevent corona discharges.
o The shape of the high-tension (HT) electrode is designed (typically spherical)
to ensure a uniform electric field and minimize corona discharges.

Voltage Generation

The potential VV of the high-tension electrode is given by:

V=qCV = \frac{q}{C}

Where:

 qq = Charge collected
 CC = Capacitance of the electrode
 Theoretically, the voltage could increase indefinitely as the charge builds up.
 However, the voltage is limited in practice by:
o Ionization of the surrounding medium as the electric field strength increases.
o An equilibrium is reached when the charging current equals the discharge
current (which includes load current, leakage, and corona losses).

Enhancements in Efficiency

1. Field Grading:
o Properly shaped field grading rings and resistors ensure uniform electric field
distribution, reducing losses.
2. Self-Inducing Arrangement:
o The upper pulley is insulated and maintained at a higher potential than the
HT terminal.
o Additional spray points near the pulley collect negative charges on the belt's
downward motion, doubling the charging rate.
3. Charge Density ζ\zeta:
o Increasing ζ\zeta (surface charge density) enhances the current output. This
is achieved by using:
  Gases with higher dielectric strength (e.g., SF₆) to allow higher electric
field intensities without ionization.

Performance and Limitations

1. Current Output:
o Despite achieving very high voltages, the current output is limited to a few
milliamperes due to:
 Mechanical constraints on belt width (bb) and velocity (ν\nu).
 Limited charge density ζ\zeta.
2. Belt Vibrations:
o At high speeds, vibrations can interfere with accurate field grading, affecting
performance.

Applications

Electrostatic generators are widely used in:

 Nuclear Physics:
o Particle accelerators (e.g., Van de Graaff accelerators).
 Research Laboratories:
o High-voltage generation for experimental processes.

Advantages

 High Voltages: Can generate extremely high voltages (in the range of MV).
 Ripple-Free Output: Ideal for sensitive research applications.
 Precision and Control: Flexible and precise voltage control.

Disadvantages

 Low Current Output: Limited to a few milliamperes.

 Mechanical Limitations: Belt velocity and vibration issues restrict performance.

By using modern insulation techniques and refined designs, electrostatic generators

remain invaluable for high-voltage, low-current applications.

Multistage Impulse Generator Circuits (Marx Generator)

Introduction

A multistage impulse generator is a high-voltage device used for testing insulation and
simulating lightning or switching surges. Traditional single-stage circuits face challenges
such as:
 1. Difficulties in switching very high voltages using spark gaps.
2. The physical size of circuit components increases significantly.
3. Challenges in charging capacitors to high DC voltages.
4. Suppression of corona discharges during charging is complex.

To address these, in 1923, Marx proposed a circuit where:

 Capacitors are charged in parallel through high-value resistors.

 They are discharged in series via spark gaps to generate high voltage impulses.

Working Principle of a Multistage Impulse Generator

The principle is illustrated using a six-stage Marx generator:

1. Charging Process:
o Capacitors (C01C_{01}) are charged in parallel through high-value resistors
(R0R_0) from a DC voltage source (VV).
o During this period:
 Points A, B, C, etc., reach the potential of the DC source, VV.
 Points G, H, N remain at earth potential since the voltage drop across
R02R_{02} is negligible.
2. Discharge (Firing) Process:
o Firing starts when the first spark gap (G1G_1) breaks down, causing a rapid
voltage change at point A.
o This triggers breakdowns in subsequent gaps (G2G_2, G3G_3, etc.) due to
overvoltage conditions:
 The potential at point H increases rapidly, resulting in a voltage of
2V2V across G2G_2.
 Similarly, potentials rise across further gaps, causing successive
breakdowns until all capacitors are connected in series.
o The output terminal N achieves a voltage of n×Vn \times V for nn-stage
generators.
3. Role of Stray Capacitances:
o Stray capacitances (C0,C00,C000C_0, C_{00}, C_{000}) between components
affect the voltage distribution and enhance generator performance.
o Voltage across gaps results from a voltage divider effect caused by stray
capacitances.
o Overvoltages across gaps are transient and last for nanoseconds.
4. Design Considerations:
o The spark gaps must be aligned in a vertical plane to ensure ultraviolet
illumination from the first gap triggers breakdown in subsequent gaps.
o For consistent operation, the gap G1G_1 is set slightly smaller than G2G_2
and others.
Improved Configurations

