THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

BONE AND SKELETAL TISSUES

Skeletal Cartilages

Structure
– Made of cartilage tissue (cells = chondrocytes)
– Contains large amounts of water (which accounts for its resilience=
ability to spring back to its original shape after being compressed)
– No nerves fibers
– Surrounded by a fibrous perichondrium (contain blood vessels) that
resists expansion
Types (3) and Location

1. Hyaline cartilages
– Network of collagenous fibers, translucent (glassy)
– Provide support with flexibility and resilience
– The most abundant skeletal cartilages
– Form most of embryonic skeleton (before bone is formed), articular
cartilages, costal cartilages, respiratory cartilages (laryngeal cartilages,
tracheal and bronchial cartilages), and nasal cartilages

2. Elastic Cartilages
– Contain more elastic fibers, in addition to collagenic fibers
– Provide more flexible than hyaline cartilage and lightweight support
– Form the external ear and epiglottis
 Epiglottis
Thyroid Larynx
Cartilage in Cartilages in cartilage
external ear nose Cricoid Trachea
Articular Lung
cartilage
Cartilage
of a joint
Cartilage in
Costal
Intervertebral
cartilage
disc

Respiratory tube cartilages

in neck and thorax
Pubic Bones of skeleton
symphysis
Axial skeleton
Meniscus
(padlike Appendicular skeleton
cartilage in
Cartilages
knee joint)
Hyaline cartilages
Articular cartilage
of a joint Elastic cartilages
Fibrocartilages

Figure 6.1
3. Fibrocartilages
– Contain thick collagen fibers
– Provide support and protection, highly compressible and has great
tensile strength
– Form the intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis, disc of knee joint
(menisci)

Growth of Cartilage
– Cartilage grows from within (interstitial growth = growth from inside),
and by addition of new cartilage tissue at the periphery (appositional
growth)
Classification of Bones
– Classified on the basis of their shape

1. Long bones
– Length greater than width
– Composed of a diaphysis (shaft) and two epiphyses (ends)
– All limbs bones are long bones except patella, carpals & tarsals
– e.g. humerus, radius, ulna, femur, phalanges, etc

2. Short bones
– Cube shaped
– e.g. carpals, tarsals, patella (sesamoid bone = form in a tendon)
Figure 6.2
3. Flat bones
– Thin, flattened, a bit curved
– e.g. ribs, sternum, skull bones, scapulae

4. Irregular bones
– Complicated shapes
– e.g., verterbrae, facial bones, hip bones
Functions of Bones

1. Support
– Provide the rigid framework that support the body

2. Protection
– Protect vulnerable internal organs such as brain, heart, lungs, etc.

3. Movement
– Providing anchoring points for muscles and by acting as levers at the
joints

4. Mineral storage
– Serves as a reservoir for minerals (most important - calcium and
phosphate)
5. Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
– Occurs within the red marrow cavities of certain bones

Bone Structure
– Bones are organs because they contain various types of tissues:
• Bone (osseous) tissue
• Nervous tissue in their nerves
• Cartilage in their articular cartilages
• Fibrous connective tissue lining the cavity
• Smooth muscle tissue & epithelial tissue in the blood vessels
Table 6.1
Table 6.1
Table 6.1
Structure of a Long Bone

Diaphysis
– Shaft
– Compact bone surrounds central medullary cavity (marrow cavity)
contains fat (yellow marrow), called the yellow bone marrow cavity
 Articular
cartilage

Compact bone
Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined (b)
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis
(a)

Figure 6.3a-b
 Endosteum

Yellow
bone marrow

Compact bone
Periosteum
Perforating
(Sharpey’s) fibers

Nutrient
arteries

(c)

Figure 6.3c
2. Epiphyses
– Bone ends
– Wider than the shaft
– Spongy epiphyses filled with red bone marrow
– Joint surface covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage (cushions the
opposing bone ends during joints movement and absorbs stress)
– Between epiphysis and diaphysis is an epiphyseal line (adult), a
remnant of the epiphyseal plate (childhood); this region sometimes
called the metaphysis
3. Membranes
– Bone covered with:
a. Periosteum (external bone surface)
• Double layered membrane (outer fibrous layer = dense irregular
connective tissue, and inner osteogenic layer, consists of
osteoblasts = bone-forming cells and osteoclasts = bone-
destroying cells)
• Cover the diaphysis
• Supplied with nerve fibers, lymphatic vessel, blood vessels
(enter via a nutrient foramen)
• Provide insertion or anchoring points for ligaments and tendons
(a) Osteogenic cell (b) Osteoblast

Stem cell Matrix-synthesizing

cell responsible
for bone growth

Figure 6.4a-b
(c) Osteocyte (d) Osteoclast

Mature bone cell Bone-resorbing cell

that maintains the
bone matrix

Figure 6.4c-d
b. Endosteum (internal bone surface)
• Delicate connective tissue
• Lines the inner bone cavities (covers the trabeculae of spongy
bone in marrow cavities)
• Contains both osteoblasts (bone forming cells) and osteoclasts
(bone destroying cells)
Structure of Short, Irregular and Flat Bones
– Consist of:
1. Periosteum
2. Endosteum
– Without diaphysis or epiphysis
– Contain bone marrow (between their trabeculae), but no marrow
cavity
– In flat bone, spongy bone called diploe
Spongy bone
(diploë)
Compact
bone

Trabeculae

Figure 6.5
Location of Hematopoietic Tissue in Bones
– In adults, red marrow found within the diploe of flat bones and within
the epiphyses of long bones (trabecular cavities of spongy bone)
– In infants red marrow is also found in the medullary cavity
Microscopic Structure of Bone

Compact bone
– Form outer shell of a bone
– Very hard and dense
– The structural unit of compact bone is called osteon or Haversian
system
– The osteon consists of a central canal surrounded by concentric
lamellae of bone matrix
– Osteocytes, embedded in lacunae, are connected to each other & the
central canal by canaliculi
 Artery with
capillaries
Structures
in the Vein
central Nerve fiber
canal
Lamellae

Collagen
fibers
run in
different
directions

Twisting
force
Figure 6.6
 Compact Spongy bone
bone

Central Perforating
(Haversian) canal (Volkmann’s) canal
Endosteum lining bony canals
Osteon and covering trabeculae
(Haversian system)
Circumferential
lamellae

(a)
Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
Lamellae Periosteal blood vessel
Periosteum

Nerve
Vein
Artery Lamellae
Central Lacuna (with
Canaliculi
canal osteocyte)
Osteocyte Lacunae
in a lacuna
(b) (c) Interstitial lamellae

Figure 6.7a-c
Spongy (Cancellous) bone
– Consist of trabeculae filled with red or yellow marrow
– Withstand stress and support shifts in weight

Chemical Composition of Bone

– Bones is composed of living cells (osteoblast, osteocytes, osteoclasts)
and matrix
– Matrix includes organic substances that are secreted by osteoblast and
give the bone tensile strength and its inorganic components, the
hydroxyapatites (calcium salts), make bone hard
Bone Development
– Ossification = osteogenesis, the process of bone formation
– In embryos, this process leads to the formation of the bony skeleton
– Bone growth goes on until early adulthood (growing in thickness
throughout life)
– Ossification in adults serve mainly for bone remodeling and repair
Formation of the Bony Skeleton

1. Intramembranous Ossification
– Forms the clavicles and most skull bones
– Bones develop from mesenchymal cells
– The ground substance of the bone matrix is deposited between
collagen fibers within the fibrous membrane to form spongy bone
– Bone develops from a fibrous membrane called a membrane bone
– Eventually, compact bone plates enclose the diploe
Five steps can summarize intramembranous ossification:

• Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts and

group into ossification centers.
• Osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid they
secrete, transforming them to osteocytes.
• Trabecular bone and periosteum form.
• Compact bone forms superficially to the trabecular bone.
• Blood vessels form the red marrow.
 Mesenchymal
cell
Collagen
fiber
Ossification
center
Osteoid
Osteoblast
1 Ossification centers appear in the fibrous
connective tissue membrane.
• Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster
and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming an
ossification center.
Figure 6.8, (1 of 4)
 Osteoblast

Osteoid

Osteocyte
Newly calcified
bone matrix

2 Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the

fibrous membrane and calcifies.
• Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, which is calcified
within a few days.
• Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes.