 Wavefront Control Resistor:

o External resistors (R001R_{001}) control the wavefront of the generated
impulse.
o Internal resistors (R01R_{01} and R02R_{02}) distribute the discharge
resistance, reducing the size of external components.
 Distributed Resistances:
o A distributed configuration helps damp oscillations caused by the inductance
and capacitance of leads.
o The equivalent circuit ensures output voltage polarity matches the charging
voltage.

Key Parameters

1. Output Voltage: Vout=n×VV_{out} = n \times V, where nn is the number of stages.

2. Capacitance: The total discharge capacitance (CtC_t) is Ct=CnC_t = \frac{C}{n},
where CC is the stage capacitance.
3. Time to Half-Value (T2T_2): Determined by the resistors (R0,R01,R02R_0, R_{01},
R_{02}) and capacitances.

Challenges in Implementation

 Stray capacitances can disrupt voltage buildup if not properly managed.

 Firing stability requires precise gap distances and ultraviolet triggering mechanisms.
 High energy or short-duration impulses necessitate careful resistor design to
prevent rapid discharge of stray capacitances.

Applications

 Testing of insulation in high-voltage equipment.

 Simulating lightning and switching surges for research and industrial purposes.

This configuration enables the generation of high-voltage impulses using a relatively

compact and efficient setup.

Tripping and Control of Impulse Generators

Impulse generators are critical in high-voltage engineering for producing high-voltage

impulses to test electrical insulation and equipment. Efficient and controlled tripping
mechanisms are necessary to ensure consistency, reliability, and safety in their operation.
Below is a detailed explanation of the tripping and control methods for impulse
generators.
1. Spark Gaps in Impulse Generators

 Types of Spark Gaps:

o Typically, sphere gaps or gaps with hemispherical electrodes are used.
o Spark gaps are designed such that sparking in one gap automatically triggers
the next due to overvoltage across the other gaps.
 Irradiation for Consistency:
o To ensure consistent sparking, ultraviolet (UV) lamps are placed to irradiate
all gaps, providing free electrons to initiate breakdown.

2. Tripping Mechanisms

a. Mechanical Tripping

 Method:
o Electrodes are mounted on a movable frame, and the gap distance is reduced
by moving the electrodes closer.
 Challenges:
o Inconsistent triggering.
o Difficult to achieve precise timing and control.

b. Controlled Tripping with Three-Electrode Gaps

 Design:
o The first stage of the impulse generator is fitted with a three-electrode gap
for controlled tripping.
o A central electrode is placed between the top and bottom electrodes, with its
potential maintained by resistors RR and RLR_L.
 Operation:
o A pulse is applied to a thyratron (a gas-filled switching tube) by closing a
switch SS.
o The thyratron generates a negative pulse through a capacitance CiC_i,
applied to the central electrode.
o This pulse increases the voltage across the gap, causing it to spark and
initiate the impulse generator.
 Advantages:
o The time lag between the thyratron firing and the gap breakdown allows
synchronization with external systems like oscillographs.
o Ensures stable and consistent tripping.
 Limitations:
o Requires larger space and complex construction.
3. Tripping with Trigatron Gaps

a. Trigatron Gap Design

 Consists of:
o A high-voltage spherical electrode.
o An earthed main electrode of spherical shape.
o A trigger electrode (metal rod) inserted into the main electrode through a
bushing with a clearance of ~1 mm.

b. Operation

 A trip pulse is applied to the trigger electrode, causing a spark between the trigger
and the earthed sphere.
 Field Distortion and Space Charge Effects:
o The spark creates distortion in the electric field of the main gap, triggering
sparking across it.

c. Advantages

 Requires lower operating voltage than three-electrode gaps.

 Compact and easier to implement.

4. Tripping in Impulse Current Generators

 Special Design Needs:

o Electrodes must handle high currents from capacitor banks.
o Low inductance is crucial to ensure rapid switching (~1 microsecond).
o Electrodes must have a low erosion rate to sustain repeated operations.
 Switching Large Currents:
o Parallel spark gap switches are used to handle high currents effectively.