Figure 6.8, (2 of 4)
 Mesenchyme
condensing
to form the
periosteum
Trabeculae of
woven bone

Blood vessel

3 Woven bone and periosteum form.

• Accumulating osteoid is laid down between embryonic
blood vessels in a random manner. The result is a network
(instead of lamellae) of trabeculae called woven bone.
• Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on the external face
of the woven bone and becomes the periosteum.
Figure 6.8, (3 of 4)
 Fibrous
periosteum

Osteoblast

Plate of
compact bone

Diploë (spongy
bone) cavities
contain red
marrow

4 Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, just deep to

the periosteum. Red marrow appears.
• Trabeculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, and are later
replaced with mature lamellar bone, forming compact bone
plates.
• Spongy bone (diploë), consisting of distinct trabeculae, per-
sists internally and its vascular tissue becomes red marrow.
Figure 6.8, (4 of 4)
2. Endochondral Ossification
– Most bones are formed
– Bones develop by replacing hyaline cartilage model, resulting bone is
called a cartilage or endochondral bone
– Osteoblast beneath the periosteum secrete bone matrix on the cartilage
model, forming the bone collar
– Deterioration of the cartilage model internally opens up cavities,
allowing periosteal bud entry
– Bone matrix is deposited around the cartilage remnants, but is later
broken down as ossification proceeds
Five steps can summarize endochondral ossification:

• Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes and

form the cartilage model for bone.
• Chondrocytes near the center of the cartilage model
undergo hypertrophy and alter the contents of the matrix
they secrete, enabling mineralization.
• Chondrocytes undergo apoptosis due to decreased
nutrient availability; blood vessels invade and bring
osteogenic cells.
• Primary ossification center forms in the diaphyseal
region of the periosteum called the periosteal collar.
• Secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyseal
region after birth.
Postnatal Bone Growth
– Bones increase in length (interstitial growth) at the epiphyseal plate
– Cartilage cells continually regenerate and die to be replaced by bone
– Bone expand in width, diameter/thickness (appositional growth) through
production of compact bone by osteoblasts in the periosteum, and
destruction by osteoclast
 Bone growth Bone remodeling

Articular cartilage
Cartilage
grows here.

Epiphyseal plate
Cartilage
is replaced Bone is
by bone here. resorbed here.
Cartilage
grows here. Bone is added
by appositional
Cartilage growth here.
is replaced
by bone here. Bone is
resorbed here.

Figure 6.11
Bone Homeostasis

Bone Remodeling
– New bone is continually doposited and resorbed (removal) in respond to
hormonal and mechanical stimuli
– Continuous recycling of bone (remodeling units) occurs when:
• Osteoblast produce new matrix
• Osteoclast destroy old matrix
– Control of remodeling (hormonal mechanism)
Bone Repair
– Bones are susceptible to fractures or breaks
– Fractures = break in bone, resulting from twists or smashes of bones
– Bones thinning and weaken (old age)
Healing (Repair)

– In simple fracture involves 4 major stages:

a. Hematoma formation
a. Fibrocartilagious callus formation
b. Bony callus formation
c. Bone remodeling
Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone
– Imbalance between bone formation and resorption underlie all skeletal
disorders
– Osteomalacia and rikets occur when bones are inadequately mineralized,
bones become soft and deformed, and most frequent cause is inadequate
vitamin D
– Osteoporosis is any condition in which bone breakdown outpaces bone
formation, causing bones to become weak and porous, and
postmenopausal women are susceptible
– Puget’s disease is characterized by excessive and abnormal bone
remodeling
Figure 6.16
 THE SKELETON
Skeleton
– 206 bones
– Divided into:

1. Axial skeleton
– 80 bones
– Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
– Skull (cranial and facial bones), vertebral column and bony thorax
– Provides support and protection (by enclosed)

2. Appendicular skeleton
– 126 bones
– Pectoral (shoulder) girdle, pelvis girdle, upper and lower limbs
– Allows mobility for manipulation and locomotion
 Cranium
Skull
Facial bones
Clavicle
Thoracic cage Scapula
(ribs and Sternum
sternum) Rib
Humerus
Vertebral Vertebra
Radius
column Ulna
Sacrum Carpals

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
(a) Anterior view Phalanges
Figure 7.1a
Axial Skeleton

The Skull
– 22 bones
– Cranial bones/ cranium (8) protect the brains
• Frontal (1), occipital (1), ethmoid (1), sphenoid (1), parietal (2) and
temporal (2)
– Facial bones (14) provides openings for the respiratory and digestive
passage, and attachment points for facial muscles
• Mandible (1), vomer (1), maxillae (2), zygomatics (2), palatines (2),
nasal (2), lacrimals (2) and inferior nasal conchae (2)
• Mandible = largest and strongest bone of the face
Bones of cranium (cranial vault)

Coronal
suture
Squamous
suture

Lambdoid Facial
suture bones

(a) Cranial and facial divisions of the skull

Figure 7.2a
 Frontal bone
Glabella
Parietal bone Frontonasal suture
Supraorbital foramen
Squamous part
(notch)
of frontal bone
Nasal bone Supraorbital margin
Sphenoid bone Superior orbital
fissure
(greater wing)
Temporal bone Optic canal
Inferior orbital
Ethmoid bone
fissure
Lacrimal bone
Middle nasal
Zygomatic bone concha Ethmoid
Infraorbital foramen Perpendicular bone
Maxilla plate
Mandible Inferior nasal concha
Vomer
Mental
foramen
(a) Anterior view Mandibular symphysis
Figure 7.4a
Coronal suture Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
Parietal bone (greater wing)
Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Lambdoid Lacrimal fossa
suture

Squamous
suture Nasal bone
Occipital
bone Zygomatic
Zygomatic bone
process
Maxilla
Occipitomastoid
suture
External acoustic
meatus
Mastoid process Alveolar
Styloid process margins
Mandibular condyle Mandible
Mandibular notch Mental foramen
Mandibular ramus
Mandibular angle Coronoid process

(a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull

Figure 7.5a
 Sagittal suture

Parietal
bone
Sutural
bone

Lambdoid
suture

Occipital bone

Superior nuchal line

External
occipital Mastoid
protuberance process
Inferior
Occipitomastoid nuchal
External Occipital
suture line
occipital condyle
(b) Posterior view crest
Figure 7.4b
– All bones of the adult skull are joined by immovable sutures except for the
temporomandibular joints
– Orbits and nasal cavity: complicated bony regions formed of several bones
– Paranasal sinuses: occur in the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid and maxillary
bones
– Hyoid bone: not really a skull bone, is supported in the neck by ligaments,
serves as an attachment point for tongue and neck muscles
 Frontal sinus
Superior, middle, and Superior
inferior meatus nasal concha Ethmoid
Middle
bone
nasal concha
Inferior nasal
concha
Nasal bone

Anterior nasal spine

Sphenoid Maxillary bone
Sphenoid sinus (palatine process)
bone Pterygoid
process
Palatine bone Palatine bone
(perpendicular plate) (horizontal plate)
(a) Bones forming the left lateral wall of the nasal cavity
(nasal septum removed)
Figure 7.14a
 Frontal
sinus Frontal
Ethmoidal sinus
air cells Ethmoidal
(sinus) air cells
Sphenoid Sphenoid
sinus sinus
Maxillary Maxillary
sinus sinus

(a) Anterior aspect (b) Medial aspect

Figure 7.15
Greater horn

Lesser horn

Body

Figure 7.12
2. The Vertebral Column/ Spine
– 26 bones
– Vertebrae (24), sacrum (1) and coccyx (1)
• 24 movable vertebrae; 7 cervical (C1-C7), 12 thoracic (T1- T12), and 5
lumbar (L1-L5)
o C1= atlas, C2= axis (joint allows to rotate head side to side to
indicate “no”
• 1 sacrum (5 fused vertebrae)
• 1 coccyx (4 fused vertebrae)
– Separated by fibrocartilage intervertebral disc acts as shock absorbers
and provide flexibility
– The S-shaped to allow for upright posture
 C1

Cervical curvature
(concave)
7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Spinous
process
Transverse
processes

Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12 vertebrae,
T1–T12
Intervertebral
discs
Intervertebral
foramen

Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Anterior view Right lateral view

Figure 7.16
 Dens of axis
Transverse ligament
of atlas
C1 (atlas)
C2 (axis)
C3
Inferior articular
process
Bifid spinous
process
Transverse processes