Advancements:

 Triggered Vacuum Gaps:

o Offer faster switching (nanoseconds) at very high currents (> 100 kA).
 Laser Triggering:
o Focused laser beams provide precise control and improved performance
compared to conventional methods.

5. Circuit Components and Functions

 Capacitors (CC):
o Store energy for generating high-voltage impulses.
 Resistors (R,RLR, R_L):
 o Control voltage distribution and ensure decoupling of oscillations to prevent
interference with connected equipment.
 Thyratrons:
o Act as switches to trigger tripping pulses.
 External Control Circuit:
o Synchronizes the generator firing with external measurement systems like
oscillographs.

Conclusion

Controlled tripping mechanisms such as trigatron gaps, three-electrode gaps, and

triggered vacuum gaps have revolutionized impulse generators, offering reliability and
precision. These innovations cater to the demands of high-voltage testing by ensuring
consistent operation and synchronization with external systems, making them
indispensable in modern high-voltage engineering applications.
 Unit – 3
Multistage Impulse Generator Circuits (Marx Generator)

Introduction

A multistage impulse generator is a high-voltage device used for testing insulation and
simulating lightning or switching surges. Traditional single-stage circuits face challenges
such as:

1. Difficulties in switching very high voltages using spark gaps.

2. The physical size of circuit components increases significantly.
3. Challenges in charging capacitors to high DC voltages.
4. Suppression of corona discharges during charging is complex.

To address these, in 1923, Marx proposed a circuit where:

 Capacitors are charged in parallel through high-value resistors.

 They are discharged in series via spark gaps to generate high voltage impulses.

Working Principle of a Multistage Impulse Generator

The principle is illustrated using a six-stage Marx generator:

1. Charging Process:
o Capacitors (C01C_{01}) are charged in parallel through high-value resistors
(R0R_0) from a DC voltage source (VV).
o During this period:
 Points A, B, C, etc., reach the potential of the DC source, VV.
 Points G, H, N remain at earth potential since the voltage drop across
R02R_{02} is negligible.
2. Discharge (Firing) Process:
o Firing starts when the first spark gap (G1G_1) breaks down, causing a rapid
voltage change at point A.
o This triggers breakdowns in subsequent gaps (G2G_2, G3G_3, etc.) due to
overvoltage conditions:
 The potential at point H increases rapidly, resulting in a voltage of
2V2V across G2G_2.
 Similarly, potentials rise across further gaps, causing successive
breakdowns until all capacitors are connected in series.
o The output terminal N achieves a voltage of n×Vn \times V for nn-stage
generators.
 3. Role of Stray Capacitances:
o Stray capacitances (C0,C00,C000C_0, C_{00}, C_{000}) between components
affect the voltage distribution and enhance generator performance.
o Voltage across gaps results from a voltage divider effect caused by stray
capacitances.
o Overvoltages across gaps are transient and last for nanoseconds.
4. Design Considerations:
o The spark gaps must be aligned in a vertical plane to ensure ultraviolet
illumination from the first gap triggers breakdown in subsequent gaps.
o For consistent operation, the gap G1G_1 is set slightly smaller than G2G_2
and others.

Improved Configurations

 Wavefront Control Resistor:

o External resistors (R001R_{001}) control the wavefront of the generated
impulse.
o Internal resistors (R01R_{01} and R02R_{02}) distribute the discharge
resistance, reducing the size of external components.
 Distributed Resistances:
o A distributed configuration helps damp oscillations caused by the inductance
and capacitance of leads.
o The equivalent circuit ensures output voltage polarity matches the charging
voltage.

Key Parameters

1. Output Voltage: Vout=n×VV_{out} = n \times V, where nn is the number of stages.

2. Capacitance: The total discharge capacitance (CtC_t) is Ct=CnC_t = \frac{C}{n},
where CC is the stage capacitance.
3. Time to Half-Value (T2T_2): Determined by the resistors (R0,R01,R02R_0, R_{01},
R_{02}) and capacitances.

Challenges in Implementation

 Stray capacitances can disrupt voltage buildup if not properly managed.