C7 (vertebra
prominens)

(a) Cervical vertebrae

Figure 7.20a
 Sacral promontory

Ala
Body of
first
sacral
vertebra

Transverse
ridges (sites
of vertebral
fusion)
Anterior
sacral
Apex foramina

Coccyx

(a) Anterior view

Figure 7.21a
– Primary spinal curvatures (thoracic and sacral) present at birth
– Secondary spinal curvatures (cervical and lumbar) develop after birth
– Curvatures increase spine flexibility
 C1

Cervical curvature
(concave)
7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Spinous
process
Transverse
processes

Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12 vertebrae,
T1–T12
Intervertebral
discs
Intervertebral
foramen

Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Anterior view Right lateral view

Figure 7.16
3. The Bony Thorax or Thoracic Cage
– Sternum (1) and ribs (12 pairs) protect the organs of the thoracic cavity
– Sternum (breastbone) consists of fused manubrium, body and xiphoid
process
– All ribs attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae
– Anteriorly, the first 7 rib pairs are called true ribs attach directly to
sternum
– Last 5 pairs are called false ribs (rib pairs 8, 9 & 10 attach indirectly to
sternum and rib pairs 11 and 12 are floating ribs)
 Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Sternum
True Xiphisternal
ribs joint
(1–7) Xiphoid
process

False
Intercostal spaces
ribs
(8–12) Costal cartilage
Costal margin
L1
Vertebra
Floating ribs (11, 12)
(a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view
Figure 7.22a
Appendicular Skeleton

1. The Pectoral (shoulder) Girdle

– Each pectoral girdle consists of one clavicle and one scapula
– Attach the upper limbs to axial skeleton
– Scapulae articulate with clavicles and with the humerus bones
 Acromio-
clavicular Clavicle
joint

Scapula

(a) Articulated pectoral girdle

Figure 7.24a
2. The Upper Limb
– Each upper limb consists of 30 bones and is specialized for mobility
– Arm (humerus), forarm (radius and ulna), hand (carpals, metacarpals
and phalanges)
Greater Head of
tubercle humerus
Lesser Anatomical
tubercle neck
Inter-
tubercular
sulcus

Deltoid
tuberosity

Lateral
supracondylar Coronoid
ridge fossa
Radial Medial
fossa epicondyle
Capitulum Trochlea
(a) Anterior view

Figure 7.26a
Radial
Olecranon
notch of
process
the ulna
Trochlear
Head notch
Coronoid Head of
Neck
process radius
Radial Neck of
Proximal
tuberosity radius
radioulnar
joint
Interosseous
membrane
Ulna

Radius

Ulnar notch Radius

of the radius
Head of ulna
Styloid
Styloid
process of ulna
process
Distal radioulnar Styloid process
of radius
joint of radius
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
Figure 7.27a-b
 Phalanges
• Distal
• Middle
• Proximal

Metacarpals
• Head
• Shaft
Sesamoid • Base
bones Carpals
Carpals Carpals
• Hamate • Trapezium
• Trapezium • Trapezoid
• Trapezoid • Capitate
• Pisiform • Scaphoid
• Scaphoid
• Triquetrum
Radius • Lunate
Ulna Radius

(a) Anterior view of left hand (b) Posterior view of left hand

Figure 7.28a-b
3. The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
– Formed by two coxal/hip bones
– Together with the sacrum, the hip bones form the basinlike bony pelvis
– Each hip bone is result of fusion of the ilium, ischium and pubis/pubic
bones
– V-shape pubic bones articulate anteriorly at the pubic symphysis
(fibrocartilage disc) forming an arch called pubic arch (helps to
differentiate male and female pelves)
– Female pelvis is light and broader; inlet is larger and more circular,
which reflects the childbearing function (birth canal)
 Base of sacrum

Iliac crest
Sacroiliac
joint
Iliac fossa Anterior
superior
iliac spine
Sacral
Coxal promontory
bone Anterior inferior
llium
(os coxae iliac spine
or hip Pubic Sacrum
Pelvic brim
bone) bone Coccyx
Acetabulum
Pubic tubercle
Ischium
Pubic crest
Pubic symphysis
Pubic arch