 Firing stability requires precise gap distances and ultraviolet triggering mechanisms.
 High energy or short-duration impulses necessitate careful resistor design to
prevent rapid discharge of stray capacitances.

Applications

 Testing of insulation in high-voltage equipment.

 Simulating lightning and switching surges for research and industrial purposes.
This configuration enables the generation of high-voltage impulses using a relatively
compact and efficient setup.

Tripping and Control of Impulse Generators

Impulse generators are critical in high-voltage engineering for producing high-voltage

impulses to test electrical insulation and equipment. Efficient and controlled tripping
mechanisms are necessary to ensure consistency, reliability, and safety in their operation.
Below is a detailed explanation of the tripping and control methods for impulse
generators.

1. Spark Gaps in Impulse Generators

 Types of Spark Gaps:

o Typically, sphere gaps or gaps with hemispherical electrodes are used.
o Spark gaps are designed such that sparking in one gap automatically triggers
the next due to overvoltage across the other gaps.
 Irradiation for Consistency:
o To ensure consistent sparking, ultraviolet (UV) lamps are placed to irradiate
all gaps, providing free electrons to initiate breakdown.

2. Tripping Mechanisms

a. Mechanical Tripping

 Method:
o Electrodes are mounted on a movable frame, and the gap distance is reduced
by moving the electrodes closer.
 Challenges:
o Inconsistent triggering.
o Difficult to achieve precise timing and control.

b. Controlled Tripping with Three-Electrode Gaps

 Design:
o The first stage of the impulse generator is fitted with a three-electrode gap
for controlled tripping.
o A central electrode is placed between the top and bottom electrodes, with its
potential maintained by resistors RR and RLR_L.
 Operation:
o A pulse is applied to a thyratron (a gas-filled switching tube) by closing a
switch SS.
o The thyratron generates a negative pulse through a capacitance CiC_i,
applied to the central electrode.
 o This pulse increases the voltage across the gap, causing it to spark and
initiate the impulse generator.
 Advantages:
o The time lag between the thyratron firing and the gap breakdown allows
synchronization with external systems like oscillographs.
o Ensures stable and consistent tripping.
 Limitations:
o Requires larger space and complex construction.

3. Tripping with Trigatron Gaps

a. Trigatron Gap Design

 Consists of:
o A high-voltage spherical electrode.
o An earthed main electrode of spherical shape.
o A trigger electrode (metal rod) inserted into the main electrode through a
bushing with a clearance of ~1 mm.

b. Operation

 A trip pulse is applied to the trigger electrode, causing a spark between the trigger
and the earthed sphere.
 Field Distortion and Space Charge Effects:
o The spark creates distortion in the electric field of the main gap, triggering
sparking across it.

c. Advantages

 Requires lower operating voltage than three-electrode gaps.

 Compact and easier to implement.

4. Tripping in Impulse Current Generators

 Special Design Needs:

o Electrodes must handle high currents from capacitor banks.
o Low inductance is crucial to ensure rapid switching (~1 microsecond).
o Electrodes must have a low erosion rate to sustain repeated operations.
 Switching Large Currents:
o Parallel spark gap switches are used to handle high currents effectively.

Advancements:

 Triggered Vacuum Gaps:

o Offer faster switching (nanoseconds) at very high currents (> 100 kA).
 Laser Triggering:
 o Focused laser beams provide precise control and improved performance
compared to conventional methods.

5. Circuit Components and Functions

 Capacitors (CC):
o Store energy for generating high-voltage impulses.
 Resistors (R,RLR, R_L):
o Control voltage distribution and ensure decoupling of oscillations to prevent
interference with connected equipment.
 Thyratrons:
o Act as switches to trigger tripping pulses.
 External Control Circuit:
o Synchronizes the generator firing with external measurement systems like
oscillographs.

Conclusion

Controlled tripping mechanisms such as trigatron gaps, three-electrode gaps, and

triggered vacuum gaps have revolutionized impulse generators, offering reliability and
precision. These innovations cater to the demands of high-voltage testing by ensuring
consistent operation and synchronization with external systems, making them
indispensable in modern high-voltage engineering applications.