Figure 7.29
Anterior gluteal Ilium
line Ala
Posterior
gluteal line Iliac crest
Posterior Anterior
superior superior
iIiac spine iliac spine
Posterior inferior Inferior
iliac spine gluteal line
Greater sciatic
Anterior inferior
notch
Ischial body iliac spine
Ischial spine Acetabulum
Lesser sciatic Pubic body
notch Pubis
Ischium
Ischial Inferior ramus
tuberosity of pubis
Ischial ramus Obturator foramen
(a) Lateral view, right hip bone
Figure 7.30a
4. The Lower Limb
– Each lower limb consists of the thigh (femur), leg (tibia and fibula) and
foot (tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges), and is specialized for weight
bearing and locomotion
– Foot supported by 3 arches (lateral, medial and transverse) that
distribute body weight to the heel and the ball of the foot
 Neck Fovea Greater
capitis trochanter
Head
Inter-
Lesser trochanter trochanteric
Intertrochanteric crest
line
Gluteal tuberosity

Apex Linea aspera

Anterior

Facet for lateral

Facet for
condyle of femur Lateral
medial Medial and
condyle condyle
lateral supra-
of femur condylar lines
Lateral
Surface for Intercondylar fossa epicondyle
patellar
Posterior Medial condyle
ligament
(a) Patella (kneecap) Adductor
tubercle
Lateral epicondyle Medial
Patellar surface epicondyle
Anterior view Posterior view
(b) Femur (thigh bone)

Figure 7.31
Articular surface Articular surface of
of medial condyle lateral condyle

Medial condyle Head of fibula

Interosseous
membrane

Tibia Fibula

Articular surface

Medial malleolus
Lateral malleolus
(b) Posterior view
Figure 7.32b
 Phalanges
Distal
Middle
Proximal
1 2 3 4 5
Medial Metatarsals
cuneiform
Intermediate Lateral
cuneiform cuneiform
Navicular Cuboid Tarsals
Talus
Trochlea
of talus
Calcaneus
(a) Superior view
Figure 7.33a
 Talus Facet for
medial
Intermediate Navicular malleolus
cuneiform Sustentac-
ulum tali
First metatarsal (talar shelf)

Medial Calcaneus
cuneiform
Calcaneal
(b) Medial view tuberosity

Figure 7.33b
 Medial longitudinal
arch
Transverse arch

Lateral
longitudinal arch

(a) Lateral aspect of right foot

Figure 7.34a
 ARTICULATIONS (JOINTS)
– Sites where bones meet
– Functions are to hold bones together and to allow movement of the skeleton
– 3 functional categories:
1. Synarthroses (immovable)
2. Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)
3. Diarthroses (freely movable)
– Classified structurally as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial
1. Fibrous Joints
– Fibrous connective tissue unites the bones
– No joint cavity
– Usually synarthroses (immovable) or synarthrotic
– Types of fibrous joints:
a. Sutures (skull)
b. Syndesmoses (tibia and fibula)
c. Gomphoses (tooth)
 (a) Suture
Joint held together with very short,
interconnecting fibers, and bone edges
interlock. Found only in the skull.

Suture
line

Dense
fibrous
connective
tissue
Figure 8.1a
 (b) Syndesmosis

Joint held together by a ligament.

Fibrous tissue can vary in length, but
is longer than in sutures.

Fibula
Tibia

Ligament

Figure 8.1b
 (c) Gomphosis

“Peg in socket” fibrous joint. Periodontal

ligament holds tooth in socket.

Socket of
alveolar
process

Root of
tooth

Periodontal
ligament
Figure 8.1c
2. Cartilaginous Joints
– Bones are unites by a plate of hyaline cartilage or a softer
fibrocartilaginous disc
– No joint cavity
– Usually amphiarthroses (slightly movable) or amphiarthrotic
– Types of cartilaginous joints:
a. Synchondroses: synarthrotic (epiphyseal plate and costal cartilage)
b. Symphyses: amphiarthrotic (pubic symphysis)
 (a) Synchondroses
Bones united by hyaline cartilage

Sternum
(manubrium)
Epiphyseal
plate (temporary Joint between
hyaline cartilage first rib and
joint) sternum
(immovable)

Figure 8.2a
 (b) Symphyses
Bones united by fibrocartilage

Body of vertebra
Fibrocartilaginous
intervertebral
disc

Hyaline cartilage

Pubic symphysis

Figure 8.2b
3. Synovial Joints
– Bones move easily on each other
– Ends of the bones are plated with a smooth articular cartilage
– Enclosed within joint cavity by a fibrous articular capsule and lubricate
with synovial fluid
– Usually diarthroses (freely movable joint) or diarthrotic
Ligament

Joint cavity
(contains
synovial fluid)

Articular (hyaline)
cartilage

Fibrous
capsule
Articular
Synovial capsule
membrane

Periosteum

Figure 8.3
Table 8.2 (1 of 4)
Table 8.2 (2 of 4)
Table 8.2 (3 of 4)
Table 8.2 (4 of 4)
Structure of Synovial Joints

1. Articular cartilage
– Hyaline cartilage covers the surfaces
– Absorb compression

2. Joint/Synovial cavity
– Joint cavity contains synovial fluid for lubrication
3. Articular capsule
– 2 layered:
a. Fibrous capsule
b. Synovial membrane

4. Synovial fluid
– Occupies space within the joint capsule
– Reduce reduction between cartilages

5. Reinforcing ligaments
– Thicken parts of fibrous capsule
– Supplied with nerve endings and blood vessels
Ligament

Joint cavity
(contains
synovial fluid)

Articular (hyaline)
cartilage

Fibrous
capsule
Articular
Synovial capsule
membrane

Periosteum

Figure 8.3
Movements Allowed by Synovial Joints
– Movements can occur when muscle contract across joints:
• Gliding movements • Medial rotation & lateral rotation
• Flexion • Supination & pronation
• Extension & hyperextension • Inversion & eversion
• Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion • Protraction & retraction
of the foot
• Elevation & depression
• Abduction
• Opposition
• Adduction
• Circumduction
 Gliding

(a) Gliding movements at the wrist

Figure 8.5a
 Hyperextension Extension

Flexion

(b) Angular movements: flexion, extension, and

hyperextension of the neck
Figure 8.5b
 Extension

Hyperextension Flexion

(c) Angular movements: flexion, extension, and

hyperextension of the vertebral column
Figure 8.5c
 Flexion Extension

Flexion

Extension

(d) Angular movements: flexion and extension at the

shoulder and knee
Figure 8.5d
 Abduction

Adduction Circumduction

(e) Angular movements: abduction, adduction, and

circumduction of the upper limb at the shoulder
Figure 8.5e
 Rotation

Lateral
rotation
Medial
rotation

(f) Rotation of the head, neck, and lower limb

Figure 8.5f
 Pronation Supination
(radius (radius and
rotates ulna are
over ulna) parallel)

(a) Pronation (P) and supination (S)

Figure 8.6a
Dorsiflexion

Dorsiflexion

Plantar flexion
Plantar flexion

(b) Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion

Figure 8.6b
Inversion Eversion

(c) Inversion and eversion

Figure 8.6c
 Protraction Retraction
of mandible of mandible

(d) Protraction and retraction

Figure 8.6d
 Elevation Depression
of mandible of mandible

(e) Elevation and depression

Figure 8.6e
Opposition

(f) Opposition
Figure 8.6f
Types of Synovial Joints
– Differ in range of motion; nonaxial (gliding), uniaxial (in one plane), biaxial
(in two planes), or multiaxial (in all three planes) 22 bones
– Types of synovial joints:
1. Plane (gliding) joints: intercarpals and intertarsals joints
1. Hinge joint: elbow and knee joints, and interphalangeal joints
2. Pivot joint: atlas and axis joint,and proximal radioulnar joint
3. Condyloid joint: radiocarpal/wrist joints and knuckle joints
4. Saddle joint: carpometacarpal joints of the thumb
5. Ball and socket joint: shoulder joints and hip joints
 f

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

c b
a Plane joint (intercarpal joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7a
 f

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

c b
b Hinge joint (elbow joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7b
 f

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

c b

c Pivot joint (proximal radioulnar joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7c
 f

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

c b
d Condyloid joint
(metacarpophalangeal joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7d
 f

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

c b
e Saddle joint (carpometacarpal joint
of thumb)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7e
 f

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

c b
f Ball-and-socket joint (shoulder joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7f